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FERROCEMENT
1. INTRODUCTION
The term ferrocement is most commonly applied to a mixture of Portland cement and
sand reinforced with layers of woven or expanded steel mesh and closely-spaced small-diameter
steel rods rebar. It can be used to form relatively thin, compound curved sheets to make hulls for
boats, shell roofs, water tanks, etc. It has been used in a wide range of other applications
including sculpture and prefabricated building components. The term has been applied by
extension to other materials including some containing no cement and no ferrous material. These
are better referred to by terms describing their actual contents.
The term "ferrocement" was given to this product by its inventor in France, Joseph
Monier. At the time, (1850's) he wanted to create urns, planters, and cisterns without the expense
of kiln firing. In 1875 he created the first steel and concrete bridge. The outer layer was sculpted
in its wet state to mimic rustic logs, thereby also introducing Faux Bois concrete into practice.
(Recent trends have "ferrocement" being referred to as Ferro concrete or Reinforced concrete to
better describe the end product instead of its components. By understanding that aggregates
mixed with Portland cement form concrete, but many things can be called cement, it is hoped
this may avoid the confusion of many compounds or techniques that are not Ferro concrete.)
Ferro concrete has relatively good strength and resistance to impact. When used in house
construction in developing countries, it can provide better resistance to fire, earthquake, and
corrosion than traditional materials, such as wood, adobe and stone masonry. It has been popular
in developed countries for yacht building because the technique can be learned relatively
quickly, allowing people to cut costs by supplying their own labor. In the 1930s through 1950's,
it became popular in the United States as a construction and sculpting method for Novelty
architecture, examples of which created "dinosaurs in the desert", or a "giant pair of cowboy
boots and hat" for a service station.




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1.1 CONSTRUCTION
The desired shape may be built from a multi-layered construction of mesh, supported by
an armature or grid, built with rebar and tied with wire. For optimum performance, steel should
be rust-treated, (galvanized) or stainless steel. (In early practice, in the desert, or for exterior
scenery construction, "sound building practice" was not considered or perhaps unknown as it
grew in some cases, from a folk craft tradition of masons collaborating with blacksmiths.) Over
this finished framework, an appropriate mixture (grout or mortar) of Portland cement, sand and
watered/or admixtures is applied to penetrate the mesh. During hardening, the assembly may be
kept moist, to ensure that the concrete is able to set and harden slowly and to avoid developing
cracks that can weaken the system. Steps should be taken to avoid trapped air in the internal
structure during the wet stage of construction as this can also create cracks that will form as it
dries. Trapped air will leave voids that allow water to collect and degrade (rust) the steel.
Modern practice often includes spraying the mixture at pressure, (a technique called Shotcrete,)
or some other method of driving out trapped air.
Older structures that have failed offer clues to better practices. In addition to eliminating
air where it contacts steel, modern concrete additives may include acrylic liquid "admixtures" to
slow moisture absorption and increase shock resistance to the hardened product or to alter curing
rates. These technologies, borrowed from the commercial tile installation trade, have greatly
aided in the restoration of these structures. Chopped glass or poly fiber can be added to reduce
crack development in the outer skin. (It should be noted that chopped fiber could inhibit good
penetration of the grout to steel mesh constructions. This should be taken into consideration and
mitigated, or limited to use on outer subsequent layers. Chopped fibers may also alter or limit
some wet sculpting techniques.)
1.2ECONOMICS
The economic advantage of Ferro concrete structures is that they are stronger and more
durable than some traditional building methods Depending on the quality of construction and the
climate of its location, houses may pay for themselves with almost zero maintenance and lower
insurance requirements. Water tanks could pay for themselves by not needing periodic
replacement, if properly constructed of Reinforced concrete.



