Introduction to Computers

Computer
A Computer is an automatic electronic, calculating device which can process a given input in a
prescribed manner to produce a desired output, at a very high speed with remarkable accuracy. It
can also perform all arithmetic and logical functions according to instructions given in a
systematic order to solve any problem and produce processed information.
Advantages of Computers
Speed
Since Computer is an electronic machine and electrical pulses travel at the rate of passage of
electric current. This speed enables the computer to perform millions of calculations per second.
Storage
A computer has too much storage capacity. Once recorded, a piece of information can never be
forgotten.
High Accuracy
A computer can be considered as !!" accurate. Checking circuits are built directly into the
computer, that computer errors that undetected are e#tremely rare.
Versatility
Computer can perform any task, provided it can be reduced to a series of logical steps.
Diligence
Computer never gets tired. It performs most boring, repetitive and monotnous task.
Automatic Operation
Once a program is fed into computer the individual instructions are processed on after the other.
Thus computer works automatically without manual intervention.
Obedience
The ability to take in and store a se$uence of instructions for the computer to obey. Such a
se$uence of instruction is called a %&O'&A( and it must be written in the Computer )anguage.
Decision Making Capability
Computer can take simple decisions, such as less than, greater than or e$ual to. It also determines
whether a statement is true or false.
Hardware
The physical components and other attached input and output devices of computers are called
*ardware. All *ardware components may be connected mechanically, electrically or
electronically with each other. *ardware includes input+output devices, C%,, backing storage
devices and electronic circuit.
Software
Computer re$uired a number of instructions to do any -ob. The set of these instructions forms
programs. .umbers of programs are combined for some purposes are called software.
They are designed by manufactures and programmers.
Types of Softare
. System Software
/. Application Software
Ages of Computer
At the early age people used pebbles, stones, sticks, scratches, symbols and finger tips to count,
which were later replaced by numbers.
The history of computing is divided into three ages during which man invented and improved
different types of calculating machines. These ages are,
0ark age 1 2!! 3C to 45!
(iddle age 1 45! A0 to 566
(odern age 1 since 566 A0
Dark Age (3000 BC to 1890 AD
A!AC"S
About 2!!! years 3C, Chinese developed the first calculating machine named Abacus or
Soroban.
Abacus consists of a rectangular wooden frame having rods which carry round beads. Counting
is done by shifting the beads from one side to another.
O"#HT$%D&S S'(D% $"'%S
In 72/ A0 8illiam Oughtred, an 9nglish mathematician developed a slide rule. This device
consists of two movable rules placed side by side on which number were marked.
)ASCA'&S CA'C"'ATO$
3las: %ascal ;7/2<77/=, a >rench developed the first mechanical calculating machine in 76/.
This machine consists of gears, wheels and dials. It was capable of adding and subtracting
operations.
#OTT%*$(%D +('HO'M '%(!,(T-
In 7?, a 'erman, 'ottfried @on )eibnitA ;767<?7= improved %ascalBs calculator to make it
capable of performing all maths operations.
.AC/"A$D&S 'OOM
In 4!, a >rench, Coseph (arie Cac$uard developed the first punch card machine.
!A!!A#% D(**%$%,C% %,#(,%
Charles 3abbage ;?5/<4?= an 9nglish mathematician also called >ather of modern computer.
As he gave the true concept of computer at Cambridge ,niversity, he developed 3abbage
0ifference 9ngine in 4/2 and 3abbage Analytical 9ngine in 422.
)ady Ada Augusta an assistant of 3abbage is called the first programmer.
Middle Age (1890 AD T 19!! AD"
DOCTO$ H%$MA, HO''%$(TH
In 44!s *erman *ollerith an American developed a machine which used punch card system.
The machine could sense and punch holes, recogniAe the number and make re$uired calculations.
This machine was first used in 45!s by American Census 3ureau.
HO+A$D A(0%,1 MA$012 COM)"T%$
In 52?, %rofessor *oward Aiken build the first electro<mechanical computer (ark<, by trying
to combine 3abbageBs theory and *ollerithBs punching technologies. *e completed his pro-ect in
566 with the help of I3( 9ngineers.
