Evaluatiing Circuit Resistance Tests

Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.

Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramcos
employees. Any material contained in this document which is not
already in the public domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given,
or disclosed to third parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part,
without the written permission of the Vice President, Engineering
Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Electrical For additional information on this subject, contact
File Reference: EEX10704 W. A. Roussel on 874-1320
Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
Evaluating Circuit Resistance Tests
Engineering Encyclopedia Electrical
CONTENTS PAGES
LOW-RESISTANCE TEST SETS: CONSTRUCTIONS AND OPERATIONAL
PRINCIPLES.................................................................................................................................... 1
Constructions ...................................................................................................................... 1
Kelvin Bridge........................................................................................................ 1
Ducter.................................................................................................................... 3
Digital Low-Resistance Ohmmeter (DLRO) ......................................................... 5
Current Injection Test Sets (for Millivolt Drop Tests)........................................... 6
Operational Principles......................................................................................................... 7
Kelvin Bridge........................................................................................................ 7
Ducter.................................................................................................................... 9
Digital Low-Resistance Ohmmeter (DLRO) ....................................................... 12
Current Injection Test Sets (for Millivolt Drop Tests)......................................... 13
EVALUATING PRIMARY-CIRCUIT RESISTANCE TESTS ..................................................... 14
Primary-Circuit-Resistance Test Methods ........................................................................ 14
Selecting an Effective Ampere Output Option .................................................... 14
Test Hookups ...................................................................................................... 15
Evaluation Factors ............................................................................................................ 16
Loss of Contact Pressure ..................................................................................... 16
Physical Damage................................................................................................. 16
Chemical Contamination..................................................................................... 16
EVALUATING CIRCUIT CONTINUITY TESTS ........................................................................ 17
Circuit Continuity Tests: Applications and Methods ....................................................... 17
Control Circuits................................................................................................... 17
Heat Tracing Circuits .......................................................................................... 19
Neutral Grounding Resistors ............................................................................... 19
Grounding Systems ............................................................................................. 19
Evaluating Equipment Faults ............................................................................................ 20
Short Circuit ........................................................................................................ 20
Open Circuit ........................................................................................................ 20
Intermittent Circuit .............................................................................................. 20
EVALUATING TERMINAL-TO-TERMINAL RESISTANCE TESTS ........................................ 21
Terminal-to-Terminal Resistance Tests: Applications and Methods................................. 21
Resistance Temperature Detectors....................................................................... 21
Motor and Generator Windings........................................................................... 23
Transformer Windings ........................................................................................ 23
Lead Resistance................................................................................................... 26
Average Conductor Temperature ........................................................................ 27
Time and Temperature ........................................................................................ 27
Trend................................................................................................................... 28
EVALUATION OF EARTH-RESISTANCE TESTS ..................................................................... 29
Earth-Resistance Test Sets: Constructions and Operational Principles ............................ 29
Constructions ...................................................................................................... 29
Operational Principles ......................................................................................... 32
Earth-Resistance Tests: Theories and Methods................................................................ 35
Theories............................................................................................................... 35
Spheres of Influence............................................................................................ 36
Fall-of-Potential Profiles ..................................................................................... 36
Methods .............................................................................................................. 36
Soil Resistivity (Four-Terminal) Test .................................................................. 36
Fall-of-Potential (Three-Terminal) Test .............................................................. 37
Direct (Two-Terminal) Test................................................................................. 40
Climate and Recent Weather Conditions............................................................. 41
Soil Temperature ................................................................................................. 42
Soil Composition ................................................................................................ 43
Integrity of Grounding System Components....................................................... 43
WORK AID 1: RESOURCES USED TO EVALUATE A PRIMARY-CIRCUIT
RESISTANCE TEST...................................................................................................................... 44
Work Aid 1A: Non-Mandatory Test Report P-009, Circuit Breakers - Medium
Voltage (Handout 8) ......................................................................................................... 44
Work Aid 1B: Manufacturers Literature.......................................................................... 44
Work Aid 1C: Applicable Procedural Steps...................................................................... 46
WORK AID 2: RESOURCES USED TO EVALUATE A CIRCUIT CONTINUITY TEST ......... 47
Work Aid 2A: Non-Mandatory Test Report P-013, Grounding Systems (Handout
14)..................................................................................................................................... 47
Work Aid 2B: Table of Circuit Resistance Values for Motor Contactor
Electromagnet Coils.......................................................................................................... 47
Work Aid 2C: Applicable Procedural Steps...................................................................... 48
WORK AID 3: PROCEDURES FOR EVALUATING A TERMINAL-TO-TERMINAL
RESISTANCE TEST...................................................................................................................... 49
WORK AID 4: RESOURCES USED TO EVALUATE AN EARTH-RESISTANCE TEST ......... 52
Work Aid 4A: Non-Mandatory Test Report P-013, Grounding System (Handout
15)..................................................................................................................................... 52
Work Aid 4B: Applicable Procedural Steps...................................................................... 52
GLOSSARY................................................................................................................................... 54
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 1
LOW-RESISTANCE TEST SETS: CONSTRUCTIONS AND OPERATIONAL
PRINCIPLES
Constructions
This section explains the constructions of the following circuit-resistance test sets:
Kelvin Bridge.
Ducter.
Digital Low-Resistance Ohmmeter (DLRO).
Primary-Current Injection Test Set (Millivolt Drop Test).
These are the test sets that are most often used to perform circuit resistance tests.
Kelvin Bridge
A Kelvin bridge is a single-unit test set that exists in bench-type or portable versions. Figure 1 is an illustration
of the front panel of a Kelvin bridge. The names of the front panels devices are identified on this illustration.
A Kelvin Bridge has three accessory devices:
Test leads that are connected to the terminal posts marked C1, P1, P2, and C2.
An optional external battery that can be connected to the terminal posts marked BAT and + (Most
models of Kelvin bridge have a built-in battery).
An external detector that can be connected at the external detector receptacle.
A Kelvin bridge is distinguished from other low-resistance test sets by its superior accuracy. The limits of error
are typically 0.03% of the dial indication plus 0.03 micro-ohm. A Kelvin bridge measures resistance in the
range of 0.01 micro-ohm to approximately 1000 ohms.
Figure 1. Front Face of a Kelvin Bridge
Ducter
A Ducter is a two-part portable test set. Figure 2 is an illustration of the metering part of a Ducter. The names
of the top panel devices are identified on this illustration. The second part can be a low-voltage battery or a
rectifier-type DC power supply. A Ducter has no built-in battery. The only accessory device is a set of
calibrated test leads.
