History

Historical records not only from the travels of Johann Ludwig Krapf and Johannes Rebmann reveal that
Kenyans had access to education as far back as 1728 with a Swahili manuscript Utendi wa
Tambuka (Book of Heraclius) attesting to the fact. The CMS missionaries interacted with locals in the
coastal town of Mombasa and set up one of the earliest mission schools in the country atRabai in 1846.
With the expansion of the railway from Mombasa to Uganda, the missionaries expanded their work into
Kenya's interior. An attempt to set up a school and mission at Yatta in 1894 was resisted by
the Kamba tribe. The missionaries then penetrated into western Kenya and set up schools and missions.
The first school in western Kenya was established at Kaimosi in 1902.During the colonial era, the number
of Kenyans with exposure to education steadily increased and a good number of them were privileged to
proceed abroad for further education. Among those who furthered their education abroad in the colonial
era were Jomo Kenyatta, who attended Woodbrooke College and London School of Economics, Charles
Njonjo, who attended Grays Inn Law School, Peter Mbiyu Koinange, who attended Columbia
University, Mwai Kibaki who attended London School of Economics, R. Mugo Gatheru who
attended Roosevelt University, Tom Mboya, who attendedRuskin College, Oxford, Masinde Muliro, who
attended University of Cape Town, Julius Gikonyo Kiano who attended Stanford University, Paul
Ngei and Barack Obama Sr., who attended theUniversity of Hawaii at Manoa. Julius Gikonyo Kiano was
the first Kenyan to obtain a PhD He returned to Kenya and was instrumental in establishing a school in
Githunguri. The trend steadily rose over the years and by the time of independence in 1963, 840,000
African children were attending elementary school.
The earliest schools in Kenya


Nairobi European School
1. School at Rabai near Mombasa established 1846
2. Nairobi School established 1902.
3. Friends School Kaimosi, now Kaimosi Friends Primary School, established 1903
4. Maseno School, established in 1906
5. Government Indian School or The Duke of Gloucester School, now Jamhuri High School,
established 1906
6. Tumutumu Mission School, now Tumutumu Girls High School established in 1908.
7. European Girls' School, now Kenya High School established 1908.
8. Thogoto School, now Thogoto Teachers Training College established 1910.
9. Kaimosi Girls High School, established 1920
10. Allidina Visram High School, Mombasa established 1921
11. Kaimosi Boys High School, established 1921
12. Kenton College, established 1924 Kijabi 1935 Kileleshwa
13. Mang'u High School, established 1925.
14. Alliance School, now Alliance High School (Kenya) established in 1926.
15. St. Mary's School Yala, established in 1927.
16. Highlands High School, now Moi Girls' High School Eldoret established in 1928.
17. Kisii School, established in 1932
Pre and post colonial education System


Classroom in Athi River, Kenya
Kenya began a campaign for free primary education after independence in 1963. Since then, the system
of education has undergone transformation twice. Before independence elementary education was based
on the colonial system of education.
East African Community (7423 System
In 1967, Kenya, with Uganda and Tanzania, formed the East African Community. The three countries
adopted a single system of education, the 7423, which consisted of 7 years of primary education, 4
years of secondary education, 2 years of high school and 35 years of university education. Under the
system, which was similar to the British system of education, children began their elementary (primary)
education at the age of 7 and completed at the age of 13 after sitting for a regional examination known as
the East African Certificate of Primary Education (EACPE). After primary education those who passed
very well proceeded to secondary school which ended four years later with the writing of the East African
Certificate of Education examination (EACE). The highest level of education that qualified one to attend
university was attained after two years of high school at that time distinct from secondary school with
students sitting for the East African Advanced Certificate of Education (EAACE).
Kenya 7423 System
With the collapse of the East African community in 1977, Kenya continued with the same system of
education but changed the examination names from their regional identity to a national identity. The East
African Certificate of Primary Education became the Certificate of Primary Education (CPE), the East
African Certificate of Education became the Kenya Certificate of Education (KCE) and the East African
Advanced Certificate of Education became the Kenya Advanced Certificate of Education (KACE).
