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9.1

The Sun is a 1,390,000 km in diameter.

The temperature of the surface is 5000 C and the center core
at 15,600,000 C.

The energy released from the fusion reactions near the Sun's
core is in the form of very high frequency electromagnetic
waves called gamma rays.


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The core is the center of the thermonuclear fusion reactions
which power the sun. The matter in the core consists of
plasma at temperatures of about 15,000,000 K. The density of
the core is about 160,000 kg/m^3. If we could see the core, it
would be 10^13 times brighter than the surface we now see.
The radiative zone surrounds the core. It helps to maintain the
high temperatures needed to sustain the nuclear fusion. The
nuclei in it absorbed the gamma protons produced in cores
fusion.
The convective zone surrounds the radiative zone and is the
outermost layer of the interior. It is cooler and less dense than
the radiative zone. It derives its name from the convection
processes which bring the heat to the surface of the sun.



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The photosphere produces the visible light we see and
generally considered to be the surface of the sun. It is one of
the coolest layers of the sun at a meager 6000 K, and it has a
density of about 10^-6 kg/m^3. Large magnetic disturbances
sometimes break through the photosphere and cause
sunspots, which are cooler, darker regions.
The chromosphere is considered to be part of the solar
atmosphere, along with the photosphere. It takes its name
from the red light it shines, though this light is much dimmer
than that of the photosphere. At 4300 K, it is cooler than the
photosphere at its base, but it can get up to 50,000 K in its
outer reaches. It causes various events, such as filaments,
plage, spicules, and flares
The corona is the outermost layer of the sun. It is divided
into the inner corona and the outer corona. The inner
corona is a wispy halo surrounding the sun. It cannot be
seen except during a total solar eclipse. The outer corona
is the outermost atmosphere of the sun, and it includes
much of the solar system.




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Sunspot

Sunspots are temporary phenomena on the photosphere of
the Sun that appear visibly as dark spots compared to
surrounding regions. They are caused by intense magnetic
activity, which inhibits convection by an effect comparable to
the eddy current brake, forming areas of reduced surface
temperature. They usually appear as pairs, with each sunspot
having the opposite magnetic pole to the other.






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Prominences

A prominence is a large, bright, gaseous feature extending
outward from the Sun's surface, often in a loop shape.
Prominences are anchored to the Sun's surface in the
photosphere, and extend outwards into the Sun's corona.
While the corona consists of extremely hot ionized gases,
known as plasma, which do not emit much visible light,
prominences contain much cooler plasma, similar in
composition to that of the chromosphere.
The prominence plasma is typically a hundred times cooler
and denser than the coronal plasma. Prominence may persist
in the corona for several weeks or months. Some
prominences break apart and may then give rise to coronal
mass ejections. Scientists are currently researching how and
why prominences are formed.



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Solar Wind

The solar wind is a stream of fun (a plasma) released from the
upper atmosphere of the Sun. It mostly consists of electrons
and protons with energies usually between 1.5 and 10 keV.
These particles can escape the Sun's gravity because of their
high kinetic energy and the high temperature of the corona.

The solar wind flows outward supersonically to great
distances, filling a region known as the heliosphere, an
enormous bubble-like volume surrounded by the interstellar
medium. Other related phenomena include geomagnetic
storms that can knock out power grids on Earth, the aurora
(northern and southern lights), and the plasma tails of comets
that always point away from the Sun.




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Solar Flare

A solar flare is a sudden brightening observed over the Sun's
surface or the solar limb, which is interpreted as a large
energy release of up to 6 1025 joules of energy (about a
sixth of the total energy output of the Sun each second or
160,000,000,000 megatons of TNT equivalent, over 25,000
times more energy than released from the impact of Comet
ShoemakerLevy 9 with Jupiter).

They are often, but not always, followed by a colossal coronal
mass ejection also known as a CME.[1] The flare ejects clouds
of electrons, ions, and atoms through the corona of the sun
into space. These clouds typically reach Earth a day or two
after the event.[2] The term is also used to refer to similar
phenomena in other stars, where the term stellar flare applies.