A Ducter is distinguished from other low-resistance test sets by its ruggedness and simple operation. It can
measures resistance in the range of 1 micro-ohm to 1 ohm. Ducter is a trade mark that is the property of AVO
Biddle Instruments.
Figure 2. Top View of a Ducter
Digital Low-Resistance Ohmmeter (DLRO)
A digital low-resistance ohmmeter (DLRO) is a portable test set that measures resistance in the range of 1
micro-ohm to 60 ohms. A DLRO is the modern test set that performs the same functions as a Ducter. DLRO is
a trade mark that is the property of AVO Biddle Instruments.
Figure 3 is a top-view illustration of a DLRO. The names of the DLROs metering and control devices are
identified on this illustration.
Figure 3. Top View of a Digital Low-Resistance Ohmmeter
Current Injection Test Sets (for Millivolt Drop Tests)
The construction of a current injection test set is described in Module EEX 107.05. A brief description of
construction as it relates to a millivolt drop test is given here.
A current injection test set is a high-current low-voltage source of AC current and associated control equipment
that are enclosed within a metallic structure, and mounted on wheels. Current injection test sets are as large as
0.90 meters in height, 1.35 meters wide, and 0.7 meters deep and they are as much as 550 kilograms in weight.
Figure 4 is an outline diagram of a current injection test set, a circuit breaker under test, and a millivolt meter
connected together for performing a millivolt drop test.
Figure 4. Circuit Diagram for a Millivolt Drop Test
Operational Principles
This section explains the operational principles of the test sets whose constructions were described in the
previous section.
Kelvin Bridge
A Kelvin bridge operates on the principle of a double bridge. Referring to Figure 5, the resistance X is the
unknown value of resistance. The bridge is in a balanced condition whenever the multiplier dial and the
mechanically-linked measuring dials are adjusted to achieve a zero voltage differential between nodes m and n,
as indicated by the detector-circuit meter. When the bridge is balanced, the ratio of resistance values is:
X
S
A
B
=
Where X is the unknown resistance, S is the resistance of the standard resistor, A is the resistance of the
adjustable arm A, and B is the resistance of the fixed arm B.
Each operating knob of each measuring dial is marked with numbers. When the bridge is balanced, the value of
the unknown resistance X is indicated by the series of numbers that appear in the windows of the measuring
dials multiplied by 10
-5
and multiplied by the number indicated on the multiplier dial.
The resistance values R1 and R2 shown in Figure 5 are parts of the measured circuit but do not add to the
resistance indicated on the bridge. The leads L1, L2, L3 and L4 have resistance, but these do not add to the
resistance indicated. As in the case with other four-terminal resistance measurement instruments, the resistance
measured is only that resistance between the points of the probes P1 and P2.
When a Kelvin bridge is making a measurement, a significant amount of current flows in the measured circuit.
The amount of current can be as large as 5 amperes but depends on the specific model of bridge being used and
the ohmic value of the measured circuit . This current will, in some cases, heat the circuit components of the
measured circuit. Consequently, this warming will change the resistance of the measured circuit.
Figure 5. Schematic Circuit Diagram of a Kelvin Bridge
Ducter
A Ducter contains a two-coil moving coil meter whose deflection is proportional to the magnitude of voltage
across its deflection coil divided by the magnitude of current in its control coil. Figure 6 is a representation of
the operational elements of a Ducters meter. These elements are:
The deflecting coil, A. This coil is also called the voltage coil.
The reference coil, B. This coil is also called the current coil.
The north pole N and south pole S of the permanent magnet.
The fixed coaxial magnet core C.
The ligaments L. The ligaments conduct current to the deflecting coil and reference coil while not
producing a significant torque on the coil assembly.
The bearings J support the coil assembly.
Figure 6. Meter Elements of a Ducter
Figure 7 is a schematic diagram of the circuit of a Ducter. The range selector connects built-in resistors whose
ohmic values are appropriate for different ranges. The model of Ducter most often found in industrial plants
has ranges of 100, 1000, 10,000, 100,000, and 1,000,000 micro-ohms. 1,000,000 micro-ohms is equal to one
ohm. As in the case with other four-terminal resistance measurement instruments, the resistance measured is
only that resistance between the points of the probes P1 and P2. A Ducter differs from a Kelvin bridge because
the resistance of the test leads adds to the value of resistance that is displayed. All Ducters are specifically
calibrated using test leads that each have 0.04 ohm resistance. If leads of different resistance values are used, a
correction factor must be applied to the scale reading.
Figure 7. Schematic Circuit Diagram of a Ducter
Digital Low-Resistance Ohmmeter (DLRO)
Figure 8 is a simplified schematic diagram of the circuit of a digital low-resistance ohmmeter (DLRO).
Batteries B
1
and B
2
drive current through the resistance under test R
X
. The set of resistance elements selected
by the S
1
range selector produce a voltage E
REF
which is proportional to the amount of current flowing in the
resistance under test R
X
. The voltage E
REF
is input to the digital meter. The voltage drop E
IN
across R
X
is a
second input to the digital meter. The meter displays a number that is proportional to E
IN
divided by E
REF
.
The calibrating resistor R
C
is calibrated at the factory so that the digital meter displays the value of resistance
R
X
in milliohms.
Because the values of resistors R
A
and R
A
are sufficiently large, test leads of different values of resistance do
not change the value of R
X
displayed on the digital meter.
Figure 8. Schematic Circuit Diagram of a Digital Low-Resistance Ohmmeter
Current Injection Test Sets (for Millivolt Drop Tests)
Current injection test sets are used primarily to test the correct functioning of the automatic trip devices of low-
voltage circuit breakers. A current injection test set can also be used to supply current to one interrupter of a
circuit breaker (Figure 4). Current from the test sets output transformer causes a voltage drop that is typically
millivolts in magnitude. The millivolt meter is used to measure this voltage drop. The resistance of the
interrupter can be calculated using the following mathematical formula:
R
V
I
micro ohms
millivolts
amperes
( )
( )
( )
=
1000
Where R is the resistance of the interrupter circuit in micro-ohms, V is the measured drop at the terminals
of the interrupter in millivolts, and I is the interrupter current in amperes.
EVALUATING PRIMARY-CIRCUIT RESISTANCE TESTS
The primary circuit of a circuit breaker includes its interrupters and their main current-carrying contacts.
Primary-circuit resistance tests are measurements of the values of resistance between each pair of terminals of
each individual interrupter.
The general purpose of a primary-circuit resistance test is to detect a loss of contact pressure, physical damage
to the surfactes of the contacts, or chemical contamination on the surfaces of the contacts.
Primary-Circuit-Resistance Test Methods
This section explains the following methods for conducting primary-circuit resistance tests on power circuit
breakers:
Selecting an effective ampere output option.
