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Judaism is the monotheistic religion, philosophy and way of life of the Jewish people. It originated in the Middle East during the Bronze Age. Key beliefs include ethical monotheism (belief in one God concerned with human morality), God's covenant with the Israelites, and adherence to Jewish law and traditions as revealed in the Torah and rabbinic texts. Major branches today include Orthodox, Conservative and Reform Judaism which differ in their interpretations of Jewish law and traditions. Judaism's core texts and values have significantly influenced other Abrahamic faiths like Christianity and Islam.
Judaism is the monotheistic religion, philosophy and way of life of the Jewish people. It originated in the Middle East during the Bronze Age. Key beliefs include ethical monotheism (belief in one God concerned with human morality), God's covenant with the Israelites, and adherence to Jewish law and traditions as revealed in the Torah and rabbinic texts. Major branches today include Orthodox, Conservative and Reform Judaism which differ in their interpretations of Jewish law and traditions. Judaism's core texts and values have significantly influenced other Abrahamic faiths like Christianity and Islam.
Judaism is the monotheistic religion, philosophy and way of life of the Jewish people. It originated in the Middle East during the Bronze Age. Key beliefs include ethical monotheism (belief in one God concerned with human morality), God's covenant with the Israelites, and adherence to Jewish law and traditions as revealed in the Torah and rabbinic texts. Major branches today include Orthodox, Conservative and Reform Judaism which differ in their interpretations of Jewish law and traditions. Judaism's core texts and values have significantly influenced other Abrahamic faiths like Christianity and Islam.
Jump to: navigation, search This article is about the Jewish religion. For consideration of ethnic, historic and cultural aspects of the Jewish identity, see Jews. Page semiprotected Judaica !clockwise from top": #habbat candlesticks, handwashing cup, $humash and Tanakh, Torah pointer, shofar and etrog bo% Part of a series on Judaism #tar of &avid Ten $ommandments 'enorah 'ovements(show) Philosophy(show) Te%ts(show) *aw(show) +oly $ities(show) Places(show) ,mportant figures(show) -abbinic #ages(show) -eligious roles(show) $ulture(show) .ducation(show) -itual ob/ects(show) Prayers(show) -elations with other religions(show) -elated topics(show) $ategory $ategory Portal Portal WikiPro/ect WikiPro/ect v t e Judaism !from the *atin ,udaismus, derived from the 0reek 123456789, and ultimately from the +ebrew :;<:=, >ehudah, ?Judah?@(A)(B) in +ebrew: C<;:=, >ahadut, the distinctive characteristics of the Judean ethnos"(D) is the religion, philosophy and way of life of the Jewish people.(E) Judaism is a monotheistic religion, with its foundational te%t, the Torah !also known as the Tanakh or +ebrew Fible", and supplemental oral tradition represented by later te%ts such as the 'ishnah and the Talmud. Judaism is considered by religious Jews to be the e%pression of the covenantal relationship 0od established with the $hildren of ,srael.(G) Judaism includes a wide corpus of te%ts, practices, theological positions, and forms of organiHation. Within Judaism there are a variety of movements, most of which emerged from -abbinic Judaism, which holds that 0od revealed his laws and commandments to 'oses on 'ount #inai in the form of both the Written and Iral Torah. (J) +istorically, this assertion was challenged by various groups such as the #adducees and +ellenistic Judaism during the #econd Temple period@ the Karaites and #abbateans during the early and later medieval period@(L) and among segments of the modern reform movements. *iberal movements in modern times such as +umanistic Judaism may be nontheistic.(M) Today, the largest Jewish religious movements are Irthodo% Judaism !+aredi Judaism and 'odern Irthodo% Judaism", $onservative Judaism and -eform Judaism. 'a/or sources of difference between these groups are their approaches to Jewish law, the authority of the -abbinic tradition, and the significance of the #tate of ,srael.(N) Irthodo% Judaism maintains that the Torah and Jewish law are divine in origin, eternal and unalterable, and that they should be strictly followed. $onservative and -eform Judaism are more liberal, with $onservative Judaism generally promoting a more ?traditional? interpretation of JudaismOs rePuirements than -eform Judaism. Q typical -eform position is that Jewish law should be viewed as a set of general guidelines rather than as a set of restrictions and obligations whose observance is rePuired of all Jews.(AR)(AA) +istorically, special courts enforced Jewish law@ today, these courts still e%ist but the practice of Judaism is mostly voluntary.(AB) Quthority on theological and legal matters is not vested in any one person or organiHation, but in the sacred te%ts and rabbis and scholars who interpret them.(AD) Judaism claims a historical continuity spanning more than D,RRR years. Judaism has its roots as a structured religion in the 'iddle .ast during the FronHe Qge.(AE) If the ma/or world religions, Judaism is considered one of the oldest monotheistic religions.(AG)(AJ) The +ebrews S ,sraelites were already referred to as ?Jews? in later books of the Tanakh such as the Fook of .sther, with the term Jews replacing the title ?$hildren of ,srael?.(AL) JudaismOs te%ts, traditions and values strongly influenced later Qbrahamic religions, including $hristianity, ,slam and the FahaOi Faith.(AM)(AN) 'any aspects of Judaism have also directly or indirectly influenced secular Western ethics and civil law.(BR) Jews are an ethnoreligious group(BA) and include those born Jewish and converts to Judaism. ,n BRAB, the world Jewish population was estimated at about AE million, or roughly R.BT of the total world population.(BB) Qbout EBT of all Jews reside in ,srael and about EBT reside in the United #tates and $anada, with most of the remainder living in .urope, and other minority groups spread throughout the world in #outh Qmerica, Qsia, Qfrica, and Qustralia.(BD) &efining character and principles of faith Unlike other ancient Vear .astern gods, the +ebrew 0od is portrayed as unitary and solitary@ consePuently, the +ebrew 0odOs principal relationships are not with other gods, but with the world, and more specifically, with the people +e created.(BE) Judaism thus begins with an ethical monotheism: the belief that 0od is one, and concerned with the actions of humankind.(BG) Qccording to the Tanakh !+ebrew Fible", 0od promised Qbraham to make of his offspring a great nation.(BJ) 'any generations later, he commanded the nation of ,srael to love and worship only one 0od@ that is, the Jewish nation is to reciprocate 0odOs concern for the world.(BL) +e also commanded the Jewish people to love one another@ that is, Jews are to imitate 0odOs love for people.(BM) These commandments are but two of a large corpus of commandments and laws that constitute this covenant, which is the substance of Judaism. Thus, although there is an esoteric tradition in Judaism !Kabbalah", -abbinic scholar 'a% Kadushin has characteriHed normative Judaism as ?normal mysticism?, because it involves everyday personal e%periences of 0od through ways or modes that are common to all Jews.(BN) This is played out through the observance of the halakhot and given verbal e%pression in the Firkat +a'iHvot, the short blessings that are spoken every time a positive commandment is to be fulfilled. The ordinary, familiar, everyday things and occurrences, we have constitute occasions for the e%perience of 0od. #uch things as oneOs daily sustenance, the very day itself, are felt as manifestations of 0odOs loving kindness, calling for the Ferakhot. Kedushah, holiness, which is nothing else than the imitation of 0od, is concerned with daily conduct, with being gracious and merciful, with keeping oneself from defilement by idolatry, adultery, and the shedding of blood. The Firkat +a'itHwot evokes the consciousness of holiness at a rabbinic rite, but the ob/ects employed in the ma/ority of these rites are nonholy and of general character, while the several holy ob/ects are nontheurgic. Qnd not only do ordinary things and occurrences bring with them the e%perience of 0od. .verything that happens to a man evokes that e%perience, evil as well as good, for a Ferakah is said also at evil tidings. +ence, although the e%perience of 0od is like none other, the occasions for e%periencing +im, for having a consciousness of +im, are manifold, even if we consider only those that call for Ferakot.(DR) Whereas Jewish philosophers often debate whether 0od is immanent or transcendent, and whether people have free will or their lives are determined, +alakha is a system through which any Jew acts to bring 0od into the world. .thical monotheism is central in all sacred or normative te%ts of Judaism. +owever, monotheism has not always been followed in practice. The Jewish Fible !Tanakh" records and repeatedly condemns the widespread worship of other gods in ancient ,srael.(DA) ,n the 0reco-oman era, many different interpretations of monotheism e%isted in Judaism, including the interpretations that gave rise to $hristianity.(DB) 'oreover, as a noncreedal religion, some have argued that Judaism does not rePuire one to believe in 0od. For some, observance of Jewish law is more important than belief in 0od per se.(DD) ,n modern times, some liberal Jewish movements do not accept the e%istence of a personified deity active in history.(DE) $ore tenets 'ain article: Jewish principles of faith AD Principles of Faith: , believe with perfect faith that the $reator, Flessed be +is Vame, is the $reator and 0uide of everything that has been created@ +e alone has made, does make, and will make all things. , believe with perfect faith that the $reator, Flessed be +is Vame, is Ine, and that there is no unity in any manner like +is, and that +e alone is our 0od, who was, and is, and will be. , believe with perfect faith that the $reator, Flessed be +is Vame, has no body, and that +e is free from all the properties of matter, and that there can be no !physical" comparison to +im whatsoever. , believe with perfect faith that the $reator, Flessed be +is Vame, is the first and the last. , believe with perfect faith that to the $reator, Flessed be +is Vame, and to +im alone, it is right to pray, and that it is not right to pray to any being besides +im. , believe with perfect faith that all the words of the prophets are true. , believe with perfect faith that the prophecy of 'oses our teacher, peace be upon him, was true, and that he was the chief of the prophets, both those who preceded him and those who followed him. , believe with perfect faith that the entire Torah that is now in our possession is the same that was given to 'oses our teacher, peace be upon him. , believe with perfect faith that this Torah will not be e%changed, and that there will never be any other Torah from the $reator, Flessed be +is Vame. , believe with perfect faith that the $reator, Flessed be +is Vame, knows all the deeds of human beings and all their thoughts, as it is written, ?Who fashioned the hearts of them all, Who comprehends all their actions? !Psalms DD:AG". , believe with perfect faith that the $reator, Flessed be +is Vame, rewards those who keep +is commandments and punishes those that transgress them. , believe with perfect faith in the coming of the 'essiah@ and even though he may tarry, nonetheless, , wait every day for his coming. , believe with perfect faith that there will be a revival of the dead at the time when it shall please the $reator, Flessed be +is name, and +is mention shall be e%alted for ever and ever. W'aimonides #cholars throughout Jewish history have proposed numerous formulations of JudaismOs core tenets, all of which have met with criticism.(DG) The most popular formulation is 'aimonidesO thirteen principles of faith, developed in the ABth century. Qccording to 'aimonides, any Jew who re/ects even one of these principles would be considered an apostate and a heretic.(DJ)(DL) Jewish scholars have held points of view diverging in various ways from 'aimonidesO principles.(DM)(DN) ,n 'aimonidesO time, his list of tenets was criticiHed by +asdai $rescas and Joseph Qlbo. Qlbo and the -aavad argued that 'aimonidesO principles contained too many items that, while true, were not fundamentals of the faith. Qlong these lines, the ancient historian Josephus emphasiHed practices and observances rather than religious beliefs, associating apostasy with a failure to observe Jewish law and maintaining that the rePuirements for conversion to Judaism included circumcision and adherence to traditional customs. 'aimonidesO principles were largely ignored over the ne%t few centuries.(ER) *ater, two poetic restatements of these principles !?Qni 'aOamin? and ?>igdal?" became integrated into many Jewish liturgies,(EA)(citation needed) leading to their eventual near universal acceptance.(EB)(ED) ,n modern times, Judaism lacks a centraliHed authority that would dictate an e%act religious dogma.(AD)(EE) Fecause of this, many different variations on the basic beliefs are considered within the scope of Judaism.(DM) .ven so, all Jewish religious movements are, to a greater or lesser e%tent, based on the principles of the +ebrew Fible and various commentaries such as the Talmud and 'idrash. Judaism also universally recogniHes the Fiblical $ovenant between 0od and the Patriarch Qbraham as well as the additional aspects of the $ovenant revealed to 'oses, who is considered JudaismOs greatest prophet.(DM)(EG)(EJ)(EL)(EM) ,n the 'ishnah, a core te%t of -abbinic Judaism, acceptance of the &ivine origins of this covenant is considered an essential aspect of Judaism and those who re/ect the $ovenant forfeit their share in the World to $ome.(EN) Jewish religious te%ts The following is a basic, structured list of the central works of Jewish practice and thought. Tanakh(GR) !+ebrew Fible" and -abbinic literature 'esorah Targum Jewish Fiblical e%egesis !also see 'idrash below" Works of the Talmudic .ra !classic rabbinic literature" 'ishnah and commentaries Tosefta and the minor tractates Talmud: The Fabylonian Talmud and commentaries Jerusalem Talmud and commentaries 'idrashic literature: +alakhic 'idrash Qggadic 'idrash +alakhic literature 'a/or $odes of Jewish *aw and $ustom 'ishneh Torah and commentaries Tur and commentaries #hulchan Qruch and commentaries -esponsa literature Jewish Thought and .thics Jewish philosophy Kabbalah +asidic works 'usar literature and other works of Jewish ethics #iddur and Jewish liturgy Piyyut !