844 Curriculum
In 1985 President Daniel arap Moi, introduced the 844 system of education, which adopted 8 years of
primary education, 4 years of secondary education and 4 years of university education. With the
introduction of the 844 system CPE became KCPE (Kenya Certificate of Primary Education) while KCE
became the Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE).
Since 1985, public education in Kenya has been based on an 844 system,
[1][2]
with eight years of
primary education followed by four years of secondary school and four years of college or university.
British Curriculum
Some private schools, however, offer a system of education similar to the British system of education with
ordinary level exams, "O-levels" taken at the end of 4 years of secondary school and advanced levels "A-
levels", taken after two years of high school.this system is the best for the progress of children's brains
and is also effective in the colleges and universities
Transition rates and Overall Performance
Out of all children in Kenya about 85 percent attend primary school. 75 percent of those who complete
primary education proceed to secondary schools and 60 percent of those who complete secondary
school proceed to higher institutions of education which include business and vocational institutions,
national polytechnics, public and private universities within the country. Over 950,000 Kenyans have
furthered their education abroad with a majority of graduates from India, UK, Canada, the United States,
Russia and Uganda.
Education quality
Education quality has recently received a lot of attention in Kenya. The government's main document in
this effort, the Kenya Education Sector Support Programme for 20052010, established the National
Assessment Centre (NAC) to monitor learning achievement. In 2010, the NAC released the results of its
first assessment.
In 2009, in collaboration with the NAC, Uwezo Kenya conducted an assessment of the basic literacy and
numeracy skills of children ages 616. The Annual Learning Assessment (ALA) reached villages in 70 out
of 158 districts in Kenya and assessed nearly 70,000 children in their homes. The ALA was set at a
Standard 2 level, which is the level where students are supposed to achieve basic competency in reading
English and Kiswahili and complete simple arithmetic problems. The chart below shows the percent of
children who could not read a Standard 2 level paragraph or solve Standard 2 level subtraction
problems:
[3]

Level of Children
Assessed
Cannot Read English
Paragraph
Cannot Read Swahili
Paragraph
Cannot Do
Subtraction
Standard 2 85% 81% 79%
Standard 5 27% 23% 30%
Standard 8 4% 4% 10%
Key findings about education in Kenya, based on the results of the Uwezo 2009 assessment:
[4]

1. Literacy levels are low, and are substantially lower in certain regions. Girls tend to perform better
in reading English and Kiswahili, while boys tend to perform better in math.
2. Literacy levels are lower in public schools than private schools.
3. Most children can solve real world, ethno-mathematics problems, while fewer can solve similar
math problems in an abstract, pencil and paper format.
4. 5% of children are not enrolled in school, but the problem is far worse in particular regions.
5. About half of children are enrolled in pre-school.
6. Many children are older than expected for their class level, including 40% of children in class 2,
and 60% of children in class 7.
7. North Eastern Province and arid districts in Rift Valley and Eastern Provinces have particularly
low performance; and many older children, especially girls, are not attending school.
8. Many families pay for extra tuition, which focuses heavily on drilling and exam preparation.
9. Schools struggle to plan their budgets because they receive funds at unpredictable times.
10. Children whose mothers are educated, particularly beyond primary school, tend to have much
higher rates of literacy and numeracy.
11. About 15% of students are absent on a given day, with much higher absenteeism in certain
districts as a result of increased poverty level.