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Ferro concrete structures can be built quickly, which can have economic advantages. In
inclement weather conditions, the ability to quickly erect and enclose the building allows
workers to shelter within and continue interior finishing.
In India, Ferro concrete is used often because the constructions made from it are more resistant
to earthquakes. Earthquake resistance is dependent on good construction technique and
additional reinforcement of the concrete.
In the 1970s, designers adapted their yacht designs to the then very popular backyard
building scheme of building a boat using ferrocement. Its big attraction was that for minimum
outlay and costs, a reasonable application of skill, an amateur could construct a smooth, strong
and substantial yacht hull. A ferrocement hull can prove to be of similar or lower weight than a
fiber (fiberglass), aluminum, or steelhull.New methods of laminating layers of cement and steel
mesh in a mold may bring new life to ferrocement boat-building. A thorough examination of
Reinforced concrete and current practice would benefit the boat builder.
1.3 ADVANTAGES
The advantages of a well built Ferro concrete construction are the low weight,
maintenance costs and long lifetime in comparison with purely steel constructions. However,
meticulous building precision is considered crucial here. Especially with respect to the
cementitiouscomposition and the way in which it is applied in and on the framework, and how or
if the framework has been treated to resist corrosion.
When a Ferro concrete sheet is mechanically overloaded, it will tend to fold instead of
break or crumble like stone or pottery. So it is not brittle. As a container, it may fail and leak but
possibly hold together. Much depends on techniques used in the construction.
1.4 DISADVANTAGES
The disadvantage of Ferro concrete construction is the labor intensive nature of it, which
makes it expensive for industrial application in the western world. In addition, threats to
degradation (rust) of the steel components is a possibility if air voids are left in the original
construction, due to too dry a mixture of the concrete being applied, or not forcing the air out of
the structure while it is in its wet stage of construction, through vibration, pressurized spraying
techniques, or other means. These air voids can turn to pools of water as the cured material



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absorbs moisture. If the voids occur where there is untreated steel, the steel will rust and expand,
causing the system to fail.
In modern practice, the advent of liquid acrylic additives and other advances to the grout
mixture, create slower moisture absorption over the older formulas, and also increase bonding
strength to mitigate these failures. Restoration steps should include treatment to the steel to arrest
rust, using practices for treating old steel common in auto body repair
2. APPLICATIONS OF FERROCEMENT
2.1 HOUSING APPLICATIONS
Ferrocement is considered as a suitable housing technology for developing countries
attested by the increasing number of easily built and comfortable ferrocement houses.
Ferrocement houses utilizing local materials such as wood, bamboo or bush sticks as equivalent
steel replacement have been constructed in Bangladesh, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea.
Precast ferrocement elements have been used in India, the Philippines, Malaysia, Brazil, Papua
New Guinea, Venezuela and the Pacific for roofs, wall panels and fences. In Sri Lanka, a
ferrocement house resistant to cyclones has also been developed and constructed. A pyramidal
dome over a temple in India and numerous spherical domes for mosques in Indonesia have been
constructed with ferrocement. The choice was dictated by low self-weight, avoidance of
formwork and availability of unskilled labor. In Israel, ferrocement is used to improve existing
houses. Precast corrugated roof units reinforced with local fibers comparable to asbestos cement
sheet and galvanized iron sheet are in used in Singapore, India, Indonesia, Peru and Zimbabwe.




Ferrocement Housing









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Location: Bombay, India
Usage: Residential house
Parts in
Ferrocement:
CASTONE panels (Structural wall panels)
Cost: US$30/m. sqr.
Year of
Construction:
1980
Additional
Information:
Prefabricated panels, joining with nuts and bolts, stability of the structure is
achieved by box type configuration.



Name: Ferrocement Tenements
Location: Bombay, India
Usage: Low-cost housing
Parts in Ferrocement: CASTONE panels
Cost: US$32 - US$ 64 /m. sqr.
Year of Construction: 1980
Additional
Information:
360 units of one storey and 9260 units of two storey tenement houses
built.



Name: Ferrocement Housing
Location: Israel
Usage: Residential house



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Dimensions: Covered area of 52 sq. meter
Cost:
US$310 per sq. meter (Composed to US$ 400 to US$ 500 per sq. meter for
concrete in 1982)
Additional
Information:
Temperature inside the house is cool and pleasant.

2.2 MARINE APPLICATION
Ferrocement has been adapted to traditional boat designs in Bangladesh, China, India,
Indonesia and Thailand due to timber shortages.In China, 600 ferrocement boat manufacturing
units produce annual capacity of 600,000 to 700,000 tonnages. Ferrocement boats are divided
into four categories according to usage: farming boats, fishing boats, transport boats and working
boats. In countries like Hong Kong, Korea, India, Malaysia, Philippines, Sri Lanka and Thailand,
ferrocement boats generally conform to western standards. In Hong Kong, India and Sri Lanka,
most of the ferrocement crafts constructed are used as mechanized fishing trawlers
In addition, the Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center, Philippines, has used
ferrocement tanks for prawn broodstock and ferrocement buoys for a floatation system in the
culture of green mussels. This is the first large scale use of ferrocement for these purposes.
In Africa, ferrocement boatyards have been successfully established in Kenya, Sudan and
Malawi. The boatyards are now self supporting under the management of local staff trained by
the consultants. The objective of these boatyards is to provide rural fisherman opportunities to
explore the fishable grounds to increase their income. Ferrocement vessels have also been
constructed for Guinea Bessau.