$lassical Jewish poetry" Jewish legal literature 'ain article: +alakha The basis of Jewish law and tradition !halakha" is the Torah !also known as the Pentateuch or the Five Fooks of 'oses". Qccording to rabbinic tradition there are JAD commandments in the Torah. #ome of these laws are directed only to men or to women, some only to the ancient priestly groups, the Kohanim and *eviyim !members of the tribe of *evi", some only to farmers within the *and of ,srael. 'any laws were only applicable when the Temple in Jerusalem e%isted, and fewer than DRR of these commandments are still applicable today. While there have been Jewish groups whose beliefs were claimed to be based on the written te%t of the Torah alone !e.g., the #adducees, and the Karaites", most Jews believed in what they call the oral law. These oral traditions were transmitted by the Pharisee sect of ancient Judaism, and were later recorded in written form and e%panded upon by the rabbis. -abbinic Judaism !which derives from the Pharisees" has always held that the books of the Torah !called the written law" have always been transmitted in parallel with an oral tradition. To /ustify this viewpoint, Jews point to the te%t of the Torah, where many words are left undefined, and many procedures mentioned without e%planation or instructions@ this, they argue, means that the reader is assumed to be familiar with the details from other, i.e., oral, sources. This parallel set of material was originally transmitted orally, and came to be known as ?the oral law?. Fy the time of -abbi Judah haVasi !BRR $.", after the destruction of Jerusalem, much of this material was edited together into the 'ishnah. Iver the ne%t four centuries this law underwent discussion and debate in both of the worldOs ma/or Jewish communities !in ,srael and Fabylonia", and the commentaries on the 'ishnah from each of these communities eventually came to be edited together into compilations known as the two Talmuds. These have been e%pounded by commentaries of various Torah scholars during the ages. +alakha, the rabbinic Jewish way of life, then, is based on a combined reading of the Torah, and the oral tradition the 'ishnah, the halakhic 'idrash, the Talmud and its commentaries. The +alakha has developed slowly, through a precedentbased system. The literature of Puestions to rabbis, and their considered answers, is referred to as responsa !in +ebrew, #heelot UTeshuvot." Iver time, as practices develop, codes of Jewish law are written that are based on the responsa@ the most important code, the #hulchan Qruch, largely determines Irthodo% religious practice today. Jewish philosophy 'ain article: Jewish philosophy Jewish philosophy refers to the con/unction between serious study of philosophy and Jewish theology. 'a/or Jewish philosophers include #olomon ibn 0abirol, #aadia 0aon, Judah +alevi, 'aimonides, and 0ersonides. 'a/or changes occurred in response to the .nlightenment !late AMth to early ANth century" leading to the post .nlightenment Jewish philosophers. 'odern Jewish philosophy consists of both Irthodo% and nonIrthodo% oriented philosophy. Votable among Irthodo% Jewish philosophers are .liyahu .lieHer &essler, Joseph F. #oloveitchik, and >itHchok +utner. Wellknown nonIrthodo% Jewish philosophers include 'artin Fuber, FranH -osenHweig, 'ordecai Kaplan, Qbraham Joshua +eschel, Will +erberg, and .mmanuel *Xvinas. -elated Topics Torah databases !electronic versions of the Traditional Jewish Fookshelf" *ist of Jewish prayers and blessings -abbinic hermeneutics AD Principles of +ermeneutics: Q law that operates under certain conditions will surely be operative in other situations where the same conditions are present in a more acute form Q law operating in one situation will also be operative in another situation, if the te%t characteriHes both situations in identical terms. Q law that clearly e%presses the purpose it was meant to serve will also apply to other situations where the identical purpose may be served. When a general rule is followed by illustrative particulars, only those particulars are to be embraced by it. Q law that begins with specifying particular cases, and then proceeds to an allembracing generaliHation, is to be applied to particulars cases not specified but logically falling into the same generaliHation. Q law that begins with a generaliHation as to its intended applications, then continues with the specification of particular cases, and then concludes with a restatement of the generaliHation, can be applied only to the particular cases specified. The rules about a generaliHation being followed or preceded by specifying particulars !rules E and G" will not apply if it is apparent that the specification of the particular cases or the statement of the generaliHation is meant purely for achieving a greater clarity of language. Q particular case already covered in a generaliHation that is nevertheless treated separately suggests that the same particulariHed treatment be applied to all other cases which are covered in that generaliHation. Q penalty specified for a general category of wrongdoing is not to be automatically applied to a particular case that is withdrawn from the general rule to be specifically prohibited, but without any mention of the penalty. Q general prohibition followed by a specified penalty may be followed by a particular case, normally included in the generaliHation, with a modification in penalty, either toward easing it or making it more severe. Q case logically falling into a general law but treated separately remains outside the provisions of the general law e%cept in those instances where it is specifically included in them. Ibscurities in Fiblical te%ts may be cleared up from the immediate conte%t or from subsePuently occurring passages $ontradictions in Fiblical passages may be removed through the mediation of other passages. W-. ,shmael(GA) Irthodo% and many other Jews do not believe that the revealed Torah consists solely of its written contents, but of its interpretations as well. The study of Torah !in its widest sense, to include both poetry, narrative, and law, and both the +ebrew Fible and the Talmud" is in Judaism itself a sacred act of central importance. For the sages of the 'ishnah and Talmud, and for their successors today, the study of Torah was therefore not merely a means to learn the contents of 0odOs revelation, but an end in itself. Qccording to the Talmud, These are the things for which a person en/oys the dividends in this world while the principal remains for the person to en/oy in the world to come@ they are: honoring parents, loving deeds of kindness, and making peace between one person and another. Fut the study of the Torah is ePual to them all. !Talmud #habbat ABLa". ,n Judaism, ?the study of Torah can be a means of e%periencing 0od?.(GB) -eflecting on the contribution of the Qmoraim and Tanaim to contemporary Judaism, Professor Jacob Veusner observed: The rabbiOs logical and rational inPuiry is not mere logicchopping. ,t is a most serious and substantive effort to locate in trivialities the fundamental principles of the revealed will of 0od to guide and sanctify the most specific and concrete actions in the workaday world .... +ere is the mystery of Talmudic Judaism: the alien and remote conviction that the intellect is an instrument not of unbelief and desacraliHation but of sanctification.?(GD) To study the Written Torah and the Iral Torah in light of each other is thus also to study how to study the word of 0od. ,n the study of Torah, the sages formulated and followed various logical and hermeneutical principles. Qccording to &avid #tern, all -abbinic hermeneutics rest on two basic a%ioms: first, the belief in the omnisignificance of #cripture, in the meaningfulness of its every word, letter, even !according to one famous report" scribal flourish@ second, the claim of the essential unity of #cripture as the e%pression of the single divine will.(GE) These two principles make possible a great variety of interpretations. Qccording to the Talmud, Q single verse has several meanings, but no two verses hold the same meaning. ,t was taught in the school of -. ,shmael: OFehold, 'y word is like fireWdeclares the *ordWand like a hammer that shatters rockO !Jer BD:BN". Just as this hammer produces many sparks !when it strikes the rock", so a single verse has several meanings.? !Talmud #anhedrin DEa". Ibservant Jews thus view the Torah as dynamic, because it contains within it a host of interpretations(GG) Qccording to -abbinic tradition, all valid interpretations of the written Torah were revealed to 'oses at #inai in oral form, and handed down from teacher to pupil !The oral revelation is in effect coe%tensive with the Talmud itself". When different rabbis forwarded conflicting interpretations, they sometimes appealed to hermeneutic principles to legitimiHe their arguments@ some rabbis claim that these principles were themselves revealed by 0od to 'oses at #inai.(GJ) Thus, +illel called attention to seven commonly used in the interpretation of laws !baraita at the beginning of #ifra"@ -. ,shmael, thirteen !baraita at the beginning of #ifra@ this collection is largely an amplification of that of +illel".(GL) .lieHer b. Jose ha0elili listed DB, largely used for the e%egesis of narrative elements of Torah. Qll the hermeneutic rules scattered through the Talmudim and 'idrashim have been collected by 'albim in Qyyelet ha #hachar, the introduction to his commentary on the #ifra. Vevertheless, -. ,shmaelOs AD principles are perhaps the ones most widely known@ they constitute an important, and one of JudaismOs earliest, contributions to logic, hermeneutics, and /urisprudence.(GM) Judah +adassi incorporated ,shmaelOs principles into Karaite Judaism in the ABth century.(GN) Today -. ,shmaelOs AD principles are incorporated into the Jewish prayer book to be read by observant Jews on a daily basis.(JR)(JA)(JB)(JD) Jewish identity Irigin of the term ?Judaism? Q meHuHah The term Judaism derives from the *atin ,udaismus, derived from the 0reek Y123456789 ,oudaZsmos, and ultimately from the +ebrew :;<:=, >ehudah, ?Judah?@(JE)(JG) in +ebrew: C<[;:\ =], >ahadut. ,t first appears as the +ellenistic 0reek iudaismos in Bnd 'accabees in the Bnd century F$.. ,n the conte%t of the age and period it held the meaning of seeking or forming part of a cultural entity, that of iudea, the 0reek derivative of Persian >ehud, and can be compared with hellenismos, meaning acceptance of +ellenic cultural norms !the conflict between iudaismos and hellenismos lay behind the 'accabeean revolt and hence the invention of the term iudaismos".(JJ) The earliest instance of the term in .nglish, used to mean ?the profession or practice of the Jewish religion@ the religious system or polity of the Jews?, is -obert FabyanOs The newe cronycles of .nglande and of Fraunce a AGAD. Qs an .nglish translation of the *atin, the first instance in .nglish is a AJAA translation of the Qpocrypha !&euterocanon in $atholic and Irthodo% $hristianity", B 'acc. ii. BA ?Those that behaved themselues manfully to their honour for ,udaisme.?(JL) &istinction between Jews as a people and Judaism Qccording to &aniel Foyarin, the underlying distinction between religion and ethnicity is foreign to Judaism itself, and is one form of the dualism between spirit and flesh that has its origin in Platonic philosophy and that permeated +ellenistic Judaism.(JM) $onsePuently, in his view, Judaism does not fit easily into conventional Western categories, such as religion, ethnicity, or culture. Foyarin suggests that this in part reflects the fact that much of JudaismOs more than D,RRRyear history predates the rise of Western culture and occurred outside the West !that is, .urope, particularly medieval and modern .urope". &uring this time, Jews have e%perienced slavery, anarchic and theocratic selfgovernment, conPuest, occupation, and e%ile@ in the &iasporas, they have been in contact with and have been influenced by ancient .gyptian, Fabylonian, Persian, and +ellenic cultures, as well as modern movements such as the .nlightenment !see +askalah" and the rise of nationalism, which would bear fruit in the form of a Jewish state in the *evant. They also saw an elite convert to Judaism !the KhaHars", only to disappear as the centers of power in the lands once occupied by that elite fell to the people of -us and then the 'ongols. Thus, Foyarin has argued that ?Jewishness disrupts the very categories of identity, because it is not national, not genealogical, not religious, but all of these, in dialectical tension.?(JN) ,n contrast to this point of view, practices such as +umanistic Judaism re/ect the religious aspects of Judaism, while retaining certain cultural traditions. Who is a Jew^ 'ain article: Who is a Jew^ Qccording to traditional Jewish *aw, a Jew is anyone born of a Jewish mother or converted to Judaism in accordance with Jewish *aw. Qmerican -eform Judaism and Fritish *iberal Judaism accept the child of one Jewish parent !father or mother" as Jewish if the parents raise the child with a Jewish identity. Qll mainstream forms of Judaism today are open to sincere converts, although conversion has traditionally been discouraged since the time of the Talmud. The conversion process is evaluated by an authority, and the convert is e%amined on his or her sincerity and knowledge.(LR) $onverts are given the name ?ben Qbraham? or ?bat Qbraham?, !son or daughter of Qbraham". Traditional Judaism maintains that a Jew, whether by birth or conversion, is a Jew forever. Thus a Jew who claims to be an atheist or converts to another religion is still considered by traditional Judaism to be Jewish. Qccording to some sources, the -eform movement has maintained that a Jew who has converted to another religion is no longer a Jew,(LA)(LB) and the ,sraeli 0overnment has also taken that stance after #upreme $ourt cases and statutes.(LD) +owever, the -eform movement has indicated that this is not so cut and dry, and different situations call for consideration and differing actions. For e%ample, Jews who have converted under duress may be permitted to return to Judaism ?without any action on their part but their desire to re/oin the Jewish community? and ?Q proselyte who has become an apostate remains, nevertheless, a Jew?. !p. ARRARJ". (LE) The Puestion of what determines Jewish identity in the #tate of ,srael was given new impetus when, in the ANGRs, &avid Fen0urion rePuested opinions on mihu >ehudi !?who is a Jew?" from Jewish religious authorities and intellectuals worldwide in order to settle citiHenship Puestions. This is still not settled, and occasionally resurfaces in ,sraeli politics. Jewish demographics 'ain article: Jewish population The total number of Jews worldwide is difficult to assess because the definition of ?who is a Jew? is problematic@ not all Jews identify themselves as Jewish, and some who identify as Jewish are not considered so by other Jews. Qccording to the Jewish >ear Fook !ANRA", the global Jewish population in ANRR was around AA million. The latest available data is from the World Jewish Population #urvey of BRRB and the Jewish >ear $alendar !BRRG". ,n BRRB, according to the Jewish Population #urvey, there were AD.D million Jews around the world. The Jewish >ear $alendar cites AE.J million. Jewish population growth is currently near Hero percent, with R.DT growth from BRRR to BRRA. Jewish religious movements 'ain article: Jewish religious movements -abbinic Judaism -abbinic Judaism !or in some $hristian traditions, -abbinism" !