12. There is a severe shortage of teachers, estimated at 4 teachers per school.
13. the reluctance of the government to invest in educational institutions in marginalised areas
thereby developing schools in cities only which result in inefficient education process in arid and
semi-arid areas
14. embezzlement of public funds by school administrators and lack of accountability of the use of
government grants and high levels of corruption in educational institutions
Primary education
Primary education in Kenya begins at the age of 6 or 7 after completion of a year of kindergarten
commonly known as Nursery School or pre-unit. The first class or year of primary school is known as
Standard 1, the final year as Standard 8 and primary school children are known as pupils. The school
year at both primary and secondary levels, begins in January and ends in November. Students get 3
school vacations in April, August and December. At the end of the school year students advance to the
next grade. Students who completely fail their end of year exams usually repeat the class the following
year instead of advancing to a higher grade. Most primary schools are day schools with pupils living at
home. Fewer schools at primary level are boarding schools compared to secondary schools. All public
primary school pupils sit for the Kenya Certificate of Primary Education examination at the end of the
school year in Standard eight.In January 2003 President Mwai Kibaki re-introduced free primary
education which previously existed before the mid 80s when the government adopted cost sharing
measures that led to a minor level of school fees charged by primary schools for text books, PTA, and
extra curricular activities. Since 2003, education in public schools became free and universal (but not
compulsory)

On learning that primary education had once again become free in Kenya, Kimani Maruge,
an uneducated farmer and the world's oldest person to enroll in primary school joined Kapkenduiywo
primary school in Eldoret at the age of 84. He was elected head boy at the age of 86 in 2005.
Secondary education
Secondary schools in Kenya fall into three categories government funded, harambee and private.
Government funded schools are divided into national, provincial and district levels. Harambee schools do
not receive full funding from the government and private schools are run by private organisations or
individuals. After taking the primary school leaving exam and successfully passing, government funded
schools select students in order of scores. Students with the highest scores gain admission into national
schools while those with average scores are selected into provincial and district schools. Harambee
schools accept students with low scores. Students who fail examinations either repeat the final school
year or pursue technical training opportunities. A number of students also drop out of school by choice
due to poor scores.
Under the current system, students attend secondary school for four years before sitting for the school
leaving exam at the end of the fourth year. The first class or year of secondary school is known as form 1
and the final year is form 4. At the end of the fourth year, from October to November students sit for
the Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education examination. In 2008, the government introduced plans to
offer free Secondary education to all Kenyans.
Historic prestigious national high schools include Mang'u High School, Alliance High School
(Kenya) and Starehe Boys' Centre and School. Private secondary schools in Kenya are generally high
cost, offering students an alternative system of education with better or more luxurious facilities compared
to public schools. They are often favoured for prestige. Most private schools in Kenya offer the British
system of education which includes O-levels and A-levels. Very few offer the American system of
education and good number of them offer the Kenya system. Some of the oldest private schools in Kenya
include Loreto Convent Msongari, Nairobi (1921), St. Mary's School, Nairobi, Braeburn School, Consolata
School, Strathmore School, Oshwal Academy, Rift Valley Academy, Aga Khan Academy, Kenton College
and Brookhouse School,
KCSE grading system[edit source
Grade A A- B+ B B- C+ C C- D+ D D- E
Points 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
The average grade is based on performance in the eight subjects. Where a candidate sits for more than
eight subjects, the average grade is based on the best eight subjects. University matriculation is based on
the best eight and performance in particular subjects relevant to degree courses. Example below:
Subject Group Grade Points
English 1 B+ 10
Kiswahili 1 A- 11
Mathematics 1 A 12
History & Government 3 B 9
Geography 3 A- 11
Physics 2 B+ 10
Chemistry 2 B- 8
Biology 2 A- 11
The total number of points is 81.
The average grade is 81 divided by 8, which equals 10.1 (approximately 10.0 points) which is Grade B+
according to the grading system. This student qualifies to join one of the Public Universities for his good
score. Training institutions and faculties and departments determine their own minimum entry
requirements.
Students who manage a grade of C+ qualify to do a degree course at the university. Owing to
competition, and fewer places at the University, those with B and in a few cases B-, and above are taken
for degree courses at the public universities and benefit by paying government-subsidised fees. The rest
join private universities or middle-level colleges.