(ark could multiply two, twenty digit numbers in D seconds and made a lot of noise. It had a
shape like a monster about D! feet long, 4 feet high, having wiring of length e$ual to distance
from )ahore to 'ilgit or Earachi to 3ahawalpur ;4!!km= and had thousand ends of electro<
magnetic relays.
A!C 3ATA,ASO** !%$$4 COM)"T%$5
A3C a special purpose computer was developed in 524 by 0r. Cohn @incent Atanasoff and
Clifford 3erry at Iowa State College, ,SA.
Moder# Ages (Si#$e 19!! AD"
.OH, VO, ,%"MA,
In 56D, 0r. Cohn @on .euman suggested the concept of Automatic 0ata %rocessing ;A0%=
according to the stored program and data. 9.IAC
3*($ST %'%CT$O,(C COM)"T%$5
9lectronic .umerical Integrator And Calculator ;9.IAC= was the first electronic computer made
in 567 by Cohn %resper 9ckert and Cohn 8illiams (auchly, at the ,niversity of %ennsylvania,
,SA. This was based on decimal number system and it has no memory.
It could perform D!!! additions or 2D! multiplications in one second. It contained 4!!! vacuum
tubes, ?!,!!! resistors, !,!!! capacitors and 7!,!!! switches and occupied a two room car
garage. It consumed D! k8 of power. It weighed /? tons.
%DSAC 3*($ST STO$%D )$O#$AM COM)"T%$5
9lectronic 0elay Storage Automatic Computer ;90SAC= was first computer based on stored
program concept. It was completed by (ourice 8ilkes at Cambridge ,niversity in 565.
%DVAC
9lectronic 0iscrete @ariable Automatic Computer ;90@AC= was built by Cohn 8illiams
(auchly, Cohn %resper 9ckert at (oore School, %ennsylvania in 5D.
",(VAC 3*($ST COMM%$C(A' COM)"T%$5
,.I@ersal Automatic Computer ;,.I@AC= was the first commercially used computer made by
Cohn %resper 9ckert and Cohn 8illiams (auchly in Cune 6, 5D.
Classifi$atio# of Computers A$$ordi#g to %urpose
26 #eneral )urpose Computers
'eneral purpose computers are designed to solve a large variety of problems. The different
programs can be used to solve many problems. (ost digital computers are general purpose
computers and used in business and commercial data processing.
76 Special )urpose Computers
A computer designed for machine control or process control would be different than a general
purpose computer. The special purpose computers are designed to solve specific problems. The
computer program for solving a specific problem is built right into the computer. (ost analog
computers are special purpose computers. These special purpose computers are widely used in
industrial robotics.
T&pes of Computers
26 Analog Computers
Analog computers are used to process continuous data. Analog computers represent variables by
physical $uantities. Thus any computer which solve problem by translating physical conditions
such as flow, temperature, pressure, angular position or voltage into related mechanical or
electrical related circuits as an analog for the physical phenomenon being investigated in general
it is a computer which uses an analog $uantity and produces analog values as output. Thus an
analog computer measures continuously. Analog computers are very much speedy. They produce
their results very fast. 3ut their results are appro#imately correct. All the analog computers are
special purpose computers.
76 Digital Computers
0igital computer represents physical $uantities with the help of digits or numbers. These
numbers are used to perform Arithmetic calculations and also make logical decision to reach a
conclusion, depending on, the data they receive from the user.
86 Hybrid Computers
@arious specifically designed computers are with both digital and analog characteristics
combining the advantages of analog and digital computers when working as a system. *ybrid
computers are being used e#tensively in process control system where it is necessary to have a
close representation with the physical world.
The hybrid system provides the good precision that can be attained with analog computers and
the greater control that is possible with digital computers, plus the ability to accept the input data
in either form.
Classifi$atio# of Computers A$$ordi#g to Si'e
26 Super Computers
)arge scientific and research laboratories as well as the government organiAations have e#tra
ordinary demand for processing data which re$uired tremendous processing speed, memory and
other services which may not be provided with any other category to meet their needs. Therefore
very large computers used are called Super Computers. These computers are e#tremely
e#pensive and the speed is measured in billions of instructions per seconds.