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2.3 AGRICULTURE APPLICATION
Agriculture provides the necessary resource bas for economic growth in developing
countries. The use of ferrocement technology can contribute towards solving some of the
production and storage problems of agricultural produce.Ferrocement has been used for grain
storage bins in Thailand, India and Bangladesh to reduce losses from attack by birds, insects,
rodents and molds.Thailo, a conical ferrocement bin; was designed and first constructed at the
Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), Bangkok, Thailand. Storage capacities range from one to
ten tons (1000 kg to 10000kg). This bin has proved to be structurally sound and construction has
provided adequate protection to the produce against rodent, insect and bird attacks. The bin costs
well within the means of the farmers. In Nigeria, the traditional timber thatch cub for food grain
storage has been improved with ferrocement. These bins are called "Ferrumbu".
The bin developed at the Structural Engineering Research Center (SERC), Roorkee, India, is
manufactured in the form of precast elements and assembled on site. In Bangladesh,
ferrocementsilos six to ten tons (6000 kg to 10000 kg) capacity reinforced with bamboo and two
layers of no. 20 gage hexagonal mesh on both sides of the bamboo have been proven
satisfactory. In Ethiopia, traditional underground pits are lined with ferrocement and provide
with an improved airtight lid, for a truly hermatic and waterproof storage chamber. The use of
ferrocement canal lining prevent seepage loss according to the research on the construction
techniques and behavior of ferrocement canal linings undertaken at AIT. Ferrocement canal
linings and aqueducts are now in use in China, Indonesia and Vietnam.





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2.4 WATER AND SANITARY APPLICATION
Ferrocement can be effectively used for various water supply structures like well casings
for shallow wells, water tanks, sedimentation tanks, slow sand filters and for sanitation facilities
like septic tanks, service modules and sanitary bowls. Ferrocement water tanks of 20 to 2000
gallon capacity are mass produced in India. In Thailand and Indonesia, ferrocement and bamboo-
cement rainwater colloection tanks are being built on a self help basis by villagers under the
supervision of an apprapriate technology group to provide clean drinking water. Ferrocement
water tanks over multistory buildings in Singapore, Bangladesh and the Solomn Island. Bamboo-
cement well casings have been built in Indonesia to prevent contamination of the water.

Prefabricated service modules have been developed and constructed in the Solomn Islands and
India. A service module is a unit which provides water supply for drinking and washing toghethe
with toilet facilities. Ferrocement septic tanks have been in used in Thailand, India, Indonesia,
Philippines and Papua New Guinea while ferrocement toilet bowls have been developed and
constructed in Thailand and Bangladesh.
2.5 RURAL ENERGY APPLICATION
Biogas and solar energy are two alternate sources of energy for the rural areas in which
ferrocement can be of use in their production. Biogas can be used for cooking, lighting and
refrigeration. In Thailand and India, biogas digesters and biogas holders have been constructed
with ferrocement which lead to a considerable cost reduction. Ferrocement has also been used as
digester lining when bricks are not economically available. More ferrocement biogas digesters
will promote conservation of timberlands and it will encourage farmers to raise livestock
providing additional income to the family.
2.6 MISCELLANEOUS APPLICATION
Ferrocement is proving to be a technology that can respond to the diverse economic,
social and cultural needs of man.Ferrocement has been used to strengthen older structures, a
medium for sculpture and for many other types of structures. Ferrocement as a medium for
sculpture proves its versatility and the unlimited dimension to which it can be used. Ferrocement
in art is an exciting development and it open new horizons.



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3. CONSTITUENT MATERIALS
1. Cement
2. Fine Aggregate
3. Water
4. Admixture
5. Mortar Mix
6. Reinforcing mesh
7. Skeletal Steel
8. Coating


4. FERRO CEMENT JARS:

Ferrocement consists of a thin sheet of cement mortar which is reinforced with a cage made of
wire mesh and steel bars. Because ferrocement is structurally more effectient than masonry, the
thickness of the walls of the container are as low as 10 to 15 mm. Ferrocement components can
be casted in any shape using suitable moulds. The technology is extremely simple to implement,
and even semi-skilled workpersons can learn it with ease. Ferrocement requires only a few easily
available materials - cement, sand, galvanized iron (GI) wire mesh, and mild steel (MS) bars - in
small amounts compared to masonry and RCC.