Interestingly, the number of students admitted to public universities through J.A.B. depends on the total
number of beds available in all the public universities. Nonetheless, those who miss out but attained the
minimum university entry mark of C+ or C with a relevant diploma certificate are admitted through the
parallel degree programmes (module II) if they can afford the full fees for the course.
This has been the subject of much discussion with people questioning the rationale and morality of
locking out qualified students from public institutions yet still admitting those who come from financially
able families.
Vocational schools and colleges
These are two- or three-year post secondary school institutions also termed colleges. They award
certificates, diplomas and higher national diplomas after successful completion of relevant courses.
Courses offered by these institutions include Business Education, Accounting, Secretarial Studies,
Nursing, Teacher Training, Computer Studies, Journalism, Media, Design, Culinary Studies, Foreign
Languages, Tourism and Technical Skills. In order of credibility or accreditation, national polytechnics
rank first, followed by government training institutes, teacher training colleges and private institutions.
Although generally termed colleges, these institution do not award degrees. Degrees are only awarded by
universities.
University education
There are 48 universities in Kenya, 22 of which are public and 26 private. The University of Nairobi is the
oldest university in Kenya.
Factors affecting education in Kenya
In 1963 the Kenyan government promised free primary education to its citizens. In the early 70s primary
school fees were abolished but in the mid 80s cost-sharing measures between the government and its
citizens led to the re-introduction of minor fee charges by primary schools. As the trend continued with
schools requiring parents to pay fees such as PTA, harambee, textbooks, uniforms, caution fees, exam
fees and extracurricular activity fees, most parents became overburdened and unable to raise such fees.
Those who could not afford the money to pay for their children's school fees often had their children drop
out of the school. Many children were also forced to drop out of school when teachers would not allow
them to take exams. To pressurise parents to pay fees, schools often sent children home during the final
exams.
The growth of Kenya's education sector has exceeded expectations. After the first university was
established in 1970, six other public universities and 23 private universities have been established.
Although Kenya has its own universities, some parents prefer to send their children to universities outside
the country. This is largely because Kenyan public universities are not as flexible with admission
requirements as some foreign universities.
Education in South Africa
Education in South Africa is governed by two national departments, namely the department of Basic
Education (DBE), which is responsible for primary and secondary schools, and the department of Higher
Education and Training (DHET), which is responsible for tertiary education and vocational training. Prior
to 2009, these two departments were represented in a single Department of Education.
The DBE department deals with public schools, private schools (also referred to by the department as
independent schools), early childhood development (ECD) centres, and special needs schools. The
public schools and private schools are collectively known as ordinary schools, and comprise roughly 97%
of schools in South Africa.
The DHET department deals with further education and training (FET) colleges, adult basic education and
training (ABET) centres, and higher education (HE) institutions.
The nine provinces in South Africa also have their own education departments that are responsible for
implementing the policies of the national department, as well as dealing with local issues.
In 2010, the basic education system comprised 12 644 208 learners, 30 586 schools, and 439 394
teachers.
[1]
In 2009, the higher education and training system comprised 837 779 students in HE
institutions, 420 475 students in state-controlled FET institutions and 297 900 in state-controlled ABET
centres.
[2]

In 2013, the South African government will spend 21% of the national budget on education. Some ten
percent of the education budget is for higher education.
[3]
Total spending on education in 2011 was 6
percent of GDP.
[4]

According to the national census of 2011, among the South African population, 35.2% of black/African,
32.6% of coloureds, 61.6% of Indians/Asians and 76% of white citizens have completed an education of
high school or higher. 41.7% of the total population has completed an education of high school or higher,
whereas 8.6% of the population aged 20 years and older has not completed any schooling.
[5]

Structure and policies[edit source | editbeta]
Education is represented in parliament by two ministers of education who each head one department, as
follows:
1. The department of Higher Education and Training, headed by Dr Blade Nzimande; and
2. Minister of Basic Education, Mrs Angie Motshekga, Deputy Minister of Basic Education, Mr Enver
Surty.