76 Main *rame Computers
The most e#pensive, largest and the most $uickest or speedy computer are called mainframe
computers. These computers are used in large companies, factories, organiAations etc. the
mainframe computers are the most e#pensive computers, they cost more than /! million rupees.
In this computers D! users are able to work on one C.%.,. The mainframes are able to process
to 4 bits at a time. They have several hundreds of megabytes of primary storage and operate at a
speed measured in nano second.
3. Mini Computers
(ini computers are smaller than mainframes, both in siAe and other facilities such as speed,
storage capacity and other services. They are versatile that they can be fitted where ever they are
needed. Their speeds are rated between one and fifty million instructions per second ;(I%S=.
They have primary storage in hundred to three hundred megabytes range with direct access
storage device.
96 Micro Computers
These are the smallest range of computers. They were introduced in the early ?!Bs having less
storing space and processing speed. (icro computers of todays are e$uivalent to the mini
computers of yesterday in terms of performing and processing. They are also called Fcomputer of
a chipG because its entire circuitry is contained in one tiny chip. The micro computers have a
wide range of applications including uses as portable computer that can be plugged into any wall.
:6 'aptop Computers
The smallest computer in siAe has been developed. This type of small computers look like an
office brief case and called F)A%TO%G computer. The laptops are also termed as F%O&TA3)9
CO(%,T9&S.G 0ue to the small siAe and light weight, they become popular among the
computer users. The businessmen found laptop very useful, during traveling and when they are
far away frm their desktop computers. A typical laptop computer has all the facilities available in
microcomputer. The smallest laptops are called F%A)(TO%G.
(e#eratio#s of Computer
*irst #eneration of Computer 32;9<12;:;5
Main *eatures
(a-or Innovation 1 @acuum Tubes
(ain (emory 1 %unched Cards
Input Output 0evices 1 %unched cards and papers
)anguages 1 )ow level machine language
Operating System 1 .o operating system, human operators to set
switches
SiAe 1 (ain frame for e#ample 9.IAC, 90@AC, ,.I@AC
The duration lasted from 567<5D5 was based on vacuum tubes. These vacuum tubes were
about the siAe of !! watt light bulb and used as the internal computer component. *owever
because thousands of such bulbs were used, the computers were very large and generate a large
amount of heat, causing many problems in temperature regulation and climate control.
In this generation input and out put device ;punched card= that was used fro data storing purpose
were very slow. The computers were operating manually and the language used was a low level
machine language ;symbolic language= with binary code that re$uired a high programming skill.
9.IAC, 90@AC, ,.I@AC and (ark< were some of the ma-or inventions of this generation.
Advantages of *irst #eneration
. @acuum tubes were used as electronic component.
/. 9lectronic digital computers were developed for the first time.
2. These computers were the fastest calculating devices of their time.
6. Computations were performed in millisecond.
Disadvantages of *irst #eneration
. Too large in siAe.
/. They were unreliable.
2. Induce a large amount of heat due to the vacuum tubes.
D. .ot portable.
7. )imited commercial use.
Second #eneration of Computers 32;:;12;<95
Main *eatures
(a-or Innovation 1 Transistors as main component.
(ain (emory 1 &A( and &O(.
9#ternal Storage 1 (agnetic tapes and (agnetic 0isk.
Input Output 0evices 1 (agnetic tapes and (agnetic 0isk.
)anguages 1 Assembly language, some high level languages for 9#ample 3ASIC, CO3O),
>O&T&A..
Operating System 1 *uman handles punched card.
SiAe 1 (ain frame for e#ample I3(<6!, .C&<2!!, I3(<7!! etc.
The period of this generation is from 5D5 to 576. 0uring this period transistor were used for
internal logic circuits of computers. These computers could e#ecute /!!!!! instructions per
second. The input+output devices became much faster by the use of magnetic table. 0uring this
period the low level programing language were used however the high level programming
languages such as >O&T&A. and CO3O) were also used. The problem of heat maintenance
was solved and siAe of computer reduced, while speed and reliability were increased. (any
companies manufactured second generation computers and many of those for business
applications. The most popular second generation computer was I3(<6!, introduced in 57!,
while the following computers were used by many business organiAations. I3(<6!! series,
I3(<7!! series, ,.I@AC<III, .C&<2!! etc.