4.1 POT SHAPED CONTAINER
The process of construction of a pot shaped Ferro cement container is quite simple. The
only materials required are hessian cloth, chaff (waste from agricultural produce), GI wire mesh,
MS bars, cement and sand.
4.1.2Preparation of mould:
The hessian cloth is first stitched into a sack resembling the shape of a container. It is
then filled with chaff that is compacted in layers. Dry leaves or dry grass can also be used in
place of chaff. Once the sack is filled with the filler material, it is beaten into the required shape
by a wooden bat.




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Source: Catch water

4.1.3Laying of reinforcement:
A GI wire mesh (22-26 gauge - see table) is tied around the mould leaving sockets at
suitable locations for inlet, over flow and cleaning pipes. Tying 6 mm diameter MS bars at wide
intervals both horizontally and vertically strengthens the reinforcement cage.
4.1.4 Preparation of cement mortar for plastering:
Cement mortar of suitable proportion (see table) is prepared, having water content equal
to 0.45 times the volume of cement.
Capacity of
containerLitres
Thickness of the
walls
Ratio Cement: sand
Thickness of GI wire
(guage)
400 10 1:3 26
600 10 1:3 24
900 12 1:2:5 24
1500 15 1:2:5 22




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4.1.5 Plastering:
The mortar is plastered in two layers along the wall thickness, the second layer being
applied 24 hours after the first. The Ferro cement wall normally has a thickness of 10 to 15 mm,
depending on the volume of the container. The cement mortar is applied ensuring a minimum
clearance (cover) 3 mm between the reinforcement mesh and the outer surfaces of the wall.

4.1.6 Removal of mould:
The mould of the container is removed 24 hours after casting of the wall is completed, by
removing the filler material. The container can be brought into use after 10 days of wet curing.


4.2 Ferrocement Tank using Skeletal Cage:

4.2.1 Phases of construction

i Selection of site
iiMarking for circular foundation:
Choose the diameter of foundation (Df) for required storage capacity from the table
Capacity of storage
tank (litres)
5,000 and 6,000 7,000 and 8,000 9,000 and 10,000
Df 2.40 m 2.70 m 3.00 m

iii Excavation for foundation
iv Compacting the excavated pit
v Placing cement concrete in foundation:
Prepare Plain Cement Concrete of 1:4:8 mix ( 1 cement: 4 sand: 8 stone aggregate of 40mm size)
vi Erection of mould/ Preparation of elements of skeletal cage




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a. Preparation of Elements of Skeletal Cage:


Source: Action for food Production and United Nations Children's Fund, Rooftop rainwater harvesting systems
Skeletal cage is an assembly of 4 types of elements (of different shapes) made from mild steel
rods. They are
'U' shaped elements
'L' shaped elements
'' shaped elements
'O' shaped elements
Dimensions of elements for tank capacities 5,000 litres to 10,000 litres
Element No. Dimensions Capacity of Storage Tank (in litres)
5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000 9,000 10,000
U 2 H 1.8 2.1 1.9 2.1 1.9 2.1
W1 2.05 2.05 2.35 2.35 2.65 2.65
4 H 1.8 2.1 1.9 2.1 1.9 2.1
L W2 0.82 0.82 0.95 0.95 1.05 1.05
8 H 1.8 2.1 1.9 2.1 1.9 2.1
L W3 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.65 0.65
D1 9Nos 11Nos 10Nos 11Nos 10Nos 11Nos
2.05 2.05 2.35 2.35 2.65 2.65
1 D2 1.25 1.25 1.41 1.41 1.60 1.60
1 D3 0.62 0.62 0.71 0.71 0.84 0.80


b. Assembling the elements:
Place the two 'U' shaped rods vertically over the foundation, perpendicular to each other