Test hookups.
Selecting an Effective Ampere Output Option
A precise measurement of the resistance of an electrical contact requires a minimum magnitude of current to be
flowing in the contact during the measurement. The amount of current needed to maintain precision is different
according to design variables. The minimum amount of current required for a particular model of circuit
breaker is usually specified in the manufacturers instructional literature. Because almost all primary-circuit
resistance tests require 10 amperes or more, they are performed using a Ducter or a DLRO.
Figure 9. Connection Diagram for a Primary-Circuit Resistance Test
Test Hookups
Figure 9 is a connection diagram for performing a primary-circuit resistance test. This example showns a
Ducter. The hookup is similar for tests that are conducted using a DLRO. Note that the voltage probes are
placed inside of the current connections. This arrangement is important for making an accurate measurement of
resistance. Additionally, the voltage probes are placed so that all of the conducting components of the
interrupter are between the voltage probes. Any components that are not secured with their normal pressure or
torque are not included between the voltage probes. For example, the voltage probes are placed on the bushing
caps of the circuit breaker shown in Figure 9 rather than being placed on the loosened screw-eyes of the
bushings.
Evaluation Factors
This section explains the factors that influence the evaluation of primary-circuit resistance tests and the readings
obtained from these tests. These Evaluation factors are:
Loss of contact pressure.
Physical damage to contacts.
Chemical contamination of contact surfaces.
Loss of Contact Pressure
Pressure is maintained on the mating surfaces of circuit breaker contacts by springs. If these springs become
overheated for any reason, they will loose their ability to maintain pressure. This loss of pressure reduces the
current-carrying capacity of the interrupter. Because this loss of pressure causes an increase in the resistance of
the contact mating surfaces, it is detectable as an increased primary-circuit resistance.
Physical Damage
Physical damage to interrupter components often causes an increase in primary-circuit resistance. This increase
in resistance is related to incorrect alignment of moving contacts with respect to stationary contacts.
Chemical Contamination
Chemical contaminants on contact surfaces cause an increase in primary-circuit resistance. Typical
contaminants are rust, copper sulfate, silver oxide, burned oil, sand particles, and improperly applied lubrication
materials.
EVALUATING CIRCUIT CONTINUITY TESTS
Circuit Continuity Tests: Applications and Methods
The purpose of a circuit continuity test is to verify that a complete conductive path exists between two terminals
of an electrical circuit. A second purpose of a circuit continuity test is to verify the isolation of two electrical
circuits. Circuit continuity tests are almost always performed when circuits are disconnected from their normal
sources of electrical power.
The applications and methods of the following circuit-continuity tests are briefly explained below:
Control-circuit tests.
Heat-tracing circuit tests.
Neutral-grounding circuit tests.
Control Circuits
Individual circuits of an electrical control system are tested for continuity after control components are installed
in their permanent locations and before the initial energization of the control system. The testing of these
individual circuits is also called point-to-point wiring checks. If the functional operation of the control system
components was verified at the manufacturers plant, only that wiring which was installed at the equipment
users site needs to be tested for continuity.
In order to keep an account of which point-to-point circuits have already been tested for continuity, a copy of a
construction document (called an interwiring diagram) is marked with a red pencil. The interwiring diagram
also identifies the correct terminals between which each conductive path is supposed to exist.
The test equipment that can be is used to perform continuity tests includes test lamps, buzzers, and multimeters.
Figure 10 shows the circuit diagrams for tests that use these three types of continuity testers. A test lamp is a
device that has two probes, a low-voltage isolation transformer, and a lamp connected in a series circuit. When
the probes are touched to the two terminals of a continuous circuit, the lamp becomes illuminated. A buzzer is
similar to a lamp tester except that it has an audio signaling device rather than a lamp. Many models of digital
multimeters have a built-in audio signaling device that sounds when the two probes of the multimeter are
touched to the two terminals of a continuous circuit.
Figure 10. Circuit Diagrams for Control Circuit Continuity Tests
A test lamp, buzzer, or digital multimeter will signal that a circuit is continuous if its resistance is less than
approximately 150 ohms.
Heat Tracing Circuits
An open circuit is the most likely mode of failure for heat tracing. Heat tracing circuits are periodically tested
for continuity. Because heat tracing circuits sometimes have a resistance greater than 150 ohms, their
continuity cannot be tested with a test lamp, buzzer, or the audio signal of a digital multimeter. A heat tracing
circuit is tested by measuring its resistance with an ohmmeter.
Neutral Grounding Resistors
An open circuit is the most likely mode of failure for a neutral grounding resistor. Other possible failure modes
are the development of a high-resistance connection or a short circuit between resistor elements. Neutral
grounding resistors are periodically tested for continuity. The continuity of a neutral grounding resistor is
tested by measuring its resistance with an ohmmeter, a Kelvin Bridge, or a digital low-resistance ohmmeter.
Grounding Systems
In addition to establishing plant electrical apparatus at earth potential, the conductors of a grounding system
also connect together the frames of individual apparatus. Continuity tests are periodically conducted to detect
open-circuit faults and high-resistance connections in these grounding system conductors. Grounding system
conductors are tested using a special test set called a safety-ground test set. In a safety-ground test, 5 to 300
amperes of direct current are made to flow in the grounding system conductors between the frames of two
pieces of electrical apparatus or between a frame and a derived neutral grounding point. The ability of
grounding conductors to carry 300 amperes for a short period of time proves their integrity.
Grounding system conductors are sometimes tested while substation apparatus or plant apparatus is energized.
To avoid electrical hazards, take special care not to disconnect any of the grounding system circuits. Although
voltage might not can be detected, handle test leads as if they are energized with several hundred volts.
Evaluating Equipment Faults
The characteristic indications of the following types of circuit faults are explained below:
Short-circuit faults.
Open-circuit faults.
Intermittant-circuit faults.
Short Circuit
Short-circuit faults between control circuits can be discovered using a test lamp, buzzer, or a digital multimeter.
Short-circuit faults between series-connected components of a control circuit, heat tracing circuit, neutral
grounding resistor, or grounding system cause a decrease in circuit resistance. Circuit resistance measurements
made using an ohmmeter, Kelvin bridge, or digital low-resistance ohmmeter are compared with previous
resistance measurements to discover this decrease in resistance.
Open Circuit
Because control circuits, heat tracing circuits, neutral grounding resistors, and grounding system circuits usually
have parallel paths, an open circuit in a single path does not cause an open circuit resistance indication in a
circuit-continuity test. To detect open circuits in parallel paths, the circuit resistance is compared with previous
resistance measurements to detect an increase in resistance.
An increase in resistance compared to previous resistance measurements might also indicate the existence of a
high-resistance connection.