Solar Flare

Size of earth

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Aurora


An aurora (plural: auroras or aurorae; from the Latin word
aurora, "sunrise" is a natural light display in the sky
particularly in the high latitude (Arctic and Antarctic) regions,
caused by the collision of energetic charged particles with
atoms in the high altitude atmosphere (thermosphere).

The charged particles originate in the magnetosphere and
solar wind and, on Earth, are directed by the Earth's magnetic
field into the atmosphere. Most auroras occur in a band
known as the auroral zone, which is typically 3 to 6 wide in
latitude and observed at 10 to 20 from the geomagnetic
poles at all local times (or longitudes). During a geomagnetic
storm, the auroral zone expands to lower latitudes.


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Generation of solar energy

Solar Energy Generating Systems (SEGS) in California, with the
combined capacity from three separate locations at 354 megawatts
(MW, 474,700 hp), is the largest solar thermal energy generating
facility in the world. It consists of nine solar power plants in
California's Mojave Desert, where insolation is among the best
available in the United States. SEGS III (44 MW) are located at
Daggett (345145N 1164945W), SEGS IIIVII (150 MW) are
installed at Kramer Junction, and SEGS VIIIIX (160 MW) are placed
at Harper Lake (3502N 11721W). Next Era Energy Resources
operates and partially owns the plants located at Kramer Junction
and Harper Lake.



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9.2
Definition of a star
Star is a fixed luminous point in the night sky which is a large,
remote incandescent body like the sun.
True stars were formerly known as the fixed stars, to distinguish
them from the planets or wandering stars. They are gaseous
spheres consisting primarily of hydrogen and helium, there being
an equilibrium between the compressional force of gravity and the
outward pressure of radiation resulting from internal
thermonuclear fusion reactions. Some six thousand stars are visible
to the naked eye, but there are actually more than a hundred
thousand million in our own Galaxy, while billions of other galaxies
are known.




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Various types of star

Protostar

T Tauri Star

Main Sequence Star

Red Giant Star

White Dwarf Star

Red Dwarf Stars

Neutron Stars

Supergiant Stars







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Formation of star



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Death of Stars

Stars expand as they grow old. As their core runs out of hydrogen
and then helium, the core contacts and the outer layers expand,
cool, and become less bright. This is a red giant or a red super giant
(depending on the initial mass of the star). It will eventually
collapse and explode. A star's life span and eventual fate are
determined by the original mass of the star.
Life span:
The most massive stars have the shortest lives. Stars that are 25 to
50 times that of the Sun live for only a few million years. They die
so quickly because they burn massive amounts of nuclear fuel.





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Galaxies
Other galaxies have elliptical shapes, and a few have
unusual shapes like toothpicks or rings. The Hubble Ultra
Deep Field(HUDF) shows this diversity. Hubble observed a
tiny patch of sky (one-tenth the diameter of the moon) for
one million seconds (11.6 days) and found approximately
10,000 galaxies, of all sizes, shapes, and colors. From the
ground, we see very little in this spot, which is in the
constellation


The Milky Way
Our galaxy, the Milky Way, is typical: it has hundreds of
billions of stars, enough gas and dust to make billions more
stars, and at least ten times as much dark matter as all the
stars and gas put together. And its all held together by gravity.
Like more than two-thirds of the known galaxies, the Milky
Way has a spiral shape. At the center of the spiral, a lot of
energy and, occasionally, vivid flares. are being generated.




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9.2
As we know, the universe is a gift from our Merciful God, Allah
S.W.T. He created creatures such as Sun, stars, planets including
the Earth, galaxies and all things in the universe for us to use
them in the right way besides taking the benefits in our
everyday life. Without all of the creatures, how can human
survive? We cant even live in the world. Thats why, Allah S.W.T
had all of this since . he is The Most . Allah has tell us about the
universe in The Holy Al-Quran, surah Al-Mulk verse 6, And
indeed, we have beautified the nearest heaven (the earth) with
the stars and we make it (the stars) as stoning the devil tools
and we provide for them the torment of the blazing Fire. So, as
human, we should appreciate and take care about the nature of
the universe as He want us to do.