Advantages of Second #eneration
. Smaller in siAe as compares to st generation.
/. (uch more reliable.
2. )ess heat generated.
6. Computation was performing in micro second.
D. )ess hardware and maintenance problem.
7. Could be used for commercial use.
Disadvantages of Second #eneration
. @ery costly for commercial use.
/. It still re$uired fre$uent maintenance.
2. >re$uent cooling also re$uired.
Third #eneration of Computers 32;<:12;=>5
Main *eatures
(a-or Innovation 1 Integrated circuit ;ICs= as basic electronic component.
(ain (emory 1 %&O( and 0&A(.
9#ternal Storage 1 Improve disk ;>loppy 0isk=
Input and Output 0evices 1 Eeyboard for input, monitor for output.
)anguages 1 (ore high level languages.
Operating System 1 Complete operating systems were introduced.
SiAe 1 (ini, for e#ampleH I3( SIST9( + 27!, IC*<27!, *O.9I 89))<27 etc.
In this generation the integrated circuits ;IC= were used. Integrated circuits contain many
electronic components on a single chip. The disk oriented systems wee made at the end of this
generation. The siAe of computer became very small with better performance and reliability.
*igh level programming languages were e#tensively used. In 575 the first microprocessor chip
I.T9) 6!!6 was developed but it was used only in calculators. The faster input+output devices
made possible multi<processing and multi programming. 8here by a number of input terminals
could be run virtually at the same time on a single centrally located computer. The famous
computer were I3(<27!, I3(<2?!, ,.I@AC 5!!! series etc.
Advantages of Third #eneration
. Smaller in siAe as compared to second generation.
/. (ore reliable.
2. %ortable
6. )ess electricity consumption.
D. *eat generation was rare.
7. 'eneral purpose computer.
Disadvantages of Third #eneration
. Air conditioning was re$uired in many cases due to ICs.
/. @ery advance technology was re$uired to make the ICs.
*ourth #eneration of Computers 32;=212;?25
Main *eatures
(a-or Innovation 1 )SIC and @)SIC ;(icro %rocessor=
(ain (emory 1 9%&O( and S&A(.
9#ternal Storage 1 >loppy 0isk and *ard 0isk.
Input and Output 0evices 1 (onitor for output.
)anguages 1 )anguages and application softwares.
Operating System 1 (S<0OS and %C<0OS
SiAe 1 (icro computer e.g. I3(<%C, Apple (acintosh etc.
The Integrated circuits were more developed and called Small scale integration ;SSI=, after some
time the SSI were more developed and termed as )arge scale integration ;)SI=. There was a
great versatility of input+output devices. In 5?, a powerful microprocessor chip I.T9) 4!!4
was introduced. The first microprocessor which is used in personal computers ;%C= was I.T9)
4!4!. The 4 inch floppy disk was also introduced in 5?, while hard disk was introduced in
5?2. The D./D floppy disk was first time used in 5?4. The optical disk was developed in 54!.
>irst portable computer FOsborne IG was marketed in 54. I3(<2!22, I3(<2?!, I3( system
26, I3( system 27, Cray<I, C%+( etc were introduced in this generation.
Advantages of *ourth #eneration
. Smaller in siAe and much reliable.
/. .o cooling system re$uired in many cases.
2. (uch faster computation.
6. %ortable and cheap.
D. The heat generated was negligible.
7. Totally general purpose computer.
Disadvantages of *ourth #eneration
. @ery advanced technology was re$uired to fabricate to the ICs.
*ifth #eneration 32;?21Onard5
Main *eatures
(a-or Innovations 1 ,)SIC ;,ltra large scale integrated circuit=
(ain (emory 1 99%&O(, SI(( and 0I((.
9#ternal Storage 1 (odified magnetic and Optical disks.