Intermittent Circuit
An intermittent circuit is a circuit that becomes continuous and discontinuous at irregular intervals. There are
several methods for evaluating an intermittent circuit: elevating or lowering the temperature of circuit
components to cause the intermittent circuit to become continually continuous or discontinuous, applying
impact force to components, applying mechanical stress to components, and replacing suspect components.
EVALUATING TERMINAL-TO-TERMINAL RESISTANCE TESTS
Terminal-to-Terminal Resistance Tests: Applications and Methods
The purposes of terminal-to-terminal tests for new equipment are to detect shipping damage, verify factory test
data, and verify specified performance. The purpose of terminal-to-terminal tests for in-service equipment is to
detect open circuits and high-resistance connections in windings.
Terminal-to-terminal resistance tests are applied to resistance temperature detectors, motors, generators, and
transformers. The methods of performing terminal-to-terminal resistance tests on the following equipment are
explained briefly below:
Resistance temperature detector.
Motor and generator windings.
Transformer windings.
Resistance Temperature Detectors
Terminal-to-terminal resistance tests are performed on resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) using a Kelvin
bridge. The purpose of these tests is to verify that an RTD has the correct ohmic value of resistance for the
temperature it is sensing.
The resistance measurements for two, three, and four-terminal RTDs are illustrated in Figure 11.
Two-Terminal A single measurement of resistance, M
12
, is made for a two-terminal RTD. Terminals C1 and
P1 of the Kelvin bridge are connected to RTD terminal 1. Terminals C2 and P2 of the Kelvin bridge are
connected to RTD terminal 2. M
12
is the measured resistance between terminal 1 and terminal 2.
Three-Terminal Three measurements of resistance, M
12
, M
23
, and M
31
, are made for a three-terminal RTD.
For each of these three measurements, the Kelvin bridge is connected to two RTD terminals.
Four-Terminal One direct measurement of resistance is made for a four-terminal RTD. Terminals C1, P1,
P2, and C2 are connected to RTD terminals 4, 2, 1, and 3 respectively. The value of resistance measured using
this method does not include the resistance of the RTD leads.
Figure 11. Terminal-to-Terminal Resistance Measurements for RTDs
Motor and Generator Windings
A measurement of terminal-to-terminal resistance for a motor or generator is made using a digital low-
resistance ohmmeter, a Ducter, or a Kelvin bridge. Before making these measurements, winding circuits are
electrically isolated if provisions to isolate them are available in the machines connection compartment. If
winding circuits cannot be isolated, one resistance measurement is made between each pair of winding
terminals. The average winding temperature is measured using an imbedded winding temperature detector or a
glass thermometer placed into a ventilation duct. This temperature should be recorded with the terminal-to-
terminal resistance measurements. Work Aid 2 contains a procedure for calculating temperature-corrected
values of winding resistance.
Transformer Windings
A measurement of terminal-to-terminal resistance for a transformer is made using a digital low-resistance
ohmmeter, Ducter, or Kelvin bridge. Individual winding circuits of power transformers typically cannot be
isolated by changing external connections. The resistance of the individual circuits of a delta or a wye-
connected winding circuit can be resolved mathematically. Work Aid 2 contains a procedure for calculating the
resistance of individual winding circuits. The average winding temperature, as indicated by the windings
embedded detector or the transformers liquid temperature gauge, should be recorded with the terminal-to-
terminal resistance measurements.
Measuring Wye-Connected Winding Circuits Refer to Figure 12a. For wye-connected windings that have
a neutral terminal, the following values of terminal-to-terminal resistance are measured:
M
AN
, the measured resistance from terminal A to terminal N.
M
BN
, the measured resistance from terminal B to terminal N.
M
CN
, the measured resistance from terminal C to terminal N.
Refer to Figure 12b. For wye-connected windings that do not have a neutral terminal, the following values of
terminal-to-terminal resistance are measured:
M
AB
, the measured resistance from terminal A to terminal B.
M
BC
, the measured resistance from terminal B to terminal C.
M
CA
, the measured resistance from terminal C to terminal A.
Measuring Delta-Connected Winding Circuits Refer to Figure 12c. For delta-connected windings, the
following values of terminal-to-terminal resistance are measured:
M
AB
, the measured resistance from terminal A to terminal B.
M
BC
, the measured resistance from terminal B to terminal C.
M
CA
, the measured resistance from terminal C to terminal A.
Figure 12. Terminal-to-Terminal Resistance Measurements for Power Transformer Winding
Circuits
Evaluation Factors
The sections below explain the factors that affect the evaluation of terminal-to-terminal resistance tests:
Lead resistance.
Average conductor temperature.
Time and temperature.
Trends.
Lead Resistance
The resistance of the leads of RTDs, motors, generators, and transformers influence the results of terminal-to-
terminal resistance measurements in different ways.
The resistance of the leads of a two-terminal RTD (see Figure 11a) will add ohmic value to the measurement of
the RTDs resistance. For example, a two-terminal platinum RTD has approximately 112 ohms of resistance at
30 C temperature. If the RTDs lead cables each have 0.1 ohm resistance, the measured terminal-to-terminal
resistance would be 112.2 ohms. This additional ohmic value represents a 0.18% addition. This extra
resistance corresponds to an extra 0.5 degree of temperature registration for this example RTD.
The exact resistance of a three-terminal RTD (see Figure 11b) is determined mathematically using the data
resulting from terminal-to-terminal resistance tests. The RTD resistance value is calculated using the following
formula, which eliminates the resistance of the leads:
R
M M
M =
+
12 13
23
2
Where R is the resistance of the RTD, M
12
is the resistance measured between terminal 1 and terminal 2,
M
13
is the resistance measured between terminal 1 and terminal 3, and M
23
is the resistance measured
between terminal 2 and terminal 3.
The exact resistance of a four-terminal RTD is measured directly using a Kelvin bridge. The resistance of the
RTD leads does not affect the result of this terminal-to-terminal resistance measurement.
The resistance of motor leads, generator leads, or transformer leads is a significant portion of the measured
value of terminal-to-terminal resistance. This error does not, however, prevent accurate evaluation of
commissioning or maintenance tests.
Average Conductor Temperature
In order to accurately evaluate a terminal-to-terminal resistance measurement, the measurement must be
corrected to a standard temperature. The methods for temperature correction and the values of standard
temperature are different for resistance measurements made on copper RTDs, nickel RTDs, platinum RTDs,
motors, generators, and transformers. A direct measurement or a reasonable estimate of the average
temperature of the circuit conductors is needed for the calculation of its temperature-corrected resistance.