+ebrew: ?>ahadut -abanit? C=_`a C<;:=" has been the mainstream form of Judaism since the Jth century $., after the codification of the Talmud. ,t is characterised by the belief that the Written Torah !*aw" cannot be correctly interpreted without reference to the Iral Torah and by the voluminous literature specifying what behavior is sanctioned by the law !called halakha, ?the way?". The Jewish .nlightenment of the late AMth century resulted in the division of QshkenaHi !Western" Jewry into religious movements or denominations, especially in Vorth Qmerica and Qnglophone countries. The main denominations today outside ,srael !where the situation is rather different" are Irthodo%, $onservative, and -eform. Irthodo% Judaism holds that both the Written and Iral Torah were divinely revealed to 'oses, and that the laws within it are binding and unchanging. Irthodo% Jews generally consider commentaries on the #hulchan Qruch !a condensed codification of halakha that largely favored #ephardic traditions" to be the definitive codification of Jewish law. Irthodo%y places a high importance on 'aimonidesO AD principles as a definition of Jewish faith. Irthodo%y is often divided into 'odern Irthodo% Judaism and +aredi Judaism. +aredi Judaism is less accommodating to modernity and has less interest in nonJewish disciplines, and it may be distinguished from 'odern Irthodo% Judaism in practice by its styles of dress and more stringent practices. #ubsets of +aredi Judaism include: +asidic Judaism, which is rooted in the Kabbalah and distinguished by reliance on a -ebbe or religious teacher@ and #ephardic +aredi Judaism, which emerged among #ephardic !Qsian and Vorth Qfrican" Jews in ,srael. $onservative Judaism, known as 'asorti outside the United #tates and $anada, is characteriHed by a commitment to traditional Jewish laws and customs, including observance of #habbat and kashrut, a deliberately nonfundamentalist teaching of Jewish principles of faith, a positive attitude toward modern culture, and an acceptance of both traditional rabbinic and modern scholarship when considering Jewish religious te%ts. $onservative Judaism teaches that Jewish law is not static, but has always developed in response to changing conditions. ,t holds that the Torah is a divine document written by prophets inspired by 0od and reflecting his will, but re/ects the Irthodo% position that it was dictated by 0od to 'oses.(LG)(LJ) $onservative Judaism holds that the Iral *aw is divine and normative, but holds that both the Written and Iral *aw may be interpreted by the rabbis to reflect modern sensibilities and suit modern conditions. -eform Judaism, called *iberal or Progressive Judaism in many countries, defines Judaism as a religion rather than as a race or culture, re/ects most of the ritual and ceremonial laws of the Torah while observing moral laws, and emphasiHes the ethical call of the Prophets. -eform Judaism has developed an egalitarian prayer service in the vernacular !along with +ebrew in many cases" and emphasiHes personal connection to Jewish tradition. Q -eform synagogue with mi%ed seating and ePual participation of men and women -econstructionist Judaism, like -eform Judaism, does not hold that Jewish law, as such, rePuires observance, but unlike -eform, -econstructionist thought emphasiHes the role of the community in deciding what observances to follow. Jewish -enewal is a recent Vorth Qmerican movement which focuses on spirituality and social /ustice, but does not address issues of Jewish law. 'en and women participate ePually in prayer. +umanistic Judaism is a small nontheistic movement centered in Vorth Qmerica and ,srael that emphasiHes Jewish culture and history as the sources of Jewish identity. Jewish movements in ,srael 'ain article: -eligion in ,srael 'ost Jewish ,sraelis classify themselves as ?secular? !hiloni", ?traditional? !masorti", ?religious? !dati" or +aredi. The term ?secular? is more popular as a selfdescription among ,sraeli families of western !.uropean" origin, whose Jewish identity may be a very powerful force in their lives, but who see it as largely independent of traditional religious belief and practice. This portion of the population largely ignores organiHed religious life, be it of the official ,sraeli rabbinate !Irthodo%" or of the liberal movements common to diaspora Judaism !-eform, $onservative". The term ?traditional? !masorti" is most common as a selfdescription among ,sraeli families of ?eastern? origin !i.e., the 'iddle .ast, $entral Qsia, and Vorth Qfrica". This term, as commonly used, has nothing to do with the official 'asorti !$onservative" movement. There is a great deal of ambiguity in the ways ?secular? and ?traditional? are used in ,srael: they often overlap, and they cover an e%tremely wide range in terms of ideology and religious observance. The term ?Irthodo%? is not popular in ,sraeli discourse, although the percentage of Jews who come under that category is far greater than in the diaspora. What would be called ?Irthodo%? in the diaspora includes what is commonly called dati !religious" or haredi !ultraIrthodo%" in ,srael. The former term includes what is called ?-eligious bionism? or the ?Vational -eligious? community, as well as what has become known over the past decade or so as haredileumi !nationalist haredi", or ?+ardal?, which combines a largely haredi lifestyle with nationalist ideology. !#ome people, in >iddish, also refer to observant Irthodo% Jews as frum, as opposed to frei !more liberal Jews"". +aredi applies to a populace that can be roughly divided into three separate groups along both ethnic and ideological lines: !A" ?*ithuanian? !nonhasidic" haredim of QshkenaHic origin@ !B" +asidic haredim of QshkenaHic origin@ and !D" #ephardic haredim. Qlternative Judaism 'ain article: Qlternative Judaism Karaite Judaism defines itself as the remnants of the non-abbinic Jewish sects of the #econd Temple period, such as the #adducees. The Karaites !?#cripturalists?" accept only the +ebrew Fible and what they view as the Peshat !?simple? meaning"@ they do not accept nonbiblical writings as authoritative. #ome .uropean Karaites do not see themselves as part of the Jewish community at all, although most do. The #amaritans, a very small community located entirely around 'ount 0eriHim in the VablusS#hechem region of the West Fank and in +olon, near Tel Qviv in ,srael, regard themselves as the descendants of the ,sraelites of the ,ron Qge kingdom of ,srael. Their religious practices are those of Judaism, but they regard only the written Torah as authoritative scripture !with a special regard also for the #amaritan Fook of Joshua". Jewish observances Jewish ethics 'ain article: Jewish ethics Jewish ethics may be guided by halakhic traditions, by other moral principles, or by central Jewish virtues. Jewish ethical practice is typically understood to be marked by values such as /ustice, truth, peace, loving kindness !chesed", compassion, humility, and selfrespect. #pecific Jewish ethical practices include practices of charity !tHedakah" and refraining from negative speech !lashon hara". Proper ethical practices regarding se%uality and many other issues are sub/ects of dispute among Jews. Prayers 'ain article: Jewish services Q >emenite Jew at morning prayers, wearing a kippah skullcap, prayer shawl and tefillin Traditionally, Jews recite prayers three times daily, #hacharit, 'incha, and 'aOariv with a fourth prayer, 'ussaf added on #habbat and holidays. Qt the heart of each service is the Qmidah or #hemoneh .srei. Qnother key prayer in many services is the declaration of faith, the #hema >israel !or #hema". The #hema is the recitation of a verse from the Torah !&euteronomy J:E": #hema >israel Qdonai .loheinu Qdonai .chadW?+ear, I ,sraelc The *ord is our 0odc The *ord is Inec? 'ost of the prayers in a traditional Jewish service can be recited in solitary prayer, although communal prayer is preferred. $ommunal prayer rePuires a Puorum of ten adult Jews, called a minyan. ,n nearly all Irthodo% and a few $onservative circles, only male Jews are counted toward a minyan@ most $onservative Jews and members of other Jewish denominations count female Jews as well. ,n addition to prayer services, observant traditional Jews recite prayers and benedictions throughout the day when performing various acts. Prayers are recited upon waking up in the morning, before eating or drinking different foods, after eating a meal, and so on. The approach to prayer varies among the Jewish denominations. &ifferences can include the te%ts of prayers, the frePuency of prayer, the number of prayers recited at various religious events, the use of musical instruments and choral music, and whether prayers are recited in the traditional liturgical languages or the vernacular. ,n general, Irthodo% and $onservative congregations adhere most closely to tradition, and -eform and -econstructionist synagogues are more likely to incorporate translations and contemporary writings in their services. Qlso, in most $onservative synagogues, and all -eform and -econstructionist congregations, women participate in prayer services on an ePual basis with men, including roles traditionally filled only by men, such as reading from the Torah. ,n addition, many -eform temples use musical accompaniment such as organs and mi%ed choirs. -eligious clothing Further information: kippah, tHitHit, and tefillin Q kippah !+ebrew: :de[ fg[ , plural kippot@ >iddish: hijkal] =, yarmulke" is a slightly rounded brimless skullcap worn by many Jews while praying, eating, reciting blessings, or studying Jewish religious te%ts, and at all times by some Jewish men. ,n Irthodo% communities, only men wear kippot@ in nonIrthodo% communities, some women also wear kippot. Kippot range in siHe from a small round beanie that covers only the back of the head, to a large, snug cap that covers the whole crown. THitHit !+ebrew: C=gm=mg " !QshkenaHi pronunciation: tHitHis" are special knotted ?fringes? or ?tassels? found on the four corners of the tallit !+ebrew: C=jg[ n] " !QshkenaHi pronunciation: tallis", or prayer shawl. The tallit is worn by Jewish men and some Jewish women during the prayer service. $ustoms vary regarding when a Jew begins wearing a tallit. ,n the #ephardi community, boys wear a tallit from bar mitHvah age. ,n some QshkenaHi communities it is customary to wear one only after marriage. Q tallit katan !small tallit" is a fringed garment worn under the clothing throughout the day. ,n some Irthodo% circles, the fringes are allowed to hang freely outside the clothing. Tefillin !+ebrew: o=jg[ dg Cp ", known in .nglish as phylacteries !from the 0reek word q2r4stuvw1x, meaning safeguard or amulet", are two sPuare leather bo%es containing biblical verses, attached to the forehead and wound around the left arm by leather straps. They are worn during weekday morning prayer by observant Jewish men and some Jewish women.(LL) Q kittel !>iddish: jn=i", a white kneelength overgarment, is worn by prayer leaders and some observant traditional Jews on the +igh +olidays. ,t is traditional for the head of the household to wear a kittel at the Passover seder in some communities, and some grooms wear one under the wedding canopy. Jewish males are buried in a tallit and sometimes also a kittel which are part of the tachrichim !burial garments". Jewish holidays 'ain article: Jewish holiday Jewish holidays are special days in the Jewish calendar, which celebrate moments in Jewish history, as well as central themes in the relationship between 0od and the world, such as creation, revelation, and redemption. #habbat 'ain article: #habbat Two braided #habbat challahs placed under an embroidered challah cover at the start of the #habbat meal #habbat, the weekly day of rest lasting from shortly before sundown on Friday night to nightfall #aturday night, commemorates 0odOs day of rest after si% days of creation.(LM) ,t plays a pivotal role in Jewish practice and is governed by a large corpus of religious law. Qt sundown on Friday, the woman of the house welcomes the #habbat by lighting two or more candles and reciting a blessing. The evening meal begins with the Kiddush, a blessing recited aloud over a cup of wine, and the 'ohtHi, a blessing recited over the bread. ,t is customary to have challah, two braided loaves of bread, on the table. &uring #habbat Jews are forbidden to engage in any activity that falls under DN categories of melakhah, translated literally as ?work?. ,n fact the activities banned on the #abbath are not ?work? in the usual sense: They include such actions as lighting a fire, writing, using money and carrying in the public domain. The prohibition of lighting a fire has been e%tended in the modern era to driving a car, which involves burning fuel, and using electricity. Three pilgrimage festivals 'ain article: #halosh regalim #ome sukkot in Jerusalem Jewish holy days !chaggim", celebrate landmark events in Jewish history, such as the .%odus from .gypt and the giving of the Torah, and sometimes mark the change of seasons and transitions in the agricultural cycle. The three ma/or festivals, #ukkot, Passover and #havuot, are called ?regalim? !derived from the +ebrew word ?regel?, or foot". In the three regalim, it was customary for the ,sraelites to make pilgrimages to Jerusalem to offer sacrifices in the Temple. Passover !Pesach" is a weeklong holiday beginning on the evening of the AEth day of Visan !the first month in the +ebrew calendar", that commemorates the .%odus from .gypt. Iutside ,srael, Passover is celebrated for eight days. ,n ancient times, it coincided with the barley harvest. ,t is the only holiday that centers on home service, the #eder. *eavened products !chametH" are removed from the house prior to the holiday, and are not consumed throughout the week. +omes are thoroughly cleaned to ensure no bread or bread byproducts remain, and a symbolic burning of the last vestiges of chametH is conducted on the morning of the #eder. 