Each of these departments is headed by a Director General as follows:
1. Director General:Higher Education and Training, Ms Mary Metcalfe; and
2. Director General: Basic Education, Mr Bobby Soobrayan
Funding for these departments is derived from central government taxes. Schools have head masters
and universities have chancellors who head their respective governing bodies. Policies are set by the
departments through their ministers.
Execution of policies is the responsibility of the heads of the governing bodies of schools and universities.
The department pays for teachers salaries of government schools, while private schools are mostly self
funded by parents. It should be noted that former whites-only government schools (commonly referred to
by the defunct term "Model C") are, in fact, government schools.
Basic Education System (primary and secondary schools)[edit source


The DBE officially groups grades into two "bands" called General Education and Training (GED), which
includes grade 0 plus grades 1 to 9, and Further Education and Training (FET), which includes grades
10-12 as well as non-higher education vocational training facilities.
The GED band is subdivided further into "phases" called the Foundation Phase (grade 0 plus grade 1 to
3), the Intermediate Phase (grades 4 to 6), and the Senior Phase (grades 7 to 9).
The administrative structure of most ordinary schools in South Africa do not reflect the division of bands
and phases, however. For historical reasons, most schools are either "primary" schools (grade R plus
grades 1 to 7) or "secondary" schools, also known as high schools (grades 8 to 12).
Optional grades
Some home schools and private schools offer the option to complete an additional year after grade 12,
sometimes known as grade 13 or "post-matric". The South African governmental school system does not
have a grade 13, but it forms part of non-South African curriculums that are sometimes followed by
private schools in South Africa.
The DBE's Foundation Phase includes a pre-school grade known as grade R, for "reception". Grade R is
not compulsory, and not all primary schools offer grade R. Grade R may also be attended at a pre-school
facility. Other grades that can be completed at a pre-school centre include grade 0, grade 00 and grade
000. There is some confusion as to whether grade 0 and grade R is the same thing, as different schools
use the terminology differently.
Learner ratios
According to the DBE's 2010 statistics report (published in 2012), on average there are 30 learners per
teacher, 475 learners per school, and 16 teachers per school. The ratio of learners per teacher is roughly
the same in all provinces, but the ratio of learners per school varies per province. For example, in
Gauteng there are 800 learners per school and 28 teachers per school, whereas in the Eastern Cape
there 350 learners per school and 12 teachers per school.
School income and expenses
Schools in South Africa receive a grant from government for their operational costs, such as maintaining
the grounds, administrative costs, salaries, books and educational materials, and extra-mural activities.
Most schools supplement the government grant with other streams of income, such as school fees paid
by parents, fundraising events, and receiving donations.
Generally, higher school fees prevent poorer children from attending affluent schools. There is no limit to
the amount of the fees that a school may set. Parents may apply to the school for full or partial reduction
of school fees, and many affluent schools do provide financial assistance to a small number of learners
(for example, if the parents are alumni), but it is not a legal requirement
Children at South African schools are usually required to wear school uniforms, which can be expensive
and are not provided for free, although it is often possible to buy them second-hand. Most schools offer
extra mural activities such as a variety of sports and cultural activities, which requires money to maintain.
Many schools maintain their own sports fields as well.
The size of the grant paid by government is determined largely by the poverty level of the neighbourhood
in which the school is situated, as well as unemployment rate and general education rate of the
population in that neighbourhood. Consequently, schools in more affluent areas have to raise more
money from other sources to maintain the same standard of education, but schools from affluent areas
often have so much additional income that their standard of education is much higher than that of less
affluent schools anyway.
The size of the government grant per child depends on the "quintille" of the school. In 2009, schools in
quintille 1 (the poorest) and quintille 2 received R807 and R740 per child per year, respectively, where as
schools in quintille 4 and quintille 5 (the richest) received R404 and R134 per child per year. Schools in
quintille 1-3 may apply for classification as a "No Fee" school. 5% of all schools are quintille 5 schools,
and 15% of all schools are quintille 4 schools.