Terminal-to-terminal resistance changes in direct proportion to the average temperature of the conductors in the
circuit.
Time and Temperature
The terminal-to-terminal resistance measurement of a motor, generator, or transformer winding is sometimes
made soon after the apparatus is shut down. The purpose of this type of resistance measurement is to determine
the average temperature that the winding conductors realized while the apparatus was running. There is an
inaccuracy in this method of temperature determination due to the fact that the temperature of the winding
changes as soon as the apparatus is stopped. The accuracy of the temperature determination is improved by
making several measurements of terminal-to-terminal resistance after the apparatus is stopped and graphically
extrapolating a value of resistance for the point time that the apparatus was running. Figure 13 is an example of
an extrapolated plot produced by this time and temperature method.
Figure 13. Extrapolated Time Plot of Resistance and Temperature Values
Trend
Trend analysis is the method used to evaluate terminal-to-terminal resistance tests that are made for purposes of
maintenance. The most recent resistance measurement is compared with past measurements to discover any
deteriorating trends. Rising values of resistance generally indicate the development of high-resistance joints or
open-circuit faults. Declining values of resistance generally indicate the development of short-circuit faults.
EVALUATION OF EARTH-RESISTANCE TESTS
Earth-Resistance Test Sets: Constructions and Operational Principles
Constructions
The construction types of earth-resistance test sets are:
The voltmeter-ammeter type.
The single-balance transformer type.
The direct-reading Megger type.
The induced-polarization receiver and transmitter type.
Most of the Saudi Aramco earth-resistance test sets are either the single-balance transformer type, having the
trade names Megger, Vibrometer, or Ground Ohmer, or the direct-reading Megger types which are used for less
critical tests.
Figure 14 is a line drawing of a single-balance transformer type of earth-resistance test set. The single-balance
transformer test set has four terminals marked C1, P1, P2, and C2 similar to a Ducter or a Kelvin Bridge. The
range switch and the measurement dials are changed until a null-balance indication shows on the detector. The
ohmic value of earth resistance is read from the numbers of the dials. The model shown in Figure 14 has a
hand-crank generator. Other models have a battery source of current rather than a generator.
Figure 15 is a line drawing of a direct reading Megger test set. The direct-reading test set has three terminals,
X, P, and C. The ohmic value of earth resistance is read directly from the scale of the test set.
Induced-polarization receiver and transmitter test sets are specialized electronic types which are used to measure
the earth resistance of the grounding components of high-voltage transmission towers.
Figure 14. Single-Balance Transformer Earth-Resistance Test Set
Figure 15. Direct Reading Megger Earth-Resistance Test Set
Operational Principles
With the availability of single-balance transformer and direct-reading test sets, voltmeters and ammeters are
seldom used in industry for earth-resistance testing. A circuit diagram, such as the diagram in Figure 16, of a
voltmeter-ammeter test circuit is, however, useful for explaining the operational principles of all earth-
resistance test sets.
The electrode X is the permanently installed grounding electrode, sometimes called the made electrode, whose
resistance R
X
with respect to remote earth is to be measured. A low-voltage (6 to 50 volts AC) transformer
drives current into electrode X. This current, whose magnitude is indicated by ammeter A
1
, flows through the
earth to the test probe Z. A voltmeter indicates voltage V
1
between electrode X and probe Y. The test probes Z
and Y also have resistance values R
Z
and R
Y
with respect to remote earth. Because R
Y
is significantly smaller
than the impedance of the voltmeter, no appreciable error is introduced in the measurement due to the small
voltage drop across R
Y
. The voltage drop across R
z
is not in the loop of the voltmeter circuit. The resistance of
the grounding electrode R
X
is, therefore, equal to voltage V
1
divided by current A
1
.
Figure 16. Circuit Diagram of a Voltmeter and
Ammeter Earth-Resistance Test
The internal and the external circuit of a single-balance transformer test set is shown in Figure 17. The
generator drives an AC current into the primary winding of the test sets transformer and into electrode X. This
current returns to the generator through earth probe Z. The earth voltage between probe Y and electrode X is
balanced in the resistor network that consists of R
A
, R
B
, and the decade resistors against the voltage induced in
the secondary winding of the test sets transformer. When the detector indicates a null balance, the ohmic value
of R
X
can be read from the measurement dials. The mechanical rectifier is mechanically linked to the generator
and makes the detector sensitive only to the output frequency of the generator. This synchronizing of the
detector with the generator makes a single-balance transformer test set insensitive to power-frequency earth
currents. Because this type of test set is a null-balance type, the accuracy of the earth-resistance measurement is
not sensitive to the impedance of the test leads or the impedance of the probes.
Figure 17. Circuit Diagram of a Single-Balance Transformer Earth-Resistance Test Set
The operational principle of a direct-reading Megger test set similar to that of a Ducter or a megohmmeter. The
test sets circuit diagram (Figure 18) shows its control coil and its deflecting coil. Earth resistance is read
directly from the scale of a direct-reading Megger test set.
Figure 18. Circuit Diagram of a Direct-Reading Megger Type
Earth-Resistance Test Set
Earth-Resistance Tests: Theories and Methods
Theories
An electrode buried in earth that has uniform resistivity radiates current in all directions. Shells of earth can be
imagined as surrounding the electrode. All the shells are of equal thickness (see Figure 19). The earth shell
nearest an electrode has the least surface area and, therefore, offers the greatest resistance to current flow. The
next earth shell has a larger area and offers less resistance. At some distance away from the electrode,
additional shells of earth do not add significantly to the resistance of the earth surrounding the electrode.
Figure 19. Fall-of Potential Profiles
Spheres of Influence
Figure 19a shows a diagram of three rods driven into the ground. Earth shells are drawn around the electrode
X, which is the electrode that is permanently installed for grounding purposes. The outermost earth shells
define spheres of influence for electrode X and probe Z. If probe Y is moved in a straight line to various points
between electrode X and probe Z, a set of earth-resistance measurements would reveal a directly proportional
relationship between the distance of Y from X to the ohmic value of earth resistance. This relationship is a
direct proportion because probe Y is always within the spheres of influence of electrode X and probe Z.
Fall-of-Potential Profiles
Figure 19b shows a diagram of three rods driven into the ground but spaced at greater distances. If probe Y is
moved in a straight line to various points, a set of earth-resistance measurements would reveal ohmic values
increasing with distance but with a discernible flattening of the of the curvilinear relationship for positions of
probe Y that are not within the spheres of influence of either electrode X or probe Z. An earth-resistance-
versus-distance plot of this kind is called a fall-of-potential profile. The flat portion of the profile is usually
about 62% of the distance between electrode X and probe Z.