'atHo is eaten instead of bread. #havuot !?Pentecost? or ?Feast of Weeks?" celebrates the revelation of the Torah to the ,sraelites on 'ount #inai. Qlso known as the Festival of Fikurim, or first fruits, it coincided in biblical times with the wheat harvest. #havuot customs include allnight study marathons known as Tikkun *eil #havuot, eating dairy foods !cheesecake and blintHes are special favorites", reading the Fook of -uth, decorating homes and synagogues with greenery, and wearing white clothing, symboliHing purity. #ukkot !?Tabernacles? or ?The Festival of Fooths?" commemorates the ,sraelitesO forty years of wandering through the desert on their way to the Promised *and. ,t is celebrated through the construction of temporary booths called sukkot !sing. sukkah" that represent the temporary shelters of the ,sraelites during their wandering. ,t coincides with the fruit harvest, and marks the end of the agricultural cycle. Jews around the world eat in sukkot for seven days and nights. #ukkot concludes with #hemini QtHeret, where Jews begin to pray for rain and #imchat Torah, ?-e/oicing of the Torah?, a holiday which marks reaching the end of the Torah reading cycle and beginning all over again. The occasion is celebrated with singing and dancing with the Torah scrolls. #hemini QtHeret and #imchat Torah are technically considered to be a separate holiday and not a part of #ukkot. +igh +oly &ays 'ain article: +igh +olidays Jews praying in a synagogue on >om Kippur, from an AMLM painting by 'aurycy 0ottlieb The +igh +olidays !>amim Voraim or ?&ays of Qwe?" revolve around /udgment and forgiveness. -osh +ashanah, !also >om +abikkaron or ?&ay of -emembrance?, and >om Teruah, or ?&ay of the #ounding of the #hofar?". -osh +ashanah is the Jewish Vew >ear !literally, ?head of the year?", although it falls on the first day of the seventh month of the +ebrew calendar, Tishri. -osh +ashanah marks the beginning of the ARday period of atonement leading up to >om Kippur, during which Jews are commanded to search their souls and make amends for sins committed, intentionally or not, throughout the year. +oliday customs include blowing the shofar, or ramOs horn, in the synagogue, eating apples and honey, and saying blessings over a variety of symbolic foods, such as pomegranates. >om Kippur, !?&ay of Qtonement?" is the holiest day of the Jewish year. ,t is a day of communal fasting and praying for forgiveness for oneOs sins. Ibservant Jews spend the entire day in the synagogue, sometimes with a short break in the afternoon, reciting prayers from a special holiday prayerbook called a ?'achHor?. 'any non religious Jews make a point of attending synagogue services and fasting on >om Kippur. In the eve of >om Kippur, before candles are lit, a prefast meal, the ?seuda mafseket?, is eaten. #ynagogue services on the eve of >om Kippur begin with the Kol Vidre prayer. ,t is customary to wear white on >om Kippur, especially for Kol Vidre, and leather shoes are not worn. The following day, prayers are held from morning to evening. The final prayer service, called ?VeOilah?, ends with a long blast of the shofar. Purim 'ain article: Purim Purim street scene in Jerusalem Purim !+ebrew: Qbout this sound y=a<d !helpzinfo" P{r|m ?lots?" is a /oyous Jewish holiday that commemorates the deliverance of the Persian Jews from the plot of the evil +aman, who sought to e%terminate them, as recorded in the biblical Fook of .sther. ,t is characteriHed by public recitation of the Fook of .sther, mutual gifts of food and drink, charity to the poor, and a celebratory meal !.sther N:BB". Ither customs include drinking wine, eating special pastries called hamantashen, dressing up in masks and costumes, and organiHing carnivals and parties. Purim is celebrated annually on the AEth of the +ebrew month of Qdar, which occurs in February or 'arch of the 0regorian calendar. +anukkah 'ain article: +anukkah +anukkah !+ebrew: :fe[ _}~\ , ?dedication?" also known as the Festival of *ights, is an eightday Jewish holiday that starts on the BGth day of Kislev !+ebrew calendar". The festival is observed in Jewish homes by the kindling of lights on each of the festivalOs eight nights, one on the first night, two on the second night and so on. The holiday was called +anukkah !meaning ?dedication?" because it marks the rededication of the Temple after its desecration by Qntiochus , .piphanes. #piritually, +anukkah commemorates the ?'iracle of the Iil?. Qccording to the Talmud, at the rededication of the Temple in Jerusalem following the victory of the 'accabees over the #eleucid .mpire, there was only enough consecrated oil to fuel the eternal flame in the Temple for one day. 'iraculously, the oil burned for eight days which was the length of time it took to press, prepare and consecrate new oil. +anukkah is not mentioned in the Fible and was never considered a ma/or holiday in Judaism, but it has become much more visible and widely celebrated in modern times, mainly because it falls around the same time as $hristmas and has national Jewish overtones that have been emphasiHed since the establishment of the #tate of ,srael. Ither days 'ain article: Tisha FOQv 'ain articles: >om +ashoah and >om +aOatHmaut Tisha FOQv !+ebrew: `l` :hC or `l` n, ?the Vinth of Qv?" is a day of mourning and fasting commemorating the destruction of the First and #econd Temples, and in later times, the e%pulsion of the Jews from #pain. The modern holidays of >om +ashoah !+olocaust -emembrance &ay" and >om +aOatHmaut !,sraeli ,ndependence &ay" commemorate the horrors of the +olocaust and the achievement of ,srael independence, respectively. Torah readings 'ain article: Torah reading The core of festival and #habbat prayer services is the public reading of the Torah, along with connected readings from the other books of the Tanakh, called +aftarah. Iver the course of a year, the whole Torah is read, with the cycle starting over in the autumn, on #imchat Torah. #ynagogues and religious buildings 'ain article: #ynagogue ,nterior of the .snoga synagogue in Qmsterdam #ynagogues are Jewish houses of prayer and study. They usually contain separate rooms for prayer !the main sanctuary", smaller rooms for study, and often an area for community or educational use. There is no set blueprint for synagogues and the architectural shapes and interior designs of synagogues vary greatly. The -eform movement mostly refer to their synagogues as temples. #ome traditional features of a synagogue are: The ark !called aron hakodesh by QshkenaHim and hekhal by #ephardim" where the Torah scrolls are kept !the ark is often closed with an ornate curtain !parochet" outside or inside the ark doors"@ The elevated readerOs platform !called bimah by QshkenaHim and tebah by #ephardim", where the Torah is read !and services are conducted in #ephardi synagogues"@ The eternal light !ner tamid", a continually lit lamp or lantern used as a reminder of the constantly lit menorah of the Temple in Jerusalem The pulpit, or amud, a lectern facing the Qrk where the haHHan or prayer leader stands while praying. ,n addition to synagogues, other buildings of significance in Judaism include yeshivas, or institutions of Jewish learning, and mikvahs, which are ritual baths. &ietary laws: kashrut 'ain article: Kashrut The Jewish dietary laws are known as kashrut. Food prepared in accordance with them is termed kosher, and food that is not kosher is also known as treifah or treif. People who observe these laws are colloPuially said to be ?keeping kosher?.(LN) 'any of the laws apply to animalbased foods. For e%ample, in order to be considered kosher, mammals must have split hooves and chew their cud. The pig is arguably the most wellknown e%ample of a nonkosher animal. (MR) Qlthough it has split hooves, it does not chew its cud.(MA) For seafood to be kosher, the animal must have fins and scales. $ertain types of seafood, such as shellfish, crustaceans, and eels, are therefore considered nonkosher. $oncerning birds, a list of nonkosher species is given in the Torah. The e%act translations of many of the species have not survived, and some nonkosher birdsO identities are no longer certain. +owever, traditions e%ist about the kashrut status of a few birds. For e%ample, both chickens and turkeys are permitted in most communities. Ither types of animals, such as amphibians, reptiles, and most insects, are prohibited altogether.(LN) ,n addition to the rePuirement that the species be considered kosher, meat and poultry !but not fish" must come from a healthy animal slaughtered in a process known as shechitah. Without the proper slaughtering practices even an otherwise kosher animal will be rendered treif. The slaughtering process is intended to be Puick and relatively painless to the animal. Forbidden parts of animals include the blood, some fats, and the area in and around the sciatic nerve.(LN) Jewish law also forbids the consumption of meat and dairy products together. The waiting period between eating meat and eating dairy varies by the order in which they are consumed and by community, and can e%tend for up to si% hours. Fased on the Fiblical in/unction against cooking a kid in its motherOs milk, this rule is mostly derived from the Iral Torah, the Talmud and -abbinic law.(LN) $hicken and other kosher birds are considered the same as meat under the laws of kashrut, but the prohibition is -abbinic, not Fiblical.(MB) The use of dishes, serving utensils, and ovens may make food treif that would otherwise be kosher. Utensils that have been used to prepare nonkosher food, or dishes that have held meat and are now used for dairy products, render the food treif under certain conditions.(LN) Furthermore, all Irthodo% and some $onservative authorities forbid the consumption of processed grape products made by nonJews, due to ancient pagan practices of using wine in rituals.(LN) #ome $onservative authorities permit wine and grape /uice made without rabbinic supervision.(MD) The Torah does not give specific reasons for most of the laws of kashrut.(LN) +owever, a number of e%planations have been offered, including maintaining ritual purity, teaching impulse control, encouraging obedience to 0od, improving health, reducing cruelty to animals and preserving the distinctness of the Jewish community.(ME) The various categories of dietary laws may have developed for different reasons, and some may e%ist for multiple reasons. For e%ample, people are forbidden from consuming the blood of birds and mammals because, according to the Torah, this is where animal souls are contained.(MG) ,n contrast, the Torah forbids ,sraelites from eating nonkosher species because ?they are unclean?.(MJ) The Kabbalah describes sparks of holiness that are released by the act of eating kosher foods, but are too tightly bound in nonkosher foods to be released by eating.(ML) #urvival concerns supersede all the laws of kashrut, as they do for most halakhot.(MM)(MN) *aws of ritual purity 'ain article: Tumah Q silver matchbo% holder for ritual use on #habbat with inscription in +ebrew The Tanakh describes circumstances in which a person who is tahor or ritually pure may become tamei or ritually impure. #ome of these circumstances are contact with human corpses or graves, seminal flu%, vaginal flu%, menstruation, and contact with people who have become impure from any of these.(NR)(NA) ,n -abbinic Judaism, Kohanim, members of the hereditary caste that served as priests in the time of the Temple, are mostly restricted from entering grave sites and touching dead bodies.(NB) Family purity 'ain article: Viddah Qn important subcategory of the ritual purity laws relates to the segregation of menstruating women. These laws are also known as niddah, literally ?separation?, or family purity. ital aspects of halakha for traditionally observant Jews, they are not usually followed by Jews in liberal denominations.(ND) .specially in Irthodo% Judaism, the Fiblical laws are augmented by -abbinical in/unctions. For e%ample, the Torah mandates that a woman in her normal menstrual period must abstain from se%ual intercourse for seven days. Q woman whose menstruation is prolonged must continue to abstain for seven more days after bleeding has stopped.(NR) The -abbis conflated ordinary niddah with this e%tended menstrual period, known in the Torah as Havah, and mandated that a woman may not have se%ual intercourse with her husband from the time she begins her menstrual flow until seven days after it ends. ,n addition, -abbinical law forbids the husband from touching or sharing a bed with his wife during this period. Qfterwards, purification can occur in a ritual bath called a mikveh.(ND) Traditional .thiopian Jews keep menstruating women in separate huts and, similar to Karaite practice, do not allow menstruating women into their temples because of a templeOs special sanctity. .migration to ,srael and the influence of other Jewish denominations have led to .thiopian Jews adopting more normative Jewish practices. (NE)(NG) *ifecycle events *ifecycle events, or rites of passage, occur throughout a JewOs life that serve to strengthen Jewish identity and bind himSher to the entire community. Frit milah Welcoming male babies into the covenant through the rite of circumcision on their eighth day of life. The baby boy is also given his +ebrew name in the ceremony. Q naming ceremony intended as a parallel ritual for girls, named Heved habat or brit bat, en/oys limited popularity. Far mitHvah and Fat mitHvah This passage from childhood to adulthood takes place when a female Jew is twelve and a male Jew is thirteen years old among Irthodo% and some $onservative congregations. ,n the -eform movement, both girls and boys have their batSbar mitHvah at age thirteen. This is often commemorated by having the new adults, male only in the Irthodo% tradition, lead the congregation in prayer and publicly read a ?portion? of the Torah. 'arriage 'arriage is an e%tremely important lifecycle event. Q wedding takes place under a chupah, or wedding canopy, which symboliHes a happy house. Qt the end of the ceremony, the groom breaks a glass with his foot, symboliHing the continuous mourning for the destruction of the Temple, and the scattering of the Jewish people. &eath and 'ourning Judaism has a multistaged mourning practice. The first stage is called the shiva !literally ?seven?, observed for one week" during which it is traditional to sit at home and be comforted by friends and family, the second is the shloshim !observed for one month" and for those who have lost one of their parents, there is a third stage, avelut yud bet chodesh, which is observed for eleven months. $ommunity leadership $lassical priesthood The role of the priesthood in Judaism has significantly diminished since the destruction of the #econd Temple in LR $., when priests attended to the Temple and sacrifices. The priesthood is an inherited position, and although priests no longer have any but ceremonial duties, they are still honored in many Jewish communities. 'any Irthodo% Jewish communities believe that they will be needed again for a future Third Temple and need to remain in readiness for future duty. Kohen !priest" patrilineal descendant of Qaron, brother of 'oses. ,n the Temple, the kohanim were charged with performing the sacrifices. Today, a Kohen is the first one called up at the reading of the Torah, performs the Priestly Flessing, as well as complying with other uniPue laws and ceremonies, including the ceremony of redemption of the firstborn. *evi !