Sample school fees
Schools are not required to publish their school fees publicly and many schools are secretive about it, but
here are some examples of school fees in non-private schools in South Africa:
Settler's High, Bellville: R15200 per child per year
Monument Park High, Constantia: R9000 per child per year
Poverty and school fees
Schools may not refuse admission to children who live in the immediate vicinity of the school. Schools
may not refuse entry to children or refuse to hand over report cards even if their parents neglect to pay
the school fees, but schools are permitted to sue parents for non-payment of school fees.
Since 1996, children whose parents are very poor are legally exempt from some or all school fees. Since
1998, the formula is as follows: If the combined annual income of the parents is less than ten times the
annual school fee, the child is legally exempt from paying school fees. If the income is more than ten
times the school fee but less than thirty times the school fee, the child is legally entitled to a specific
reduction in school fees. In practice, these regulations help only very poor families, and not worker-class
and middle-income families.
Orphans and children of parents who receive poverty-linked social grants are also exempt from paying
school fees.
Since 2006 the Education department offers the following incentive to the poorest 40% of schools: if the
school charges no school fees, the education department increases the grant to make up for the lack of
income from school fees. It was originally planned to increase this incentive to the poorest 60% of schools
by 2009. The incentive only applies to children in the GED band, and children who wish to complete
grade 10-12 must still pay the full fee.
In 2008, some 5 million learners in 14 264 schools benefited from the No Fee school programme, and
most of those learners were in the Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal and Limpopo provinces. Not all schools
who qualify for this incentive make use of it.
Private schools
Private schools, also known as independent schools, are schools that are not owned by the state. They
are usually owned and operated by a trust, church or community, or by a for-profit company. Not all
private schools in South Africa charge high school fees. Certain private schools also receive a grant from
the state, depending on the community served and fees charged.
Higher Education and Training System
For university entrance, a "Matriculation Endorsement" is required, although some universities do set their
own additional academic requirements. South Africa has a vibrant higher sector, with more than a million
students enrolled in the countrys universities, colleges and universities of technology. All the universities
are autonomous, reporting to their own councils rather than government.
Restructuring of universities and technikons
The Extension of Universities Act of 1959 made provision for separate universities for separate races. In
addition, the independent homelands were given universities of their own. After the re-incorporation of the
independent homelands, there were 36 universities and technikons in South Africa, often in close
proximity and offering the same courses.
In 1994, the government embarked on a restructure of the universities and technikons by a series of
mergers and incorporations. This was completed by January 2005. It created 22 new institutions from the
previous 36. Ten of the universities got new names.
History
1806 to 1900
The earliest European schools in South Africa were established in the Cape Colony in the late
seventeenth century by Dutch Reformed Church elders committed to biblical instruction, which was
necessary for church confirmation. In rural areas, itinerant teachers (meesters) taught basic literacy and
math skills. British mission schools proliferated after 1799, when the first members of theLondon
Missionary Society arrived in the Cape Colony.
[18]

Language soon became a sensitive issue in education. At least two dozen English-language schools
operated in rural areas of the Cape Colony by 1827, but their presence rankled among devout Afrikaners,
who considered the English language and curriculum irrelevant to rural life and Afrikaner values.
Throughout the nineteenth century, Afrikaners resisted government policies aimed at the spread of the
English language and British values, and many educated their children at home or in the churches.
After British colonial officials began encouraging families to emigrate from Britain to the Cape Colony in
1820, the Colonial Office screened applicants for immigration for background qualifications. They
selected educated families, for the most part, to establish a British presence in the Cape Colony, and
after their arrival, these parents placed a high priority on education. Throughout this time, most religious
schools in the eastern Cape accepted Xhosa children who applied for admission, and in Natal many
other Nguni-speaking groups sent their children to mission schools after the mid-nineteenth century. The
government also financed teacher training classes for Africans as part of its pacification campaign
throughout the nineteenth century.