Input+output 0evices 1 Eeyboard, %ointing 0evice, Scanner as input and (onitor as main
output.
)anguages 1 AI ;Artificial Intelligence= 9#pert systems.
Operating System 1 ',I based e.g. 8indows 5D, 8indows .T.
SiAe 1 @ery small in siAe e#ampleH )aptop, .ote book, 0igital 0iary, %alm top and %ocket %C.
This generation is started from 54 and still continued, new technologies are adopted to
fabricate IC chips, such as electron beam, J<rays or laser rays. The @ery )arge Scale Integration
;@)SI= was developed, so the computer became much smaller than ever before. .ew memory
storage device like bubble memory, optical or memory are being designed. the new computer
will be controlled by using human voice and will work by giving command in our own language.
>uture computer will in some way to be intelligent and capable of making decision.
Advantages of *ifth #eneration
. @ery large storage capacity.
/. )ong bit processor builds.
2. Artificial Intelligence )anguage developed.
S)ort *otes
26 Super Computer
These are the largest and fastest machines today where numerical computations are carried out
speeds of up to D! millions operation per second. Super computers are very sophisticated
machines designed to perform comple# calculations at fastest speeds. Super computers are used
to model very large dynamic systems, such as weather patterns national or global weather
forecasting, satellite tracking, cold<testing of atomic and nuclear weapon etc. Carry research and
Intel are well known producers of Super Computers.
76 Main *rames
A main frame originally meant the cabinet containing the central processor unit of a very large
computer. After mini computer became available, the word main<frame comes to refers to the
large computer itself.
(ainframes, the biggest and the most productive general purpose systems, that are made to
model large dynamic computing need of a big organiAations that serve hundreds of terminals all
at the same time. A terminal consists of a monitor and keyboard that allow a person to enter
information and retrieve it from the computer. These computers are the ultimate in
sophistication, fle#ibility and speed.
86 Mini1Computer
(ini computer are increasingly powerful and do almost any thing that large computers do, only
more slowly and at much lower cost than mainframes. This makes it ideal for small companies
where capacity and speed of operations in not highly critical. These computers are smaller than
mainframe and larger than micro computer in siAe. A mini computer is a multiprocessing system
having terminals attached to it and is capable of supporting 6 to /!! users simultaneously. 09C
@AJ and I3( AS+6!! are commonly used mini<computers.
96 Micro1Computer
(icro<Computers are computers that are powered by microprocessors. Sometimes they are
referred as SI.')9 C*I% %&OC9SSO& a SIST9(<O.<A<C*I%. (icro<computers or
personal computers are the smallest computers, designed to be used by individuals for writing,
illustrating, budgeting, playing games and communicating with other computers.
%rogrammi#g +a#guage
A programming language is a type of software. A program is a set of step by step instruction that
directs the computer to do the tasks you want it to do and produce the result you want. A set of
rules that provides a way of telling a computer when operations to perform is called a
%rogramming )anguage.
Ma$)i#e +a#guage (+ow +e,el +a#guage"
9very creation of this universe has its own language. )ike wise, computer has a language that is
called (achine )anguage ;machine level language= for instructing computer to perform specific
task. It is also called binary language because it is the language of !s and s, means every
instruction in (achine language consists of a series of !s and s ;binary code= that a computer
can understand and e#ecute directly. 9ach machine language statement corresponds to one
machine action. An operation that re$uires one machine language instruction in one computer
may re$uire several instructions in another computer. 9ach computer has its own uni$ue machine
language.
Assem-l& +a#guage
In assembly language, the statements are written in symbolic codes ;termed as mnemonics= that
are easier for human to read and write as compared to machine language. 9ach assembly
language statement corresponds to one machine language statement.
Advantages of Assembly 'anguage
. Operation codes of machine language are mnemonics, which are easy to remember.
/. An Assembly language program may be written easily as compared to machine language.
2. The memory addresses are used in machine language which is replaced by the variable names
in this language.
6. &evision of complete program is $uite easy.
D. The insertion and deletion of the instructions in the program are $uite easy.
Disadvantages of Assembly 'anguage
. As compared to machine language assembly language is less efficient.