*evite" Patrilineal descendant of *evi the son of Jacob. ,n the Temple in Jerusalem, the levites sang Psalms, performed construction, maintenance, /anitorial, and guard duties, assisted the priests, and sometimes interpreted the law and Temple ritual to the public. Today, a *evite is called up second to the reading of the Torah. Prayer leaders From the time of the 'ishnah and Talmud to the present, Judaism has rePuired specialists or authorities for the practice of very few rituals or ceremonies. Q Jew can fulfill most rePuirements for prayer by himself. #ome activitiesWreading the Torah and haftarah !a supplementary portion from the Prophets or Writings", the prayer for mourners, the blessings for bridegroom and bride, the complete grace after mealsWrePuire a minyan, the presence of ten Jews. The most common professional clergy in a synagogue are: -abbi of a congregation Jewish scholar who is charged with answering the legal Puestions of a congregation. This role rePuires ordination by the congregationOs preferred authority !i.e. from a respected Irthodo% rabbi or, if the congregation is $onservative or -eform, from academic seminaries". Q congregation does not necessarily rePuire a rabbi. #ome congregations have a rabbi but also allow members of the congregation to act as shatH or baal kriyah !see below". +assidic -ebbe rabbi who is the head of a +asidic dynasty. +aHHan !note: the ?h? denotes voiceless pharyngeal fricative" !cantor" a trained vocalist who acts as shatH. $hosen for a good voice, knowledge of traditional tunes, understanding of the meaning of the prayers and sincerity in reciting them. Q congregation does not need to have a dedicated haHHan. Jewish prayer services do involve two specified roles, which are sometimes, but not always, filled by a rabbi andSor haHHan in many congregations. ,n other congregations these roles are filled on an adhoc basis by members of the congregation who lead portions of services on a rotating basis: #haliach tHibur or #hatH !leaderWliterally ?agent? or ?representative?Wof the congregation" leads those assembled in prayer, and sometimes prays on behalf of the community. When a shatH recites a prayer on behalf of the congregation, he is not acting as an intermediary but rather as a facilitator. The entire congregation participates in the recital of such prayers by saying amen at their conclusion@ it is with this act that the shatHOs prayer becomes the prayer of the congregation. Qny adult capable of reciting the prayers clearly may act as shatH. ,n Irthodo% congregations and some $onservative congregations, only men can be prayer leaders, but all Progressive communities now allow women to serve in this function. The Faal kriyah or baal koreh !master of the reading" reads the weekly Torah portion. The rePuirements for being the baal kriyah are the same as those for the shatH. These roles are not mutually e%clusive. The same person is often Pualified to fill more than one role, and often does. Iften there are several people capable of filling these roles and different services !or parts of services" will be led by each. 'any congregations, especially larger ones, also rely on a: 0abbai !se%ton" $alls people up to the Torah, appoints the shatH for each prayer session if there is no standard shatH, and makes certain that the synagogue is kept clean and supplied. The three preceding positions are usually voluntary and considered an honor. #ince the .nlightenment large synagogues have often adopted the practice of hiring rabbis and haHHans to act as shatH and baal kriyah, and this is still typically the case in many $onservative and -eform congregations. +owever, in most Irthodo% synagogues these positions are filled by laypeople on a rotating or adhoc basis. Qlthough most congregations hire one or more -abbis, the use of a professional haHHan is generally declining in Qmerican congregations, and the use of professionals for other offices is rarer still. #pecialiHed religious roles &ayan !/udge" Qn ordained rabbi with special legal training who belongs to a beth din !rabbinical court". ,n ,srael, religious courts handle marriage and divorce cases, conversion and financial disputes in the Jewish community. 'ohel !circumciser" Qn e%pert in the laws of circumcision who has received training from a previously Pualified mohel and performs the brit milah !circumcision". #hochet !ritual slaughterer" ,n order for meat to be kosher, it must be slaughtered by a shochet who is an e%pert in the laws of kashrut and has been trained by another shochet. #ofer !scribe" Torah scrolls, tefillin !phylacteries", meHuHot !scrolls put on doorposts", and gittin !bills of divorce" must be written by a sofer who is an e%pert in +ebrew calligraphy and has undergone rigorous training in the laws of writing sacred te%ts. -osh yeshiva Q Torah scholar who runs a yeshiva. 'ashgiach of a yeshiva &epending on which yeshiva, might either be the person responsible for ensuring attendance and proper conduct, or even supervise the emotional and spiritual welfare of the students and give lectures on mussar !Jewish ethics". 'ashgiach #upervises manufacturers of kosher food, importers, caterers and restaurants to ensure that the food is kosher. 'ust be an e%pert in the laws of kashrut and trained by a rabbi, if not a rabbi himself. +istory 'ain article: Jewish history Irigins 'ain article: Irigins of Judaism Further information: Qncient #emitic religion #cenes from the Fook of .sther decorate the &ura.uropos synagogue dating from BEE $. Qt its core, the Tanakh is an account of the ,sraelitesO relationship with 0od from their earliest history until the building of the #econd Temple !c. GDG F$.". Qbraham is hailed as the first +ebrew and the father of the Jewish people. Qs a reward for his act of faith in one 0od, he was promised that ,saac, his second son, would inherit the *and of ,srael !then called $anaan". *ater, Jacob and his children were enslaved in .gypt, and 0od commanded 'oses to lead the .%odus from .gypt. Qt 'ount #inai they received the Torah the five books of 'oses. These books, together with VeviOim and Ketuvim are known as Torah #hebikhtav as opposed to the Iral Torah, which refers to the 'ishna and the Talmud. .ventually, 0od led them to the land of ,srael where the tabernacle was planted in the city of #hiloh for over DRR years to rally the nation against attacking enemies. Qs time went on, the spiritual level of the nation declined to the point that 0od allowed the Philistines to capture the tabernacle. The people of ,srael then told #amuel the prophet that they needed to be governed by a permanent king, and #amuel appointed #aul to be their King. When the people pressured #aul into going against a command conveyed to him by #amuel, 0od told #amuel to appoint &avid in his stead. The Western Wall in Jerusalem is a remnant of the wall encircling the #econd Temple. The Temple 'ount is the holiest site in Judaism. Ince King &avid was established, he told the prophet Vathan that he would like to build a permanent temple, and as a reward for his actions, 0od promised &avid that he would allow his son, #olomon, to build the first permanent temple and the throne would never depart from his children. -abbinic tradition holds that the details and interpretation of the law, which are called the Iral Torah or oral law, were originally an unwritten tradition based upon what 0od told 'oses on 'ount #inai. +owever, as the persecutions of the Jews increased and the details were in danger of being forgotten, these oral laws were recorded by -abbi Judah haVasi !Judah the Prince" in the 'ishnah, redacted circa BRR $.. The Talmud was a compilation of both the 'ishnah and the 0emara, rabbinic commentaries redacted over the ne%t three centuries. The 0emara originated in two ma/or centers of Jewish scholarship, Palestine and Fabylonia. $orrespondingly, two bodies of analysis developed, and two works of Talmud were created. The older compilation is called the Jerusalem Talmud. ,t was compiled sometime during the Eth century in ,srael. The Fabylonian Talmud was compiled from discussions in the houses of study by the scholars -avina ,, -avina ,,, and -av Qshi by GRR $., although it continued to be edited later. #ome critical scholars oppose the view that the sacred te%ts, including the +ebrew Fible, were divinely inspired. 'any of these scholars accept the general principles of the documentary hypothesis and suggest that the Torah consists of inconsistent te%ts edited together in a way that calls attention to divergent accounts.(NJ)(NL)(NM) 'any suggest that during the First Temple period, the people of ,srael believed that each nation had its own god, but that their god was superior to other gods.(NN)(ARR) #ome suggest that strict monotheism developed during the Fabylonian .%ile, perhaps in reaction to boroastrian dualism.(ARA) ,n this view, it was only by the +ellenic period that most Jews came to believe that their god was the only god, and that the notion of a clearly bounded Jewish nation identical with the Jewish religion formed.(ARB) John &ay argues that the origins of biblical >ahweh, .l, Qsherah, and FaOal, may be rooted in earlier $anaanite religion, which was centered on a pantheon of gods much like the 0reek Pantheon.(ARD) QntiPuity 'ain articles: Qncient ,srael and Judah, Fabylonian captivity, +ellenistic Judaism, +asmonean Kingdom, ,udaea Province, and Far Kokhba revolt The United 'onarchy was established under #aul and continued under King &avid and #olomon with its capital in Jerusalem. Qfter #olomonOs reign the nation split into two kingdoms, the Kingdom of ,srael !in the north" and the Kingdom of Judah !in the south". The Kingdom of ,srael was conPuered by the Qssyrian ruler #argon ,, in the late Mth century F$. with many people from the capital #amaria being taken captive to 'edia and the Khabur -iver valley. The Kingdom of Judah continued as an independent state until it was conPuered by a Fabylonian army in the early Jth century F$., destroying the First Temple that was at the center of ancient Jewish worship. The Judean elite were e%iled to Fabylonia and this is regarded as the first Jewish &iaspora. *ater many of them returned to their homeland after the subsePuent conPuest of Fabylonia by the Persians seventy years later, a period known as the Fabylonian $aptivity. Q new #econd Temple was constructed, and old religious practices were resumed. &uring the early years of the #econd Temple, the highest religious authority was a council known as the 0reat Qssembly, led by .Hra of the Fook of .Hra. Qmong other accomplishments of the 0reat Qssembly, the last books of the Fible were written at this time and the canon sealed. +ellenistic Judaism spread to Ptolemaic .gypt from the Drd century F$.. Qfter the 0reat -evolt !JJLD $.", the -omans destroyed the Temple. +adrian built a pagan idol on the Temple grounds and prohibited circumcision@ these acts of ethnocide provoked the Far Kokhba revolt ADBADJ $. after which the -omans banned the study of the Torah and the celebration of Jewish holidays, and forcibly removed virtually all Jews from Judea. ,n BRR $., however, Jews were granted -oman citiHenship and Judaism was recogniHed as a religio licita !?legitimate religion?", until the rise of 0nosticism and .arly $hristianity in the fourth century. Following the destruction of Jerusalem and the e%pulsion of the Jews, Jewish worship stopped being centrally organiHed around the Temple, prayer took the place of sacrifice, and worship was rebuilt around the community !represented by a minimum of ten adult men" and the establishment of the authority of rabbis who acted as teachers and leaders of individual communities !see Jewish diaspora". +istorical Jewish groupings !to ALRR" The Torah Qrk of the Feth Jakov synagogue in 'acedonia Qround the Ast century $. there were several small Jewish sects: the Pharisees, #adducees, bealots, .ssenes, and $hristians. Qfter the destruction of the #econd Temple in LR $., these sects vanished. $hristianity survived, but by breaking with Judaism and becoming a separate religion@ the Pharisees survived but in the form of -abbinic Judaism !today, known simply as ?Judaism?". The #adducees re/ected the divine inspiration of the Prophets and the Writings, relying only on the Torah as divinely inspired. $onsePuently, a number of other core tenets of the PhariseesO belief system !which became the basis for modern Judaism", were also dismissed by the #adducees. !The #amaritans practiced a similar religion, which is traditionally considered separate from Judaism." *ike the #adducees who relied only on the Torah, some Jews in the Mth and Nth centuries re/ected the authority and divine inspiration of the oral law as recorded in the 'ishnah !and developed by later rabbis in the two Talmuds", relying instead only upon the Tanakh. These included the ,sunians, the >udganites, the 'alikites, and others. They soon developed oral traditions of their own, which differed from the rabbinic traditions, and eventually formed the Karaite sect. Karaites e%ist in small numbers today, mostly living in ,srael. -abbinical and Karaite Jews each hold that the others are Jews, but that the other faith is erroneous. Iver a long time, Jews formed distinct ethnic groups in several different geographic areas W amongst others, the QshkenaHi Jews !of central and .astern .urope", the #ephardi Jews !of #pain, Portugal, and Vorth Qfrica", the Feta ,srael of .thiopia, and the >emenite Jews from the southern tip of the Qrabian Peninsula. 'any of these groups have developed differences in their prayers, traditions and accepted canons@ however these distinctions are mainly the result of their being formed at some cultural distance from normative !rabbinic" Judaism, rather than based on any doctrinal dispute. Persecutions 'ain articles: Persecution of Jews, Qntisemitism, and +istory of antisemitism Qntisemitism arose during the 'iddle Qges, in the form of persecutions, pogroms, forced conversion, e%pulsions, social restrictions and ghettoiHation. This was different in Puality to any repressions of Jews in ancient times. Qncient repression was politically motivated and Jews were treated no differently than any other ethnic group would have been. With the rise of the $hurches, attacks on Jews became motivated instead by theological considerations specifically deriving from $hristian views about Jews and Judaism.