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10.1Development In The Field Of Astronomy And
Space Exploration
-Development in astronomy
Early astronomers

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Modern astronomers

Sir Isaac Newton(1643-1727)
Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth,
Lincolnshire,England
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543
Thorn, Poland

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Contributions of astronomers
Nancy Grace Roman


Dr. Elezabeth Roemer


Dr. Heidi Hammel



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Charles Messier -create one of the most famous catalogues of
deep sky objects including nebulae and galaxies.
- successful in discovering thirteen comets.
Ptolemy -He Preserved the Greek astronomer Hipparchus star
catalogue, which he included in his astronomical magnum opus,
Amalgest. He also included in his work a set of tables (known
almost comically as the Handy Tables), which made it much
easier to calculate the positions of the planets, the sun and the
moon, the rising and setting of the stars, and the dates of lunar
and solar eclipses.
Copernicus- He is credited as the first astronomer to put
forward a comprehensive heliocentric version of the solar
system.
-The idea that the Earth revolved around the sun
went directly against the teachings of the church. For his
courageous introduction of the true nature of the solar system
to European scholars he is remembered as a monument to the
truth in a society largely unwilling to accept it.


-Development in space exploration
Space Exploration

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Space exploration is the ongoing discovery and exploration
of celestial structures in outer space by means of continuously
evolving and growing space technology. While the study of
space is carried out mainly by astronomers with telescopes, the
physical exploration of space is conducted both by
unmanned robotic probes and human spaceflight.








Rockets

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Spacecraft

Artificial satellites
A rocket is a missile, spacecraft, aircraft or
other vehicle that obtains thrust from a rocket
engine. Rocket engine. Rocket engines push
rockets forward simply by throwing their
exhaust backwards extrexhaust is formed
entirely frompropellants carried within the
rocket before use.
[1]
Rocket engines work
by action and reactionemely fast.

A spacecraft (or spaceship) is a vehicle,
vessel or machine designed to fly in outer
space. Spacecraft are used for a variety of
purposes, including communications,
earth observation, meteorology,
navigation, planetary exploration and
transportation of humans and cargo.



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A satellite is an object that orbits another object. In space,
satellites may be made by man, or they may be natural.
The moon is a natural satellite that orbits the Earth. Most man-
made satellites also orbit the Earth, but some orbit other
planets, such as Saturn, Venus or Mars, or the moon.





Satellites

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Space probes

Space station
In the context of spaceflight, a
satellite is an artificial object
which has been intentionally
placed into orbit. Such objects
are sometimes called artificial
satellites to distinguish them
from natural satellites such as
the Moon.
A space probe is a unmanned
spacecraft that leaves Earth orbit
and explores space. It may
approach the Moon; enter
interplanetary space; flyby, orbit
or land on other planetary
bodies; or approach interstellar
space. Space probes are a form of
robotic spacecraft.

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Space shuttle

Space telescope
A space station (or orbital station)
is a spacecraft capable of
supporting a crew, which is
designed to remain in space (most
commonly in low Earth orbit) for
an extended period of time and for
other spacecraft to dock.
The Space Shuttle was a crewed, partially
reusable low Earth orbital spacecraft
operated by the U.S. National Aeronautics
and Space Administration (NASA). Its
official program name was Space
Transportation System, taken from a 1969
plan for a system of reusable spacecraft
of which it was the only item funded for
development.