Methods
The three tests most often performed with an earth-resistance test set are the soil-resistivity test, fall-of-potential
earth-resistance test, and direct earth-resistance test.
Soil Resistivity (Four-Terminal) Test
Soil-resistivity measurements are made to provide information that is needed to design a grounding system.
The circuit of a soil-resistivity test is shown in Figure 20. To measure the average resistivity of the soil for a
depth L, four probes are driven into the ground at equal distances L. The electrode depth D is made small
compared to the distance L. A measurement of resistance R is made with a single-balance transformer test set.
The resistivity of the soil is determined as follows:
= 2 L R
Where R is the measured resistance, L is the distance between probes in centimeters, and is resistivity
in ohm-centimeters.
Figure 20. Soil Resistivity Test Circuit
Fall-of-Potential (Three-Terminal) Test
Earth-resistance tests of substation grounding systems are usually made using the fall-of-potential method.
Figure 21 shows the circuit of an earth-resistance test using this method. The test can be performed using a
single-balance transformer test set or a direct reading Megger test set. Probe Z is placed at a distance C that is
estimated to be well away from the sphere of influence of electrode X. Saudi Aramco Design Practice SADP-P-
111 suggests that this distance should be 100 meters. Probe Y is driven into the ground at several locations in a
straight line between electrode X and probe Z. SADP-P-111 suggests that each probe should be driven at least
0.6 meters into the soil and at locations 0.2, 0.4, and 0.6 of distance C. At each location the earth-resistance is
read from the test set and plotted on a resistance-versus-distance graph (see Figure 21).
Figure 21. Fall-of-Potential Earth-Resistance Test Circuit
The plotted curve should have a relatively flat horizontal portion. The flatness of this horizontal portion is
evaluated by calculating its slope variation coefficient:
=

R R
R R
0 6 0 4
0 4 0 2
. .
. .
Where is the slope variation coefficient, R
0.6
is the earth-resistance at distance 0.6C, R
0.4
is the earth-
resistance at distance 0.4C, and R
0.2
is the earth-resistance at distance 0.2C.
If is greater than 1.59, the earth-resistance values must be measured using a greater distance C.
If is within the range of 0.4 to 1.59, a distance PT is calculated. Distance PT is the distance that probe Y
should be placed from electrode X to measure the true earth-resistance value of electrode X.
PT PT C C = ( / )
Where PT is the distance to place probe Y for the final measurement, PT/C is a ratio that is read from a
table of values that are a function of the value of u, and C is the distance of probe Z from electrode X.
Figure 22 is an abbreviated table of values for the ratio PT/C. The complete table of values for PT/C can be
found in SADP-P-111, chapter 13.
PT/C PT/C PT/C
0.40 0.643 0.80 0.580 1.20 0.494
0.50 0.629 0.90 0.562 1.30 0.465
0.60 0.613 1.00 0.542 1.40 0.430
0.70 0.597 1.10 0.519 1.50 0.389
1.59 0.341
Figure 22. Table of Values for PT/C
Direct (Two-Terminal) Test
Measurements of earth resistance that are taken for the purpose of proving that a grounding electrode meets a
minimum required ohmic value can be performed using the direct test method. Figure 23 shows the circuit of
an earth-resistance test using this method. A single-balance transformer or a direct-reading test set can be used
to make this measurement. One set of P and C terminals is connected to a metallic structure that has
components buried in earth and, additionally, is not connected to the electrode under test. As an example, a
connection to a metallic water system is shown in Figure 23. The other terminal or terminals of the test set are
connected to the electrode under test. The resistance measured is the sum of the buried structures resistance
and the electrodes resistance. If the measured sum is less than the minimum required ohmic value, it can be
assumed that the earth-resistance of the grounding electrode is less than the minimum required.
Figure 23. Direct Earth-Resistance Test Circuit
Evaluation Factors
Factors that affect the evaluation of earth-resistance tests include climate condition, recent weather conditions,
soil temperature, soil composition, and the integrity of grounding system components.
Climate and Recent Weather Conditions
Soil resistivity is generally greater in a dry climate. In order to meet minimum design criteria for earth-
resistance, grounding electrodes used in dry climate locations are driven more deeply and have more elements
than those used in wet climate locations.
Recent rain causes earth resistance to decrease. When comparing a recent measurement of earth-resistance with
past measurements, an approximate correction must be estimated to account for recent weather that might have
been unusually dry or unusually wet. Several measurements taken during a time interval of one year can be
analyzed to account for seasonal variations. Figure 24 shows the seasonal variation of earth resistance for two
different electrodes buried within the same substation. If the minimum required resistance criteria for each of
the electrodes is 50 ohms, only the electrode corresponding to Curve 2 meets the minimum criteria. This is true
even though the most recent data point for Curve 1 is less than 50 ohms.
Figure 24. Plot of Seasonal Variation in Earth-Resistance
Soil Temperature
Soil resistivity becomes greater when soil becomes cooler. Figure 25 is a table relating soil temperature to soil
resistivity for a sandy loam soil having 15% moisture content. The earth resistance of a grounding electrode
will change with temperature but is expected to meet minimum resistance requirements under any condition of
soil temperature. Whenever the water in soil freezes, soil resistivity becomes significantly greater.
Soil Temperature Typical Soil Resistivity, ohm-
cm
20 7200
10 9900
0 (water) 13,800
0 (ice) 30,000
-5 79,000
-15 330,000
Figure 25. Table of Soil Resistivity-versus-Temperature
Soil Composition
Soils of various compositions will have different values of resistivity. However, the earth resistance of a
grounding system and its individual components should meet their respective minimum requirements of ohmic
value without regard to variability in soil composition.
Sandy soil has a greater resistivity.
Moist soil has a reduced resistivity.
Electrolytes that are found naturally in soil or that are added to soil decrease resistivity. Typical electrolytes
added to soil to intentionally decrease its resistivity are magnesium sulfate, calcium chloride, copper sulfate,
and sodium chloride.
Integrity of Grounding System Components
Grounding system components dissolve into the soil with time. A grounding system might become ineffective
in as little as three years in an extreme case. Most systems endure long past the useful lifetime of the industrial
facility in which they are installed. The most frequent faults in grounding systems are:
Open circuits caused by conductors dissolving in the soil.
Open circuits unintentionally caused by excavations.
Loss of intimate contact with soil due to soil shrinkage.
Open circuits caused by fault currents.
Earth-resistance tests are conducted for the purpose of discovering these faults.
WORK AID 1: RESOURCES USED TO EVALUATE A PRIMARY-CIRCUIT
RESISTANCE TEST
The procedure for Evaluating a primary-circuit resistance test is simple and direct. Use the Work Aids
and the procedure described below to evaluate a primary-resistance test for any type of power circuit
breaker.