/. An assembly language program cannot be e#ecuted on small siAe computers.
Hig) +e,el +a#guage
*igh level languages are closer to human languages than low<level language and include
statement like 'OTO and %&I.T which are regular words. ,nlike the assembly language, the
program of high level languages do not have to be written for a particular computer, but it can be
e#ecute on any machine that has a compiler for that language.
.#ter#et
Internet is the largest network of the world that connects computers located t different parts of
the world. The Internet has had a huge impact on society. The Internet provides information and
service, as well as the ability to communicate to people all around the world in a variety of ways.
These range from bulletin boards and chat rooms to voice conversations and video conferencing.
The Internet creates new ways for citiAens to communicate, congregate and share information. It
is obvious that the Internet has and will continue to change the way we live.
All in all, the Internet is affecting so many peopleBs lives in most welcome, e#citing and
challenging ways.
Advantages of (nternet
. It gives information about every field of life.
/. Iou may take advantages from encyclopedias and dictionaries with the help of Internet.
2. Iou my get information according to your need through Internet.
6. It gives a co<ordination with whole world and its interests.
D. It helps to e#change views with the person of same mental attitude.
7. Internet brings the world closer.
?. Current happening incident can be discovered by the use of Internet.
4. Any kind of topic related with politics, fashion, science etc can be discovered by use of
Internet.
Disadvantages of (nternet
. The student waste their precious hours on sitting on Internet without taking any positive and
constructive benefit.
/. (ost of the people using Internet to satisfy their negative desires.
2. Adult material is easily available through Internet which destroys the moral values of young
boys and girls.
6. Computer hacking is very common by the use of Internet some e#treme minded people can
digest the money through the use of credit cards of others.
D. The students waste their time in useless talking with each other.
7. Several hours on Internet without any purpose produce wrong effects on a person.
Compiler
A compiler is comple# system software that automatically converts a program written in some
high<level language into an e$uivalent low<level machine language. The compiler or the
language processor converts the entire program into machine code before e#ecution. A program
written by a programmer in a language other than machine language is called a Source %rogram.
The output from a compiler or an assembler, which consists of machine language instructions, is
called the Ob-ect %rogram.
.#terpreter
An interpreter is another type of translator that converts each statement of a program written in a
high level language into machine code and e#ecutes it before translating the ne#t statement of the
source program. It differs from a compiler that translates the entire source program into ob-ect
program without undergoing its e#ecution.
S)ort *otes
!AS(C @ !eginner&s All1)urpose Symbolic (nstruction Code5
Cohn Eemeny and Thomas EurtA developed 3ASIC in 576 for beginners. 3ASIC is a very
simple language to use and understand. It uses simple 9nglish words. 9ven a person with a little
knowledge of computer programming can learn it and utiliAe it for business and scientific
purpose. It is a powerful language that has grasped millions of users. The biggest problem with it
is that it has no standard version and different manufacturers modified it into different versions.
)ASCA'
A >rench mathematician 3laise %ascal introduced a programming language by the name of
%ASCA). It is a highly structured programming language. It was developed in 5?!Bs after the
concept of structured programming.
*O$T$A, 3*ormula Translation5
It was developed in 5D? for I3( computers to solve mathematical, scientific and engineering
problems. It was one of the first languages to introduce the concept of F(odular %rogrammingG.
It has been revised so many times.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Computers
>ollowing are some advantages and disadvantages of computer in our life.
Advantages
. Computers make us more productive in many of our -obs.
/. In education they can help us for better understanding faster learning and broaden our
thinking.
2. In hospitals we have better diagnosis, proper treatment and better healthcare.
6. In business, they are used to record stocks of raw materials as well as finished products,
making customerBs bill, analyAing sales of various products etc.
D. In banks, they are used for day<to<day processing of customerBs accounts and payments.
7. In manufacturing, they provide ways to develop a representation of the product and to test it in
a variety of simulated environments.
Disadvantages
. ,nemployment due to automation.
/. 8astage of time and energy in useless computer activities.
2. 0ata security.
6. %rivacy
D. Computer Crimes.