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The Hubble Space Telescope (HST) is a space telescope that was
carried into orbit by a Space Shuttle in 1990 and remains in
operation.
[7]
A 2.4-meter (7.9 ft) aperture telescope in low Earth
orbit, Hubble's four main instruments observe in the near
ultraviolet, visible, and near infrared spectra. The telescope is
named after the astronomer Edwin Hubble.
Hubble's orbit outside the distortion of Earth's atmosphere allows
it to take extremely high-resolution images with almost
no backgroundlight. Hubble's Deep Field has recorded some of the
most detailed visible-light images ever, allowing a deep view into
space and time. Many Hubble observations have led to
breakthroughs in astrophysics, such as accurately determining the
rate of expansion of the universe.








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-Application of technology related to space exploration and astronomy
Communication satellites

A communications satellite or comsat is an artificial satellite sent
to space for the purpose of telecommunications. Modern
communications satellites use a variety of orbits
including geostationary orbits, Molniya orbits, elliptical orbits and
low (polar and non-polar) Earth orbits.
For fixed (point-to-point) services, communications satellites
provide a microwave radio relay technology complementary to that
of communication cables. They are also used for mobile
applications such as communications to ships, vehicles, planes and
hand-held terminals, and for TV and radiobroadcasting.


Navigation satellites

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Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS)
IRNSS is an independent regional navigation satellite system
being developed by India. It is designed to provide accurate
position information service to users in India as well as the
region extending up to 1500 km from its boundary, which is its
primary service area. IRNSS will provide two types of services,
namely, Standard Positioning Service (SPS) and Restricted
Service (RS) and is expected to provide a position accuracy of
better than 20 m in the primary service area.





Military satellites

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A military satellite is an artificial satellite used for
a military purpose. The most common missions
are intelligence gathering, navigation and military
communications. The first military satellites were photographic
reconnaissance missions. Some attempts were made to develop
satellite based weapons but this work was halted in 1967
following the ratification of international treaties banning the
deployment of weapons of mass destruction in orbit. As of 2013,
there are 950 satellites of all types in Earth orbit. It is not
possible to identify the exact number of these that are military
satellites partly due to secrecy and partly due to dual purpose
missions such as GPS satellites that serve both civilian and
military purposes.


Weather satellites

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The weather satellite is a type of satellite that is primarily used to
monitor the weather and climate of the Earth. Satellites can
be polar orbiting, covering the entire Earth asynchronously,
or geostationary, hovering over the same spot on the equator.
Meteorological satellites see more than clouds and cloud systems.
City lights, fires, effects of pollution, auroras, sand and dust storms,
snow cover, ice mapping, boundaries of ocean currents, energy
flows, etc., and other types of environmental information are
collected using weather satellites. Weather satellite images helped
in monitoring the volcanic ash cloud from Mount St. Helens and
activity from other volcanoes such as Mount Etna. Smoke
from fires in the western United States such as Colorado and Utah
have also been monitored.




Environmental satellites

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The Geostationary Satellite system (GOES), operated by the United
States National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information
Service (NESDIS), supports weather forecasting, severe storm
tracking, and meteorology research. Spacecraft and ground-based
elements of the system work together to provide a continuous
stream of environmental data. The National Weather Service (NWS)
uses the GOES system for its United States weather monitoring and
forecasting operations, and scientific researchers use the data to
better understand land, atmosphere, ocean, and climate
interactions.
The GOES system uses geosynchronous satellites whichsince the
launch of SMS-1 in 1974have been a basic element of U.S.
weather monitoring and forecasting.



Remote sensing

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Remote sensing is the acquisition of information about an
object or phenomenon without making physical contact with
the object and thus in contrast to in observation.
Reflected sunlight is the most common source of radiation
measured by passive sensors. Examples of passive remote
sensors include film photography, infra-red, charge-coupled
devices, and radiometers. Active collection, on the other hand,
emits energy in order to scan objects and areas whereupon a

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sensor then detects and measures the radiation that is reflected
or backscattered from the target. RADAR and LiDAR are
examples of active remote sensing where the time delay
between emission and return is measured, establishing the
location, speed and direction of an object (sunlight) when
information is merely recorded.

















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