By 1877 some 60 percent of school-age children in Natal were enrolled in school, as were 49 percent in
the Cape Colony. After the Boer War (ended 1902) in the former Afrikaner republics, however,
enrolments remained lowonly 12 percent in the Orange Free State and 8 percent in the Transvaal
primarily the result of Afrikaner resistance to British education. Enrolments in these republics increased
after the government of the Union agreed to the use of Afrikaans in the schools and to allow Afrikaner
parents greater control over primary and secondary education.
By the late nineteenth century, three types of schools were receiving government assistanceward
schools, or small rural schools generally employing one teacher; district schools, providing primary-level
education to several towns in an area; and a few secondary schools in larger cities. But during the last
decades of that century, all four provinces virtually abolished African enrolment in government schools.
African children attended mission schools, for the most part, and were taught by clergy or by lay teachers,
sometimes with government assistance.
Higher education was generally reserved for those who could travel to Europe, but in 1829 the
government established the multiracial South African College, which later became the University of Cape
Town. Religious seminaries accepted a few African applicants as early as 1841. In 1852 the independent
state of Transvaal and in 1854 the Orange Free State established their own institutions of higher learning
in Dutch. The government established Grey Collegelater the University of the Orange Free State
in Bloemfontein in 1855 and placed it under the supervision of the Dutch Reformed Church. The Grey
Institute was established in Port Elizabeth in 1856; Graaff-Reinet College was founded in 1860. The
Christian College was founded at Potchefstroom in 1869 and was later incorporated into the University of
South Africa and renamed Potchefstroom University for Christian Higher Education.
1900 to 1948
Following the British victory in the South African War, the British High Commissioner for Southern
Africa, Sir Alfred Milner, brought thousands of teachers from Britain, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand
to instil the English language and British cultural values, especially in the two former Afrikaner republics.
To counter the British influence, a group of Afrikaner churches proposed an education program, Christian
National Education, to serve as the core of the school curriculum. The government initially refused to fund
schools adopting this program, but Jan C. Smuts, the Transvaal leader who later became prime minister,
was strongly committed to reconciliation between Afrikaners and English speakers, and he favoured local
control over many aspects of education. Provincial autonomy in education was strengthened in the early
twentieth century, and all four provincial governments used government funds primarily to educate whites.
The National Party (NP) was able to capitalise on the fear of racial integration in the schools to build its
support. The NP's narrow election victory in 1948 gave Afrikaans new standing in the schools, and after
that, all high-school graduates were required to be proficient in both Afrikaans and English. The NP
government also reintroduced Christian National Education as the guiding philosophy of education.
[18]

1948 to 1974
Prior to 1953, many black people attended schools set up by religions organisations. These schools
provided schooling of the same quality that white children received in state schools. Following the Bantu
Education Act (No. 47) of 1953 the government tightened its control over religious high schools by
eliminating almost all financial aid, forcing many churches to sell their schools to the government or close
them entirely.
The South African government implemented an educational system called Christian National Education
(CNE). The basis of this system is that a person's social responsibilities and political opportunities are
defined by that person's ethnic identity.
Although CNE advanced principles of racial inferiority, it also promoted teaching of cultural diversity and
enforced mother-tongue instruction in the first years of primary school. The government also gave strong
management control to the school boards, who were elected by the parents in each district.
In 1959, the Extension of University Education Act prohibited established universities from accepting most
black students, although government did create universities for black, coloured, and Indian students.
The number of schools for blacks increased during the 1960s, but their curriculum was designed to
prepare children for menial jobs. Per-capita government spending on black education slipped to one-tenth
of spending on whites in the 1970s. Black schools had inferior facilities, teachers, and textbooks.