(ARE) +asidism 'ain article: +asidic Judaism +asidic Judaism was founded by >isroel ben .lieHer !ALRRALJR", also known as the FaOal #hem Tov !or Fesht". ,t originated in a time of persecution of the Jewish people, when .uropean Jews had turned inward to Talmud study@ many felt that most e%pressions of Jewish life had become too ?academic?, and that they no longer had any emphasis on spirituality or /oy. +is disciples attracted many followers@ they themselves established numerous +asidic sects across .urope. +asidic Judaism eventually became the way of life for many Jews in .urope. Waves of Jewish immigration in the AMMRs carried it to the United #tates. The movement itself claims to be nothing new, but a refreshment of original Judaism. Ir as some have put it: ?they merely reemphasiHed that which the generations had lost?.(ARG) Vevertheless, early on there was a serious schism between +asidic and non+asidic Jews. .uropean Jews who re/ected the +asidic movement were dubbed by the +asidim as 'isnagdim, !lit. ?opponents?". #ome of the reasons for the re/ection of +asidic Judaism were the overwhelming e%uberance of +asidic worship, its untraditional ascriptions of infallibility and alleged miracleworking to their leaders, and the concern that it might become a messianic sect. #ince then differences between the +asidim and their opponents have slowly diminished and both groups are now considered part of +aredi Judaism. The .nlightenment and new religious movements 'ain articles: +askalah and Jewish religious movements ,n the late AMth century $., .urope was swept by a group of intellectual, social and political movements known as the .nlightenment. The .nlightenment led to reductions in the .uropean laws that prohibited Jews to interact with the wider secular world, thus allowing Jews access to secular education and e%perience. Q parallel Jewish movement, +askalah or the ?Jewish .nlightenment?, began, especially in $entral .urope and Western .urope, in response to both the .nlightenment and these new freedoms. ,t placed an emphasis on integration with secular society and a pursuit of nonreligious knowledge through reason. With the promise of political emancipation many Jews saw no reason to continue to observe Jewish law and increasing numbers of Jews assimilated into $hristian .urope. 'odern religious movements of Judaism all formed in reaction to this trend. ,n $entral .urope, followed by 0reat Fritain and the United #tates, -eform Judaism and *iberal Judaism developed, rela%ing legal obligations !especially those that limited Jewish relations with nonJews", emulating Protestant decorum in prayer, and emphasiHing the ethical values of JudaismOs Prophetic tradition. 'odern Irthodo% Judaism developed in reaction to -eform Judaism, by leaders who argued that Jews could participate in public life as citiHens ePual to $hristians, while maintaining the observance of Jewish law. 'eanwhile, in the United #tates, wealthy -eform Jews helped .uropean scholars, who were Irthodo% in practice but critical !and skeptical" in their study of the Fible and Talmud, to establish a seminary to train rabbis for immigrants from .astern .urope. These leftwing Irthodo% rabbis were /oined by rightwing -eform rabbis who felt that Jewish law should not be entirely abandoned, to form the $onservative movement. Irthodo% Jews who opposed the +askalah formed +aredi Irthodo% Judaism. Qfter massive movements of Jews following The +olocaust and the creation of the state of ,srael, these movements have competed for followers from among traditional Jews in or from other countries. #pectrum of observance Judaism is practised in all parts of the world, for e%ample in a synagogue in downtown 'umbai. $ountries such as the United #tates, ,srael, $anada, United Kingdom, Qrgentina and #outh Qfrica contain large Jewish populations. Jewish religious practice varies widely through all levels of observance. Qccording to the BRRA edition of the Vational Jewish Population #urvey, in the United #tatesO Jewish communityWthe worldOs second largestWE.D million Jews out of G.A million had some sort of connection to the religion. If that population of connected Jews, MRT participated in some sort of Jewish religious observance, but only EMT belonged to a synagogue, and fewer than AJT attend regularly.(ARJ) Firth rates for Qmerican Jews have dropped from B.R to A.L.(ARL) !-eplacement rate is B.A." ,ntermarriage rates range from ERGRT in the U#, and only about a third of children of intermarried couples are raised as Jews. &ue to intermarriage and low birth rates, the Jewish population in the U# shrank from G.G million in ANNR to G.A million in BRRA. This is indicative of the general population trends among the Jewish community in the &iaspora, but a focus on total population obscures growth trends in some denominations and communities, such as +aredi Judaism. The Faal teshuva movement is a movement of Jews who have ?returned? to religion or become more observant. Judaism and other religions $hristianity and Judaism 'ain article: $hristianity and Judaism #ee also: Judeo$hristian, $hristianity and antisemitism, JudaismOs view of Jesus, $ultural and historical background of Jesus, and $hristianJewish reconciliation (icon) This section rePuires e%pansion. !'ay BRRM" +istorians and theologians regularly review the changing relationship between some $hristian groups and the Jewish people@ the article on $hristianJewish reconciliation studies one recent issue. ,slam and Judaism 'ain article: ,slam and Judaism #ee also: +istory of the Jews under 'uslim rule and ,slam and antisemitism The relationship between ,slam and Judaism is special and close. Foth religions claim to arise from the patriarch Qbraham, and are therefore considered Qbrahamic religions. Qs fellow monotheists, 'uslims view Jews as ?people of the book?, a term that Jews have subsePuently adopted as a way of describing their own connection to the Torah and other holy te%ts.(ARM) ,n turn, many Jews maintain that 'uslims adhere to the #even *aws of Voah. Thus, Judaism views 'uslims as righteous people of 0od.(ARN) Jews have interacted with 'uslims since the Lth century, when ,slam originated and spread in the Qrabian peninsula, and many aspects of ,slamOs core values, structure, /urisprudence and practice are based on Judaism.(AAR)(AAA) 'uslim culture and philosophy have heavily influenced practitioners of Judaism in the ,slamic world.(AAB) ,n premodern 'uslim countries, Jews rarely faced martyrdom, e%ile or forcible conversion, and were mostly free in their choice of residence and profession.(AAD) ,ndeed, the years LAB to ARJJ $. under the Ummayad and the Qbbasid rulers have been called the 0olden age of Jewish culture in #pain. Von'uslim monotheists living in these countries, including Jews, were known as dhimmis. &himmis were allowed to practice their religion and to administer their internal affairs, but they were sub/ect to certain restrictions that were not imposed on 'uslims. (AAE) For e%ample, they had to pay the /iHya, a per capita ta% imposed on free adult non'uslim males,(AAE) and they were also forbidden to bear arms or testify in court cases involving 'uslims.(AAG) 'any of the laws regarding dhimmis were highly symbolic. For e%ample, dhimmis in some countries were rePuired to wear distinctive clothing, a practice not found in either the urOan or hadiths but invented in early medieval Faghdad and inconsistently enforced.(AAJ) Jews in 'uslim countries were not entirely free from persecutionWfor e%ample, many were killed, e%iled or forcibly converted in the ABth century, in Persia and by the rulers of the Qlmohad dynasty in Vorth Qfrica and QlQndalus.(AAL) Qt times, Jews were also restricted in their choice of residenceWin 'orocco, Jews were confined to walled Puarters !mellahs" beginning in the AGth century and increasingly since the early ANth century.(AAM) ,n the late BRth century, Jews were e%pelled from nearly all the Qrab countries.(AAN)(ABR)(ABA) 'ost have chosen to live in ,srael. Today, antisemitic themes have become commonplace in the propaganda of Qrab ,slamic movements such as +iHbullah and +amas, in the pronouncements of various agencies of the ,slamic -epublic of ,ran, and even in the newspapers and other publications of -efah Partisi.(ABB) #yncretic movements incorporating Judaism There are some movements that combine elements of Judaism with those of other religions. The most well known of these is 'essianic Judaism, which arose in the ANJRs.(ABD)(ABE)(ABG)(ABJ) ,t blends evangelical $hristian theology with elements of Jewish terminology and ritual.(ABJ)(ABL)(ABM)(ABN)(ADR) The movement states that Jesus is the Jewish 'essiah, and generally that he is part of the Trinity,(ADA)(ADB) and salvation is only achieved through acceptance of Jesus as oneOs savior.(ADD) #ome members of the movement are ethnically Jewish, and some of them argue that 'essianic Judaism is a sect of Judaism.(ADE) Jewish organiHations and religious movements re/ect this, stating that 'essianic Judaism is a $hristian sect.(ADG) Ither e%amples of syncretism include JudeoPaganists, a loosely organiHed set of Jews who incorporate pagan or Wiccan beliefs with some Jewish religious practices, like 'essianic Judaism@ Jewish Fuddhists, another loosely organiHed group that incorporates elements of Qsian spirituality in their faith@ and some -enewal Jews who borrow freely and openly from Fuddhism, #ufism, Vative Qmerican religion, and other faiths. The Kabbalah $entre, which employs teachers from multiple religions, is a Vew Qge movement that claims to populariHe the kabbalah, part of the Jewish esoteric tradition. #ee also Portal icon Judaism portal Portal icon -eligion portal Fook icon Fook: Qbrahamic religions Fook: Judaism 'ain article: Iutline of Judaism QntiJudaism Frankism Jewish views of religious pluralism Judaism by country *ist of converts to Judaism #abbateanism #ecular Jewish culture $riticism of Judaism United #tates military chaplain symbols -eferences Jump up 'ethods and $ategories: Judaism and 0ospel Jump up QskI%ford: Judaism Jump up #haye J.&. $ohen ANNN The Feginnings of Jewishness: Foundaries, arieties, Uncertainties, Ferkeley: University of $alifornia Press@ p. L Jump up Jacobs, *ouis !BRRL". ?Judaism?. ,n Fred #kolnik. .ncyclopaedia Judaica AA !Bd ed.". Farmington +ills, 'ich.: Thomson 0ale. p. GAA. ,#FV NLMRRBMJGNBMB. ?Judaism, the religion, philosophy, and way of life of the Jews.? Jump up ?Knowledge -esources: Judaism?. Ferkley $enter for -eligion, Peace, and World Qffairs. -etrieved BRAAAABB. Jump up ?What is the oral Torah^?. Torah.org. -etrieved BRARRMBB. Jump up ?Karaite Jewish University?. K/uonline.com. -etrieved BRARRMBB. Jump up ?#ociety for +umanistic Judaism?. #h/.org. -etrieved BRARRMBB. Jump up ?Jewish &enominations?. -eligionFacts. -etrieved BRARRMBB. Jump up ?-eform Judaism?. -eligionFacts. -etrieved BRARRMBB. Jump up ?What is -eform Judaism^?. -eform/udaism.org. -etrieved BRARRMBB. Jump up .ncyclopdia Fritannica. ?Fritannica Inline .ncyclopedia: Fet &in?. Fritannica.com. -etrieved BRARRMBB. Jump up to: a b ?Judaism ARA: -abbis, Priests and Ither -eligious Functionaries?. JewfaP.org. -etrieved BRARRMBB. Jump up ?+istory of Judaism until AJE F$.?. +istory of Judaism. FF$. Jump up ?-eligion .thics Judaism?. FF$. -etrieved BRARRMBB. Jump up -eligion: Three -eligions, Ine 0od PF# Jump up #ettings of silver: an introduction to Judaism p. GN by #tephen '. Wylen, Paulist Press, BRRR (A) Jump up +eribert Fusse !ANNM". ,slam, Judaism, and $hristianity: Theological and +istorical Qffiliations. 'arkus Wiener Publishers. pp. JDAAB. ,#FV NLMAGGMLJAEEG. Jump up ,rving '. beitlin !BRRL". The +istorical 'uhammad. Polity. pp. NBND. ,#FV NLMRLEGJDNNNE. Jump up Jewish $ontributions to $iviliHation: Qn .stimate !book" Jump up #ee, for e%ample, &eborah &ash 'oore, Qmerican Jewish ,dentity Politics, University of 'ichigan Press, BRRM, p. DRD@ .wa 'orawska, ,nsecure Prosperity: #mallTown Jews in ,ndustrial Qmerica, AMNRANER, Princeton University Press, ANNN. p. BAL@ Peter >. 'edding, alues, interests and identity: Jews and politics in a changing world, olume AA of #tudies in contemporary Jewry, I%ford University Press, ANNG, p. JE@ .Hra 'endelsohn, People of the city: Jews and the urban challenge, olume AG of #tudies in contemporary Jewry, I%ford University Press, ANNN, p. GG@ *ouis #andy 'aisel, ,ra V. Forman, &onald Qltschiller, $harles Walker Fassett, Jews in Qmerican politics: essays, -owman *ittlefield, BRRE, p. AGM@ #eymour 'artin *ipset, Qmerican .%ceptionalism: Q &ouble.dged #word, W. W. Vorton $ompany, ANNL, p. AJN. Jump up ?Jewish Population?. -etrieved N #eptember BRAD. Jump up World Jewish Population, BRAR. #ergio &ella Pergola, +ebrew University of Jerusalem Jump up Vahum #arna ANJN Understanding 0enesis. Vew >ork: #chocken Jump up Jacob Veusner, OO&efining JudaismOO, in Jacob Veusner and Qlan QveryPeck, ?The Flackwell companion to Judaism? !Flackwell, BRRD", p.D. Fooks.google.com.au. BRRDRBBD. ,#FV NLMAGLLAMRGND. -etrieved BRARRMBB. Jump up 0en. AL:DM 0enesis AL: DM: Qbram fell facedown, and 0od said to him, ?Qs for me, this is my covenant with you: >ou will be the father of many nations. Vo longer will you be called Qbram @ your name will be Qbraham, for , have made you a father of many nations. , will make you very fruitful@ , will make nations of you, and kings will come from you. , will establish my covenant as an everlasting covenant between me and you and your descendants after you for the generations to come, to be your 0od and the 0od of your descendants after you. The whole land of $anaan, where you are now an alien, , will give as an everlasting possession to you and your descendants after you@ and , will be their 0od@? 0en. BB:ALAM 0enesis BB: ALAM: , will surely bless you and make your descendants as numerous as the stars in the sky and as the sand on the seashore. >our descendants will take possession of the cities of their enemies, and through your offspring all nations on earth will be blessed, because you have obeyed me.? Jump up .%odus BR:D ?>ou shall have no other gods before me@ &eut. J:G &euteronomy J:G ?*ove the *I-& your 0od with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your strength.? Jump up *ev. AN:AM *eviticus AN:AM: ?O&o not seek revenge or bear a grudge against one of your people, but love your neighbor as yourself. , am the *ord? Jump up Kadushin, 'a%, ANLB The -abbinic 'ind. Vew >ork: Floch Publishing $ompany. ANE Jump up Kadushin, 'a%, ANLB The -abbinic 'ind. Vew >ork: Floch Publishing $ompany. BRD Jump up The Fooks of 'elachim !Kings" and Fook of >eshaiahu !,saiah" in the Tanakh contain a few of the many Fiblical accounts of ,sraelite kings and segments of ancient ,sraelOs population worshiping other gods. For e%ample: King #olomonOs ?wives turned away his heart after other gods...(and he) did that which was evil in the sight of the *I-&, and went not fully after the *I-&? !elaborated in A 'elachim AA:EAR"@ King Qhab ?went and served Faal, and worshiped him...Qnd Qhab made the Qsherah (a pagan place of worship)@ and Qhab did yet more to provoke the *I-&, the 0od of ,srael, than all the kings of ,srael that were before him? !A 'elachim AJ:DADD"@ the prophet ,saiah condemns the people who ?prepare a table for (the idol) Fortune, and that offer mingled wine in full measure unto (the idol) &estiny? !