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Place the outer, middle and inner rings over the two 'U' shaped rods, coinciding with the
circular marking and tie the intersections with binding wires
Place and tie 4 'L' shaped elements on the center marking of each quarter, each rod
extending upto the inner most ring
Place and tie 8 '' shaped elements on the remaining markings, each element extending to
the middle ring
Place and tie all the rings of diameter 'D1" over the vertical reinforcement at a uniform
spacing of 20 cm
For providing cylindrical shape to the skeletal cage, fix cross bars at the top of skeletal
cage and ie with ropes, 3-4 vertical rods to wooden pegs pegged to the ground.
c. Tying of mesh over skeletal cage
Select the reinforcement mesh that suits the capacity of the tank from the table below:
Capacity of Tank (Lt) 5,000 & 6,000 7,000 & 8,000 9,000 & 10,000
Specification of wire
mesh
Chicken wire mesh of
22 gauge and 12 mm
(1/2") opening
Chicken wire mesh of
20 gauge and 25 mm
(1") opening
Chicken wire mesh of
20 gauge and 25 mm
(1") opening
Source: Action for food Production and United Nations Children's Fund, Rooftop rainwater harvesting system

Tie the mesh with binding wire to the skeletal cage at all intersections of elementsProvide a
tucking length of 30 cm (1 foot) at the base Project the mesh 10 cm above the top of the skeletal
cage Cut the skeletal cage and insert pipe fixtures such as overflow pipe, drain pipe and tap at
appropriate places as given in table
Over flow pipe 10 cm below the top of cage
Drain pipe 5 cm above the foundation
Tap 10 cm above the foundation

viii. Plastering the tank's outside wall



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Prepare cement slurry (cement mixed with water) and add anti-rust agent (chrometrioxide
tablets)
Apply one coat of cement slurry (mix of cement and water) over the mesh using a
painting brush
Prepare cement mortar of depending on capacity of tank
Apply the first coat of cement mortar on the outer surface at a thickness of 1 cm. Care has
to be taken to fill the space between the two layers completely. This could be done by
using a GI sheet, slightly curved in shape to be held close to the skeletal cage from inside
by a person, while cement mortar is applied by another from outside
Leave 10 cm of mesh projected above the cage unplastered in order to join the skeletal
dome to the tank
After two hours, apply a second coat of mortar of a thickness of 1 cm.
ix. Plastering the tank's inside wall
After two hours of outside plastering, apply cement slurry to the inner surface of the tank
wall
Prepare cement mortar of 1: 3 mix and add waterproof compound in liquid form
Apply first coat of cement mortar of 1 cm thickness on the inner surface, starting from
bottom of the tank moving laterally and progressing towards the top
After two hours, apply second coat of mortar to attain a total wall thickness of 2 cm
Apply cement slurry as final coat on outer and inner surfaces of tank and smoothen using
coir brush
x. Removal of mould
xi. Casting of tank floor:
Sprinkle cement slurry over the foundation concrete
Prepare plain cement concrete of 1:2:4 mix ( 1 cement: 2 sand: 4 stone aggregate of 12
mm size), pour it over the base and compact to a thickness of 50 mm (2 inch)
Finish the floor base using cement mortar keeping the slope towards the drain pipe
Finish the wall and base joints (inner and outer) with cement mortar
Twelve hours after setting the tank floor, add waterproof compound (liquid form) with
cement slurry and apply it over inside surface of the tank and smoothen with coir brush.



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xii. Curing the tank
Cure the tank for 14 days by pouring water thrice a day or covering the tank with wet
gunny bags
In coastal areas, after curing for 14 days, apply rust proof paint over the outer surface of
tank wall
xiii. Construction of roof for the tank
An assembly of mild steel elements is prepared as a skeletal frame for the roof. Chicken
wire mesh is tied over it and plastered in cement mortar
The roof is provided with two openings. One is an opening of diameter 35 cm for
accommodating the filter container. Another is a manhole with a 60 cm opening. The
opening for the filter will be on one side of the roof. The manhole is provided at the
centre of dome


5. COST EFFECTIVENESS OF FERRO-CEMENT STRUCTURES
The type of economic system.
Type of applications.
Relative cost of labor.
Capital and local tradition of construction procedure.
Doesnt need heavy plant or machinery.
Low cost of construction material







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LIST OF PICTURES

Fig1: Typical cross section of Ferro-cement structure




Fig2:REINFORCING MESH



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Fig3: Residential and Public Buildings

Fig4: Industrial Structures



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Fig5: Transportation Structures




CONCLUSION
Ferro-cement come into wide spread use only in the last two decades and still in its infancy.
Sufficient design information is available and adequate field experience has been acquired to
enable safe design and construction of many types of Ferro-cement structures.
Whether it can economically compete with alternate materials depends on the type and location
of application. For industrially developed countries, Ferro-cement seems economical for medium
storage tank, roofshells, boat, tank and the ease of forming complicated shapes and lighter
weight of Ferro-cement can be safely exploited.