Work Aid 1A: Non-Mandatory Test Report P-009, Circuit Breakers - Medium Voltage
(Handout 8)
For the contents of Test Report Form P-009, refer to Handout 8. Note: Handout 8 was used in Work Aid 1 of
the preceding Module.
Work Aid 1B: Manufacturers Literature
A representative excerpts from manufacturers literature are reproduced on the following page:
6.6 PRIMARY CIRCUIT RESISTANCE CHECK
If desired, the d-c- resistance of the primary circuit
may be measured as follows: close the breaker, pass at
least 100 amps d-c current through the breaker. With a
low resistance instrument, measure resistance across the
studs on the breaker side of the disconnects for each
pole. The resistance should not exceed 60 , 40
and 20 for 1200 amp, 2000 amp and 3000 amp
breakers respectively.
Westinghouse Type VCP-W Vacuum-Interrupter Circuit Breaker
Contact resistance terminal to terminal measured with
[Ducter] or equivalent 100 amp d-c source. 120 micro-
ohms maximum for used contacts (2000A) or 135 micro-
ohms maximum for used contacts for the 1200 Ampere
breaker.
Westinghouse Type SP Gas Circuit Breaker (Periodic Inspection)
Contact Resistance Terminal to Terminal Measured with
[Ducter] or Equivalent 100 amp d-c Source (80 micro-
ohms max. (2000A) or 90 micro-ohms max. (1200A)) for
new contacts.
WestinghouseTypeSPGasCircuitBreaker (CommissioningInspection)
Figure 29. Excerpts from Manufacturers Instruction Books
Work Aid 1C: Applicable Procedural Steps
1. Determine from the manufacturers instructional literature the maximum primary-circuit resistance
allowed for the particular model of circuit breaker that was tested. Figure 29 is an excerpt from a
manufacturers instruction book that contains evaluation criteria for a primary circuit resistance test. If
no recommendation is given in the manufacturers instructional literature, go to step 3.
2. Determine from the manufacturers instructional literature the minimum magnitude of current required
for performing a primary-circuit resistance test on the particular model of power circuit breaker that
was tested. Figure 29 is an excerpt from a manufacturers instruction book that contains a specification
for a magnitude of test current. If the manufacturers instructional literature does not contain a
specification for a minimum magnitude of test current, use 10 amperes as a minimum recommended
value.
3. If the manufacturers literature has no recommended value for maximum primary circuit resistance, use
the evaluation criteria given in Project Acceptance Committee Form P-000. Form P-000 states that any
value greater than 200 micro-ohms must be investigated.
4. Compare the maximum recommended value of resistance determined from step 1 or step 3 to each
value of primary circuit resistance given on the test record. If all test-record values are less than the
recommended value, the evaluation ends at this step.
5. Compare the minimum recommended value of test current determined in step 2 to the value of test
current given on the test record. The use of less than recommended current is a possible reason for
failing to meet the maximum criteria for a primary-circuit resistance test. If less than the recommended
current was used, the circuit breaker should be re-tested using the recommended value.
6. If the primary circuit resistance of any pole of the circuit breaker is greater than the maximum
recommended value, a physical inspection of main contacts, main contact springs, flexible shunts, and
current-carrying joints should be recommended.
WORK AID 2: RESOURCES USED TO EVALUATE A CIRCUIT CONTINUITY
TEST
Work Aid 2A: Non-Mandatory Test Report P-013, Grounding Systems (Handout 14)
For the contents of Test Report Form P-013, refer to Handout 14.
Work Aid 2B: Table of Circuit Resistance Values for Motor Contactor Electromagnet
Coils
A representative example of a manufacturers table of resistance values for electromagnet coils of motor
contactors is reporduced below.
Coil
Voltage
Resistance Value in Ohms
Sizes 00, 0, 1,
and 2
Size 3 Size 4 Size 5 Size 6 Sizes 7
and 8
Size 9
120 AC 1846 800 686 450 343
240 AC 7385 3200 2743 1800 1371
480 AC 29538 12800 10971 7200 5486
48 DC 128 66 66 72 115
125 DC 868 446 446 488 781 39 45
250 DC 3472 1786 1786 1953 3125 156 179
Figure 30. Resistance Values of Electromagnet Coils for Westinghouse A200 Motor
Contactors
Work Aid 2C: Applicable Procedural Steps
1. If the circuit continuity test was conducted on a heat tracing circuit, compare the measured value of
resistance with the values recorded during commissioning tests. An increase of more than 20% of the
original value indicates a high-resistance or open-circuit fault in the heat tracing circuit.
2. If the circuit continuity test was conducted on a neutral grounding resistor, compare the measured
value of resistance to the value stamped on the nameplate of the resistor. The measured value should
be the same as the nameplate value within plus or minus 10%. A greater resistance value indicates a
high-resistance or open-circuit fault. A lesser resistance indicates a short-circuit fault.
3. If the circuit continuity test was conducted on the conductors of a grounding system, the continuity of
the circuit is evaluated by its ability to conduct 300 amperes of alternating current for a short period of
time. An inability to carry 300 amperes indicates a high-resistance or open-circuit fault in a grounding-
system conductor, a fused connection, or a clamped connection.
4. If the circuit continuity test was conducted on an electromagnet coil of a motor contactor, compare the
measured resistance value with the value read from the coil manufacturers table of values. The
measured value should be equal to the table value within 10. A representative example of a
manufacturers table is given in Work Aid 2B.
WORK AID 3: PROCEDURES FOR EVALUATING A TERMINAL-TO-
TERMINAL RESISTANCE TEST
1. All terminal-to-terminal resistance test measurements must be corrected to a standard temperature before
being evaluated. Use the following formula to calculate the terminal-to-terminal resistance values
corrected to a standard reference temperature:
( )( )
( )
R
T K R
T K
S
S M
M
=
+
+
R
S
is the resistance corrected to the standard reference temperature.
R
M
is the measured terminal-to-terminal resistance.
T
S
is the standard reference temperature. T
S
is equal to 25C for motor windings and generator
windings. T
S
is equal to the rated average temperature rise plus 20C for power transformers.
T
M
is the average temperature of the circuit conductors at the time the terminal-to-terminal resistance was
measured.
K is 234.5 for a copper conductor. K is 225.0 for an aluminum conductor.
2. If the circuit tested has only two terminals, compare the single value of temperature-corrected terminal-
to-terminal resistance to the temperature-corrected value of resistance that was recorded during
commissioning tests or to the value that was recorded at the manufacturers factory.
If the temperature-corrected terminal-to-terminal resistance of a winding circuit has changed by more
than 1%, a set of additional electrical tests should be recommended to determine the nature of the
winding fault.