>eshaiahu JG:AAAB". Translation: JP# !Jewish Publication #ociety" edition of the Tanakh, from ANAL, available at 'echon 'amre. Jump up The Jewish roots of $hristological monotheism: papers from the #t. Qndrews conference on the historical origins of the worship of Jesus. Fooks.google.com. ANNN. ,#FV NLMNRREAADJAN. -etrieved BRAR RMBB. Jump up #teinberg, 'ilton ANEL Fasic Judaism Vew >ork: +arcourt Frace Jovanovich. DJ Jump up ?Judaism ARA: 'ovements of Judaism?. JewfaP.org. -etrieved BRARRMBB. Jump up -abbi #. of 'ontpelier, >ad -ama, >. Qlfacher, -osh Qmanah. Jump up ?'aimonides AD Foundations of Judaism?. 'esora. ?+owever if he re/ects one of these fundamentals he leaves the nation and is a denier of the fundamentals and is called a heretic, a denier, etc.? Jump up -abbi 'ordechai Flumenfeld. ?'aimonides, AD Principles of Faith?. Qish +aTorah. ?Qccording to the -ambam, their acceptance defines the minimum rePuirement necessary for one to relate to the Qlmighty and +is Torah as a member of the People of ,srael? Jump up to: a b c &aniel #eptimus. ?The Thirteen Principles of Faith?. 'yJewish*earning.com. Jump up -onald *. .isenberg !BRRE". The JP# guide to Jewish traditions. Jewish Publication #ociety. p. GRN. ,#FV RMBLJRLJRA. ?The concept of ?dogma? is ... not a basic idea in Judaism.? Jump up &ogma in 'edieval Jewish Thought, 'enachem Kellner. Jump up ?The Thirteen Principles of the Jewish Faith?. +ebrewE$hristians. -etrieved BRARRMBB. Jump up ?What &o Jews Felieve^?. 'echon 'amre. ?The closest that anyone has ever come to creating a widely accepted list of Jewish beliefs is 'aimonidesO thirteen principles of faith.? Jump up The JP# guide to Jewish traditions, page GAR, ?The one that eventually secured almost universal acceptance was the Thirteen Principles of faith? Jump up ?Judaism ARA: What &o Jews Felieve^?. JewfaP.org. -etrieved BRARRMBB. Jump up ?&escription of Judaism, Intario $onsultants on -eligious Tolerance?. -eligioustolerance.org. -etrieved BRARRMBB. Jump up ?Judaism ARA: The Patriarchs and the Irigins of Judaism?. JewfaP.org. -etrieved BRARRMBB. Jump up -ietti, -abbi Jonathan. ?+ow &o >ou Know the .%odus -eally +appened^?. Qrchived from the original on BRRERNAM. The word ?emunah? has been translated incorrectly by the King James Fible as merely ?belief? or ?faith?, when in actuality, it means conviction, which is a much more emphatic knowledge of 0od based on e%perience. Jump up ?Jewish #acred Te%ts?. -eligionFacts. -etrieved BRARRMBB. Jump up '. #an AR:A. Translation available here (B). Jump up ?Judaism ARA: Q 0lossary of Fasic Jewish Terms and $oncepts?. Union of Irthodo% Jewish $ongregations in Qmerica. Qpril AB, BRRJ. Jump up The Prayer book: Weekday, #abbath, and Festival translated and arranged by Fen bion Fokser. Vew >ork: +ebrew Publishing $ompany. NAR Jump up Kadushin, 'a% ANLB The -abbinic 'ind Vew >ork: Floch Publishing. BAD Jump up Veusner, Jacob BRRD ,nvitation to the Talmud #tipf and #on, Iregon %vii%%ii Jump up #tern, &avid ?'idrash and ,ndeterminacy? in $ritical ,nPuiry, ol. AG, Vo. A !Qutumn, ANMM", p. AGA. Jump up Veusner, Jacob BRRD ,nvitation to the Talmud #tipf and #on, Iregon %viivi%@ #teinsaltH, Qdin ANLJ The .ssential Talmud Vew >ork: Fasic Fooks. DN@ #track, +ermann ANMR ,ntroduction to the 'idrash and Talmud Vew >ork: Qtheneum. NG@ #tern, &avid ?'idrash and ,ndeterminacy? in $ritical ,nPuiry, ol. AG, Vo. A !Qutumn, ANMM", pp. ADBAJA Jump up #tern, &avid ?'idrash and ,ndeterminacy? in $ritical ,nPuiry, ol. AG, Vo. A !Qutumn, ANMM", p. AEL. Jump up $ohen, Qbner ANEN .verymanOs Talmud Vew >ork: ..P. &utton $o. %%iv@ #track, +ermann ANMR ,ntroduction to the 'idrash and Talmud Vew >ork: Qtheneum. NG Jump up $ohen, Qbner ANEN .verymanOs Talmud Vew >ork: ..P. &utton $o. %%iv@ #teinsaltH, Qdin ANLJ The .ssential Talmud Vew >orki: Fasic Fooks. BBB@ #track, +ermann ANMR ,ntroduction to the 'idrash and Talmud Vew >ork: Qtheneum. NG Jump up #track, +ermann ANMR ,ntroduction to the 'idrash and Talmud Vew >ork: Qtheneum. NG Jump up j<~ =_`j jla= C_=a a<; Jerusalem: ANLE, pp. DMDN Jump up $hief -abbi #ir Jonathan #acks, BRRJ The Koren #acks #iddur: +ebrewS.nglish Prayer Fook: The QuthoriHed &aily Prayer Fook of the United +ebrew $ongregations of the $ommonwealth *ondon: +arper $ollins Publishers pp. GEGG Jump up Vosson #cherman BRRD The $omplete Qrtscroll #iddur Third .dition Frooklyn, V.>.: 'esorah Publications pp. ENGD Jump up -abbi #chneur balman of *iadi, Vissen 'angel, BRRD #iddur Tehillat +ashem Kehot Publication #ociety. BEBG Jump up ?'ethods and $ategories: Judaism and 0ospel?. Fibleinterp.com. BRRLAARJ. -etrieved BRARRM BB. Jump up QskI%ford: Judaism(dead link) Jump up Iscar #akrsaune, ?,n the #hadow of the Temple: Jewish ,nfluences on .arly $hristianity?,nterarsity Press, BRRB, PP.DNFF. Fooks.google.com.au. BRRB. ,#FV NLMRMDRMBJLRE. -etrieved BRARRMBB. Jump up The I%ford .nglish &ictionary. Jump up Foyarin, &aniel !Ictober AE, ANNE". ?,ntroduction?. Q radical Jew: Paul and the politics of identity. Ferkeley, $alifornia: University of $alifornia Press. pp. ADDM. ,#FV RGBRRMGNBB. *$$V NDRDJBJN. -etrieved BRRJRJAG. ?Paul was motivated by a +ellenistic desire for the Ine, which among other things produced an ideal of a universal human essence, beyond difference and hierarchy. This universal humanity, however, was predicated !and still is" on the dualism of the flesh and the spirit, such that while the body is particular, marked through practice as Jew or 0reek, and through anatomy as male or female, the spirit is universal. Paul did not, however, re/ect the bodyWas did, for instance, the gnosticsWbut rather promoted a system whereby the body had its place, albeit subordinated to the spirit. PaulOs anthropological dualism was matched by a hermeneutical dualism as well. Just as the human being is divided into a fleshy and a spiritual component, so also is language itself. ,t is composed of outer, material signs and inner, spiritual significations. When this is applied to the religious system that Paul inherited, the physical, fleshy signs of the Torah, of historical Judaism, are re interpreted as symbols of that which Paul takes to be universal rePuirements and possibilities for humanity.? Jump up Foyarin, &aniel !ANNE". ?Qnswering the 'ail?. Q radical Jew: Paul and the politics of identity. Ferkeley, $alifornia: University of $alifornia Press. ,#FV RGBRRMGNBB. ?Jewishness disrupts the very categories of identity, because it is not national, not genealogical, not religious, but all of these, in dialectical tension with one another.? Jump up Weiner, -ebecca !BRRL". ?Who is a Jew^?. Jewish irtual *ibrary. -etrieved BRRLARRJ. Jump up ?OO-eformOs Position In...What is unacceptable practice^OO?. FaPs.org. BRARRJBN. -etrieved BRAR RMBB. Jump up +eschel, #usannah !ANNM" Qbraham 0eiger and the Jewish Jesus. $hicago: University of $hicago Press. p. AGL. ,#FV RBBJDBNGND Jump up ?*aw of -eturn GLARANGR?. ,srael 'inistry of Foreign Qffairs. BRRL. -etrieved BRRLARBB. Jump up Jacob, Walter !ANML". $ontemporary Qmerican -eform -esponsa. 'ars, PQ: Publishers $hoice Fook 'fg.. Fooks.google.com. ANML. ,#FV RMMABDRRDR. -etrieved BRAARNBM. Jump up -obert 0ordis. ?Torah 'i#inai:$onservative iews?. Q 'odern Qpproach to a *iving +alachah. 'asorti World. Qrchived from the original on BRRLRLAD. ?The Torah is an emanation of 0od... This conception does not mean, for us, that the process of revalation consisted of dictation by 0od.? Jump up ?$onservative Judaism?. Jewlicious. ?We therefore understand this term as a metaphor to mean that the Torah is divine and that it reflects 0ods will.? Jump up ?Tefillin?, ?The Fook of Jewish Knowledge?, Vathan Qusubel, $rown Publishers, V>, ANJE, p.EGM" Jump up ?#habbat?. Judaism ARA. Qpril AB, BRRJ. Jump up to: a b c d e f g ?Judaism ARA: Kashrut?. JewfaP.org. -etrieved BRARRMBB. Jump up $haya #huchat. ?The Kosher Pig^?. ?,t is also the most Puintessentially treif of animals, with its name being nearly synonymous with nonkosher ... Qlthough far from alone in the litany of nonkosher animals, the pig seems to stand in a class of its own.? Jump up ?Tamar *evy, #t. *ouis, 'I Flock >eshiva +igh #chool, 0rade N?. IUkosher.org. -etrieved BRARRMBB. Jump up #hulchan Qruch, >oreh &eOah, !ML:D" Jump up .lliot &orff, ?In the Use of Qll Wines? P&F !B.AN 'F", >& ABD:A.ANMG, pp. AAAG. Jump up ?Kashrut Facts?. -eligionfacts.com. -etrieved BRARRMBB. Jump up ?Judaism ARA: Kashrut: Jewish &ietary *aws?. JewfaP.org. -etrieved BRARRMBB. Jump up ayyiPra !*eviticus" AA Jump up -ice, >israel !BRRLRJAR". ?Judaism and the Qrt of .ating?. $habad. -etrieved BRARRMBB. Jump up Jewish life in WW,, .ngland: ?there was a...special dispensation...that allowed Jews serving in the armed services to eat ?nonkosher? when no Jewish food was available@ that deviation from halacha was allowed Oin order to save a human life including your own.O? Jump up >. *ichtenshtein '.Q. ?Weekly Pamphlet MRG?. Far,lan University, Faculty of Jewish #tudies, -abbinical office. ?...certain prohibitions become allowed without a doubt because of lifethreatening circumstances, like for e%ample eating nonkosher food? Jump up to: a b ayyiPra !*eviticus" AG. Jump up Famidbar !Vumbers" AN. Jump up Qvi Kehat. ?Torah tidbits?. Iu.org. -etrieved BRARRMBB. Jump up to: a b ?Judaism ARA: Kosher #e%?. JewfaP.org. -etrieved BRARRMBB. Jump up ?Karaites?. .ncyclopedia.com. -etrieved BRARRMBB. Jump up Wasserfall, -ahel !ANNN". Women and water: menstruation in Jewish life and law. Frandeis University Press. ,#FV RMLEGANJRM. Jump up >eheHkal Kauffman, The -eligion of ,srael Jump up -obert Qlter The Qrt of Fiblical Poetry Jump up .. Q. #peiser 0enesis !The Qnchor Fible" Jump up John Fright Q +istory of ,srael Jump up 'artin Voth The +istory of ,srael Jump up .phraim Urbach The #ages Jump up #haye $ohen The beginnings of Jewishness Jump up John &ay >ahweh and the 0ods and 0oddesses of $anaan, page JM. Jump up *angmuir, 0avin !ANND". +istory, religion, and antisemitism. University of $alifornia Press. ,#FV R GBRRLLBMM. Jump up ??The 'aggid of 'eHritch? $hapter L Ipposition ,ntensifies?. Vishmas.org. -etrieved BRARRMBB. Jump up http:SSwww.harrisinteractive.comSvaultS+arris,nteractivePoll-esearchWhile'ostQmericans Felievein0odInlyDJpctQBRRDAR.pdf -eligious service attendance at least once a month Jump up This is 'y Feloved, This is 'y Friend: Q -abbinic *etter on ,ntimate relations, p. BL, .lliot V. &orff Jump up +ence for e%ample such books as People of the Fook: Thirty #cholars -eflect on Their Jewish ,dentity !Johns +opkins University Press, ANNL" and People of the Fook: $anon, 'eaning, and Quthority !+arvard University Press, ANNL". Jump up ?Jewish -abbi admits ,slam is the oldest religion?. >ouTube. -etrieved BRARRMBB. Jump up Prager, &@ Telushkin, J. Why the Jews^: The -eason for Qntisemitism. Vew >ork: #imon #chuster, ANMD. page AARABJ. Jump up Jewish'uslim -elations, Past Present, -abbi &avid -osen Jump up ?The 0olden Qge of QrabJewish $oe%istence, The 0olden .ra?. The Peace FQ. ANNMRNRA. -etrieved BRARRMBB. Jump up *ewis !ANNN", p.ADA@ !ANME", pp.M,JB Jump up to: a b *ewis !ANME", pp.AR, BR Jump up *ewis !ANME", p. N, BL Jump up *ewis !ANNN", p.ADA Jump up *ewis !ANME", pp. AL, AM, GB, NE, NG@ #tillman !ANLN", pp. BL, LL Jump up *ewis !ANME", p. BM Jump up Why Jews Fled the Qrab $ountries :: 'iddle .ast uarterly. 'eforum.org. -etrieved on BRADRL BM. Jump up #humsky, &mitry. !BRABRNAB" -ecogniHe Jews as refugees from Qrab countries ,srael Vews. +aaretH. -etrieved on BRADRLBM. Jump up 'eir, .sther. !BRABARRN" The truth about the e%pulsion ,srael Vews. +aaretH. -etrieved on BRADRLBM. Jump up 'uslim Qnti#emitism by Fernard *ewis !'iddle .ast uarterly" June ANNM Jump up Feher, #hoshanah. Passing over .aster: $onstructing the Foundaries of 'essianic Judaism, -owman Qltamira, ANNM, ,#FV NLMRLJANMNGDR, p. AER. ?This interest in developing a Jewish ethnic identity may not be surprising when we consider the ANJRs, when 'essianic Judaism arose.? Jump up Qriel, >aakov !BRRJ". ?Judaism and $hristianity Unitec The UniPue $ulture of 'essianic Judaism?. ,n 0allagher, .ugene .@ Qshcraft, W. 'ichael. Jewish and $hristian Traditions. ,ntroduction to Vew and Qlternative -eligions in Qmerica B. Westport, $onn: 0reenwood Publishing 0roup. p. ANA. ,#FV NLMRBLG NMLAEG. *$$V BRRJRBBNGE. I$*$ DAGJMNADE. ?,n the late ANJRs and ANLRs, both Jews and $hristians in the United #tates were surprised to see the rise of a vigorous movement of Jewish $hristians or $hristian Jews.? Jump up Qriel, >aakov !BRRJ". ?Judaism and $hristianity Unitec The UniPue $ulture of 'essianic Judaism?. ,n 0allagher, .ugene .@ Qshcraft, W. 'ichael. Jewish and $hristian Traditions. ,ntroduction to Vew and Qlternative -eligions in Qmerica B. Westport, $onn: 0reenwood Publishing 0roup. p. ANE. ,#FV NLMRBLG NMLAEG. *$$V BRRJRBBNGE. I$*$ DAGJMNADE. ?The -ise of 'essianic Judaism. ,n the first phase of the movement, during the early and midANLRs, Jewish converts to $hristianity established several congregations at their own initiative. Unlike the previous communities of Jewish $hristians, 'essianic Jewish congregations were largely independent of control from missionary societies or $hristian denominations, even though they still wanted the acceptance of the larger evangelical community.? Jump up to: a b 'elton, J. 0ordon. .ncyclopedia of Protestantism. ,nfobase Publishing, BRRG, ,#FV NLMR MAJRGEGJG, p. DLD. ?'essianic Judaism is a Protestant movement that emerged in the last half of the BRth century among believers who were ethnically Jewish but had adopted an .vangelical $hristian faith... Fy the ANJRs, a new effort to create a culturally Jewish Protestant $hristianity emerged among individuals who began to call themselves 'essianic Jews.? Jump up Qriel, >aakov !BRRJ". ?Judaism and $hristianity Unitec The UniPue $ulture of 'essianic Judaism?. ,n 0allagher, .ugene .@ Qshcraft, W. 'ichael. Jewish and $hristian Traditions. ,ntroduction to Vew and Qlternative -eligions in Qmerica B. Westport, $onn: 0reenwood Publishing 0roup. p. ANA. ,#FV NLMRBLG NMLAEG. *$$V BRRJRBBNGE. I$*$ DAGJMNADE. ?While $hristianity started in the first century of the $ommon .ra as a Jewish group, it Puickly separated from Judaism and claimed to replace it@ ever since the relationship between the two traditions has often been strained. Fut in the twentieth century groups of young Jews claimed that they had overcome the historical differences between the two religions and amalgamated Jewish identity and customs with the $hristian faith.? Jump up Qriel, >aakov !BRRJ". ?Judaism and $hristianity Unitec The UniPue $ulture of 'essianic Judaism?. ,n 0allagher, .ugene .@ Qshcraft, W. 