1974 to 1983
In 1974, the Minister of Bantu Education and Development issued a degree commonly known as the
"Afrikaans medium decree" in which the use of both English and Afrikaans was made compulsory in black
secondary schools. In terms of this decree, physical science and practical subjects would be taught in
English, mathematics and social science subjects would be taught in Afrikaans, and music and cultural
subjects would be taught in the learner's native language. The Minister said that the reason for this
decree was to ensure that black people can communicate effectively with both English and Afrikaans
speaking white people.
This decree was unpopular with learners and teachers alike, particularly in towns like
the Johannesburg township of Soweto, where practically no-one spoke Afrikaans. Tensions over
language in education erupted into violence on 16 June 1976, when students took to the streets in
Soweto and eventually in other towns and cities in the country. The schools suffered further damage as
vandals damaged or destroyed school property. Students who tried to attend school and their teachers
were attacked, and school staff found it increasingly difficult to maintain normal school activities.
1984 to 1990
The National Policy for General Affairs Act (No. 76) of 1984 provided some improvements in black
education but maintained the overall separation called for by the Bantu education system.
The Department of Education and Training was responsible for black education outside the homelands.
Each of the three houses of parliamentfor whites, coloureds, and Indianshad an education
department for one racial group, and each of the ten homelands had its own education department. In
addition, several other government departments managed specific aspects of education.
Education was compulsory for all racial groups, but at different ages, and the law was enforced
differently. Whites were required to attend school between the ages of seven and sixteen. Black children
were required to attend school from age seven until the equivalent of seventh grade or the age of sixteen,
but this law was enforced only weakly, and not at all in areas where schools were unavailable. For Asians
and coloured children, education was compulsory between the ages of seven and fifteen.
Teacher: pupil ratios in primary schools averaged 1:18 in white schools, 1:24 in Asian schools, 1:27 in
coloured schools, and 1:39 in black schools. Moreover, whereas 96 percent of all teachers in white
schools had teaching certificates, only 15 percent of teachers in black schools were certified. Secondary-
school pass rates for black pupils in the nationwide, standardised high-school graduation exams were
less than one-half the pass rate for whites.
1990 to 1993
The White education system was restructured, in anticipation of democracy, by the apartheid
government. From the beginning of 1991, white schools were required to select one of four "Models"
"Model A", "Model B", "Model C", or "Model D". "Model C", was a semi-private structure, with decreased
funding from the state, and greatly increased autonomy for schools. Although most white schools opted
for the status quo, by 1993, due to government policy, 96% of white public schools became "Model C"
schools.
Although the form of "Model C" was abolished by the post-apartheid government, the term is still
commonly used to describe former whites-only government schools, as of 2013
1994 to 1997
Under Apartheid South Africa, there were multiple education departments that followed different curricula,
and offered different standards of learning quality. This included nation-wide departments for coloured
people, for Indians and for black people, a department for independent schools, and provincial
departments for white people in each of the former four provinces, as well as Bantustaneducation
departments.
In terms of the 1993 and 1996 constitutions, the Mandela government restructured these departments as
well as tertiary education departments, splitting responsibilities between nine newly formed provincial
education departments and a single national education department. It also set about reforming the
educational system by first removing all racially offensive and outdated content and then introducing
continuous assessment into schools.
The South African Schools Act, 1996 was promulgated to "provide for a uniform system for the
organisation, governance and funding of schools".
1997 to 2005
In 1997 the government launched its new educational system called Curriculum 2005, which would be
based on "outcomes based education" (OBE). By 2006 it was clear that OBE as a social experiment had
failed, and it was quietly shelved.
2006 until now[
Prior to 2009, schools taught English only from grade 3 (and all subjects are taught in English from grade
4), and since 2009, schools teach English from grade 1 (and all subjects are taught in English from grade
External links
The Specialist Schools and Academies Trust in South Africa
National Department of Education
Education in South Africa at SouthAfrica.info
Education in South Africa from the Southern and Eastern Africa Consortium for Monitoring
Educational Quality
http://www-sul.stanford.edu
http://www.education.gov.za
SA's human development index is rising 2 February 2011
A document in the public domain
Tertiary Education Options in South Africa