Note: There are no universally accepted criteria for evaluating a change in the terminal-to-terminal
resistance of a motor, generator, or transformer winding. Any evaluation is based on the subjective
judgment of the evaluating engineer. The International Electrical Testing Associations publication
entitled Maintenance Testing Specifications states that a change in winding resistance should be no
greater than 1%. A 1% or greater change almost certainly indicates the existence of a winding fault
but does not suggest the nature of the fault.
3. If the circuit tested is a winding circuit that has a wye connection with no access to the common
(neutral) winding connection, the three, temperature-corrected, terminal-to-terminal resistance values
and the following formulae should be used to determine the resistance values of the individual winding
circuits:
R
M M M
AN
AB BC CA
=
+
2
R
M M M
BN
BC CA AB
=
+
2
R
M M M
CN
CA AB BC
=
+
2
Where M
AB
is the measured resistance from terminal A to terminal B, M
BC
is the measured resistance
from terminal B to terminal C, and M
CA
is the measured resistance from terminal C to terminal A.
4.
f the circuit tested is a winding circuit that has a closed-delta connection, the three, temperature-corrected,
terminal-to-terminal resistance values and the following formulae should be used to determine the
resistance values of the individual winding circuits:
( ) ( ) ( )
[ ]
R
M M M M M M M M M
M M M
AB
AB BC BC CA CA AB AB BC CA
AB BC CA
=
+ + + +
+ +
2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2
(
( ) ( ) ( )
[ ]
R
M M M M M M M M M
M M M
BC
AB BC CA
=
+ + + +
+
2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2
(
( ) ( ) ( )
[ ]
R
M M M M M M M M M
M M M
CA
AB BC CA
=
+ + + +
+
2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2
(
Where M
AB
is the measured resistance from terminal A to terminal B, M
BC
is the measured resistance
from terminal B to terminal C, and M
CA
is the measured resistance from terminal C to terminal A.
5. If the values of resistance measured at the factory or measured at the time of commissioning are
terminal-to-terminal resistance values, determine the individual winding resistance values using the
formulae of step 3 for a wye connection or using step 4 for a delta connection.
6. Compare the three individual winding resistance values calculated in step 3 or step 4 to the values
measured at the factory or at the time of commissioning. If the resistance of any winding has changed
by more than 1%, a set of additional electrical tests should be recommended to determine the nature of
the winding fault.
Note: The purpose of calculating individual winding resistance values is to identify which winding
contains a fault. The faulted winding cannot be identified using the terminal-to-terminal resistance
values alone because a single fault causes all of the terminal-to-terminal resistance values to change.
WORK AID 4: RESOURCES USED TO EVALUATE AN EARTH-
RESISTANCE TEST
Work Aid 4A: Non-Mandatory Test Report P-013, Grounding System (Handout 15)
For the contents of Test Report Form P-013, refer to Handout 14.
Work Aid 4B: Applicable Procedural Steps
The Evaluation criteria used in this procedure are based on SADP-P-111, ANSI/IEEE Standards 80 and 81, and
the National Electrical Code (NEC).
1. If the measured earth resistance of a single electrode of a grounding system is greater than 25 ohms,
then the installation of an extra ground electrode should be recommended. The National Electrical
Code (NEC) states in its article 250-84, A single electrode consisting of a rod, plate, or pipe that does
not have a resistance to ground of 25 ohms or less shall be augmented by one additional electrode of
any of the types specified in section 250-81 or 250-83.
2. If the earth-resistance measurement was made on a grounding system after its installation or after
modification, and the grounding system is associated with a power circuit greater than 600 volts, the
earth-resistance should not be greater than 2 ohms. An earth resistance greater than 2 ohms represents
a conflict with Saudi Aramco Engineering Standard SAES-P-111 and, therefore, should be resolved by
the Saudi Aramco Chief Engineer.
3. If the earth resistance of a grounding system of a communication facility central office is more than 5
ohms, a deviation exists with SADP-P-111. A report of this deviation should be made to the manager
of the Consulting Services Department.
4. If the earth resistance of a grounding system of a communication facility remote repeater is more than
25 ohms, a deviation exists with SADP-P-111. A report of this deviation should be made to the
manager of the Consulting Services Department.
5. If the measured earth resistance of a grounding system is greater than a site-specific criteria, a report of
this deviation should be made to the manager of the Consulting Services Department.
Note: The development of site-specific earth-resistance criteria is beyond the scope of this training.
Site-specific criteria, when they exist, are based on SAES-P-111 paragraph 4.1.4 which states that
ground resistance shall not exceed 2 ohms and shall be determined in accordance with touch and step
potentials as defined in ANSI/IEEE standard 80.
GLOSSARY
derived neutral The point of connection of a power distribution
circuits neutral conductor to the winding circuit
of a source-of-power transformer or generator.
DLRO Digital low-resistance ohmmeter.
Ducter A trade name for a four-terminal moving-coil type
low-resistance test set made by AVO International
Company.
earth resistance The ohmic value of resistance between a
grounding electrode or a grounding system with
respect to a hypothetical remote grounding
electrode of zero resistance.
grounding conductor A conductor used to connect a piece of
equipment, device, wiring system, or another
conductor to a grounding system.
grounding electrode Any conductor used to establish a connection to
ground.
grounding system All interconnected components used in an
industrial plant, commercial building, or electrical
substation to establish a connection to ground.
heat tracing A ribbon made of extrinsic semiconductor
material or plastic-covered metallic conductor that
is wrapped around pipe to heat the pipe by means
of electric current.
interwiring diagram A construction document that illustrates the
connection of wiring that is installed between
separate pieces of control equipment.
Kelvin bridge A four-terminal low-resistance ohmmeter that
operates on the principle of a double bridge
invented by the scientist Lord William Thomas
Kelvin.
made electrode A grounding electrode made of metallic structures
buried in earth that has a specific purpose of
establishing an earth-potential reference for an
electrical power distribution system.
micro-ohm A value of resistance that is equal to one millionth
of an ohm. Micro-ohm is pronounced micro
ohm but is sometimes written as microhm.
primary circuit (circuit breaker) The circuit of a circuit breaker that comprises all
of the conductive components that carry load
current.
remote earth Earth at a distance such that the spheres of
influence of two grounding electrodes separated
by this distance do not intersect. Earth at a
distance such that the mutual resistance of two
grounding electrodes separated by this distance is
zero.

Evaluatiing Circuit Resistance Tests

Încărcat de

Informații document

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Evaluatiing Circuit Resistance Tests

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional

Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.

S-ar putea să vă placă și