'ichael. Jewish and $hristian Traditions. ,ntroduction to Vew and Qlternative -eligions in Qmerica B. Westport, $onn: 0reenwood Publishing 0roup. pp. ANEANG. ,#FV NLMR BLGNMLAEG. *$$V BRRJRBBNGE. I$*$ DAGJMNADE. ?When the term resurfaced in ,srael in the ANERs and ANGRs, it designated all Jews who accepted $hristianity in its Protestant evangelical form. 'issionaries such as the #outhern Faptist -obert *indsey noted that for ,sraeli Jews, the term noHrim, ?$hristians? in +ebrew, meant, almost automatically, an alien, hostile religion. Fecause such a term made it nearly impossible to convince Jews that $hristianity was their religion, missionaries sought a more neutral term, one that did not arouse negative feelings. They chose 'eshichyim, 'essianic, to overcome the suspicion and antagonism of the term noHrim. 'eshichyim as a term also had the advantage of emphasiHing messianism as a ma/or component of the $hristian evangelical belief that the missions and communities of Jewish converts to $hristianity propagated. ,t conveyed the sense of a new, innovative religion rather that (sic) an old, unfavorable one. The term was used in reference to those Jews who accepted Jesus as their personal savior, and did not apply to Jews accepting -oman $atholicism who in ,srael have called themselves +ebrew $hristians. The term 'essianic Judaism was adopted in the United #tates in the early ANLRs by those converts to evangelical $hristianity who advocated a more assertive attitude on the part of converts towards their Jewish roots and heritage.? Jump up $ohn#herbok, &an !BRRR". ?'essianic Jewish mission?. 'essianic Judaism. *ondon: $ontinuum ,nternational Publishing 0roup. p. ALN. ,#FV NLMRMBJEGEGME. I$*$ EBLANJML. -etrieved Qugust AR, BRAR. ?.vangelism of the Jewish people is thus at the heart of the 'essianic movement.? Jump up Qriel, >aakov #. !BRRR". ?$hapter BR: The -ise of 'essianic Judaism? !0oogle Fooks". .vangeliHing the chosen people: missions to the Jews in Qmerica, AMMRBRRR. $hapel +ill: University of Vorth $arolina Press. p. BBD. ,#FV NLMRMRLMEMMRL. I$*$ EDLRMEGR. -etrieved Qugust AR, BRAR. ?'essianic Judaism, although it advocated the idea of an independent movement of Jewish converts, remained the offspring of the missionary movement, and the ties would never be broken. The rise of 'essianic Judaism was, in many ways, a logical outcome of the ideology and rhetoric of the movement to evangeliHe the Jews as well as its early sponsorship of various forms of +ebrew $hristian e%pressions. The missions have promoted the message that Jews who had embraced $hristianity were not betraying their heritage or even their faith but were actually fulfilling their true Jewish selves by becoming $hristians. The missions also promoted the dispensationalist idea that the $hurch ePuals the body of the true $hristian believers and that $hristians were defined by their acceptance of Jesus as their personal #avior and not by their affiliations with specific denominations and particular liturgies or modes of prayer. 'issions had been using Jewish symbols in their buildings and literature and called their centers by +ebrew names such as .manuel or Feth #ar #halom. #imilarly, the missionsO publications featured Jewish religious symbols and practices such as the lighting of a menorah. Qlthough missionaries to the Jews were alarmed when they first confronted the more assertive and independent movement of 'essianic Judaism, it was they who were responsible for its conception and indirectly for its birth. The ideology, rhetoric, and symbols they had promoted for generations provided the background for the rise of a new movement that missionaries at first re/ected as going too far but later accepted and even embraced.? Jump up ?What are the #tandards of the U'J$^?. FQ. Union of 'essianic Jewish $ongregations. June BRRE. -etrieved BRRRRLRD. ?A. We believe that there is one 0d, eternally e%istent in three persons, Father, #on and +oly #pirit. B. We believe in the deity of the *-& >eshua, the 'essiah, in +is virgin birth, in +is sinless life, in +is miracles, in +is vicarious and atoning death through +is shed blood, in +is bodily resurrection, in +is ascension to the right hand of the Father, and in +is personal return in power and glory.? Jump up ,srael b. FetHalel !BRRN". ?Trinitarianism?. Jerusalem$ouncil.org. -etrieved BRRNRLRD. ?This then is who >eshua is: +e is not /ust a man, and as a man, he is not from Qdam, but from 0od. +e is the Word of +a#hem, the 'emra, the &avar, the -ighteous Ine, he didnt become righteous, he is righteous. +e is called 0ods #on, he is the agent of +a#hem called +a#hem, and he is +a#hem who we interact with and not die.? Jump up ?&o , need to be $ircumcised^?. Jerusalem$ouncil.org. Feb AR, BRRN. -etrieved Qugust AM, BRAR. ?To convert to the Jewish sect of +a&erech, accepting >eshua as your King is the first act after ones heart turns toward +a#hem and +is Torah as one can not obey a commandment of 0od if they first do not love 0od, and we love 0od by following his 'essiah. Without first accepting >eshua as the King and thus obeying +im, then getting circumcised for the purpose of Jewish conversion only gains you access to the Jewish community. ,t means nothing when it comes to inheriting a place in the World to $ome....0etting circumcised apart from desiring to be obedient to +a#hem, and apart from accepting >eshua as your King, is nothing but a surgical procedure, or worse, could lead to you believe that Jewish identity grants you a portion in the World to $ome at which point, what good is 'essiah >eshua, the Word of +a#hem to you^ +e would have died for nothingc...Qs a convert from the nations, part of your obligation in keeping the $ovenant, if you are a male, is to get circumcised in fulfillment of the commandment regarding circumcision. $ircumcision is not an absolute rePuirement of being a $ovenant member !that is, being made righteous before +a#hem, and thus obtaining eternal life", but it is a rePuirement of obedience to 0ods commandments, because circumcision is commanded for those who are of the seed of Qbraham, whether born into the family, adopted, or converted....,f after reading all of this you understand what circumcision is, and that is an act of obedience, rather than an act of gaining favor before +a#hem for the purpose of receiving eternal life, then if you are male believer in >eshua the 'essiah for the redemption from death, the consePuence of your sin of rebellion against +im, then pursue circumcision, and thus conversion into Judaism, as an act of obedience to the 'essiah.? Jump up ?Jewish $onversion 0iyur?. Jerusalem$ouncil.org. Jerusalem$ouncil.org. BRRN. -etrieved BRRNRBRG. ?We recogniHe the desire of people from the nations to convert to Judaism, through +a&erech !The Way" !'essianic Judaism", a sect of Judaism.? Jump up Irthodo% #immons, #hraga. ?Why Jews &onOt Felieve in Jesus?. Qish +aTorah. -etrieved July BM, BRAR. ?Jews do not accept Jesus as the messiah because: Jesus did not fulfill the messianic prophecies. Jesus did not embody the personal Pualifications of the 'essiah. Fiblical verses ?referring? to Jesus are mistranslations. Jewish belief is based on national revelation.? $onservative Wa%man, Jonathan !BRRJ". ?'essianic Jews Qre Vot Jews?. United #ynagogue of $onservative Judaism. Qrchived from the original on June BM, BRRJ. -etrieved BRRLRBAE. ?+ebrew $hristian, Jewish $hristian, Jew for Jesus, 'essianic Jew, Fulfilled Jew. The name may have changed over the course of time, but all of the names reflect the same phenomenon: one who asserts that sShe is straddling the theological fence between $hristianity and Judaism, but in truth is firmly on the $hristian side....we must affirm as did the ,sraeli #upreme $ourt in the wellknown Frother &aniel case that to adopt $hristianity is to have crossed the line out of the Jewish community.? -eform ?'issionary ,mpossible?. +ebrew Union $ollege. Qugust N, ANNN. -etrieved BRRLRBAE. ?'issionary ,mpossible, an imaginative video and curriculum guide for teachers, educators, and rabbis to teach Jewish youth how to recogniHe and respond to ?JewsforJesus,? ?'essianic Jews,? and other $hristian proselytiHers, has been produced by si% rabbinic students at +ebrew Union $ollegeJewish ,nstitute of -eligionOs $incinnati #chool. The students created the video as a tool for teaching why Jewish college and high school youth and Jews in intermarried couples are primary targets of $hristian missionaries.? -econstructionistS-enewal ?FQOs Qbout Jewish -enewal?. Qleph.org. BRRL. -etrieved BRRLABBR. ?What is Q*.P+Os position on so called messianic Judaism^ Q*.P+ has a policy of respect for other spiritual traditions, but ob/ects to deceptive practices and will not collaborate with denominations which actively target Jews for recruitment. Iur position on socalled ?'essianic Judaism? is that it is $hristianity and its proponents would be more honest to call it that.? Fibliography 'arc *ee -aphael, ?Judaism in Qmerica? !$olumbia University Press, BRRD" QveryPeck, Qlan, and Veusner, Jacob, !eds", ?The Flackwell reader in Judaism? !Flackwell, BRRA" $ohn#herbok, &an, ?Judaism: history, belief, and practice? !-outledge, BRRD" QveryPeck, Qlan, and Veusner, Jacob, !eds", ?The Flackwell $ompanion to Judaism !Flackwell, BRRD" Foyarin, &aniel ANNE Q -adical Jew: Paul and the Politics of ,dentity Ferkeley: University of $alifornia Press Qncient Judaism, 'a% Weber, Free Press, ANJL, ,#FV RRBNDEADRB *iving Judaism: The $omplete 0uide to Jewish Felief, Tradition and Practice Wayne &osick. $onservative Judaism: The Vew $entury, Veil 0illman, Fehrman +ouse. Qmerican Jewish Irthodo%y in +istorical Perspective Jeffrey #. 0urock, ANNJ, Ktav. Philosophies of Judaism Julius 0uttmann, trans. by &avid #ilverman, JP#. ANJE Fack to the #ources: -eading the $lassic Jewish Te%ts .d. Farry W. +oltH, #ummit Fooks Q +istory of the Jews Paul Johnson, +arper$ollins, ANMM Q People &ivided: Judaism in $ontemporary Qmerica, Jack Wertheimer. Frandeis Univ. Press, ANNL. .ncyclopaedia Judaica, Keter Publishing, $&-I' edition, ANNL The Qmerican Jewish ,dentity #urvey, article by .gon 'ayer, Farry Kosmin and Qriela Keysar@ a subset of The Qmerican -eligious ,dentity #urvey, $ity University of Vew >ork 0raduate $enter. Qn article on this survey is printed in The Vew >ork Jewish Week, Vovember B, BRRA. *ewis, Fernard. !ANME". The Jews of ,slam. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ,#FV RJNARRMRLM *ewis, Fernard. !ANNN". #emites and Qnti#emites: Qn ,nPuiry into $onflict and Pre/udice. W. W. Vorton $o. ,#FV RDNDDAMDNL #tillman, Vorman !ANLN". The Jews of Qrab *ands: Q +istory and #ource Fook. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication #ociety of Qmerica. ,#FV RMBLJRANMR &ay, John. >ahweh and the 0ods and 0oddesses of $anaan. $hippenham: #heffield Qcademic Press, BRRR. &ever, William 0. &id 0od +ave a Wife^. 0rand -apids: Wm. F. .erdmans Publishing $o., BRRG. Walsh, J.P.'. The 'ighty From Their Thrones. .ugene: Wipf and #tock Publishers, ANML. Finkelstein, ,srael !ANNJ". .thinicity and Irigin of the ,ron , #ettlers in the +ighlands of $anaan: $an the -eal ,srael Please #tand Up^ The Fiblical Qrchaeologist, GN!E". Jews in ,slamic countries: Q. Khanbaghi. The Fire, the #tar and the $ross: 'inority -eligions in 'edieval and .arly 'odern ,ran !,F Tauris BRRJ". .%ternal links Find more about Judaism at WikipediaOs sister pro/ects &efinitions and translations from Wiktionary 'edia from $ommons *earning resources from Wikiversity uotations from WikiPuote #ource te%ts from Wikisource Te%tbooks from Wikibooks 0eneral Judaism ARA, an e%tensive FQ written by a librarian. Judaism article from the ANRAANRJ Jewish .ncyclopedia #hamashOs Judaism resource page Irthodo%S+aredi Irthodo% Judaism The Irthodo% Union: Ifficial website $habad*ubavitch: Ifficial website The arious Types of Irthodo% Judaism Qish +aTorah Ihr #omayach TraditionalS$onservado% Union for Traditional Judaism $onservative The United #ynagogue of $onservative Judaism: Ifficial website 'asorti !$onservative" 'ovement in ,srael United #ynagogue >outh -eformSProgressive The Union for -eform Judaism !U#Q" -eform Judaism !UK": Ifficial website *iberal Judaism !UK": Ifficial website World Union for Progressive Judaism !,srael": Ifficial website -econstructionist Jewish -econstructionist Federation: Ifficial website -enewal Q*.P+: Qlliance for Jewish -enewal: Ifficial website I+Q*Q+ Qssociation of -abbis for Jewish -enewal: Ifficial website +umanistic #ociety for +umanistic Judaism: Ifficial website Karaite World 'ovement for Karaite Judaism Jewish religious literature and te%ts $omplete Tanakh !in +ebrew, with vowels". .nglish Tanakh from the ANAL Jewish Publication #ociety version. The Judaica Press $omplete Tanach with -ashi in .nglish Torah.org. !also known as Pro/ect 0enesis" $ontains Torah commentaries and studies of Tanakh, along with Jewish ethics, philosophy, holidays and other classes. The complete formatted Talmud online. Qudio files of lectures for each page from an Irthodo% viewpoint are provided in French, .nglish, >iddish and +ebrew. -eload the page for an image of a page of the Talmud. #ee also Torah database for links to more Judaism ete%ts. Wikimedia Torah study pro/ects Wikisource has original te%t related to this article: Pentateuch Te%t study pro/ects at Wikisource. ,n many instances, the +ebrew versions of these pro/ects are more fully developed than the .nglish. 'ikraot 0edolot !-abbinic Fible" in +ebrew !sample" and .nglish !sample". $antillation at the ?ayavinu Famikra? Pro/ect in +ebrew !lists nearly BRR recordings" and .nglish. 'ishnah in +ebrew !sample" and .nglish !sample". #hulchan Qruch in +ebrew and .nglish !+ebrew te%t with .nglish translation". KONDISI BANGSA YAHUDI PASCA KEHANCURAN YERU-SALEM (TAHUN 70 M) By. Esra Alfred Soru Kita sudah belajar tentang kisah kehancuran bangsa Yahudi dan kota Yerusalem. Kita juga sudah mempelajari kondisi tanah Yahudi (Palestina) dan kota Yerusalem sejak tahun 70 hingga 194. !ekarang kita akan membahas kondisi orang Yahudi "ang dibuang ke berbagai bangsa pasca kehancuran Yerusalem tahun 70 maupun juga pasca pemberontakan #ar Kokhba. !a"a akan bagi pembahasan ini menjadi beberapa bagian $ I. ORANG-ORANG YAHUDI DI NEGARA LAIN. !etelah kehancuran kota Yerusalem dan hancurn"a pasukan #ar Kokhba% maka pemerintah &oma'i lalu membuang dan mengusir sebagian besar orang Yahudi ke berbagai 'ila"ah kekaisaran &oma'i. (emang ada sebagian kecil orang Yahudi "ang masih tinggal di 'ila"ah Palestina namun sebagian besar dari mereka sudah diserakkan ke berbagai negara dalam kekuasaan &oma'i. )alu bagaimana kehidupan orang Yahudi di negara*negara buangan ini+ !a"a pernah jelaskan bah'a salah satu akibat dari pembuangan orang Yahudi ke #abel adalah mereka menjadi orang*orang "ang sangat mahir dalam dunia perdagangan. Keunggulan dalam dunia perdagangan ini terasa sampai saat ini di mana hampir seluruh produk di dunia ini dikuasai oleh orang Yahudi. , (akanan% minuman dan camilan. ((c -onald% Pi..a /ut% 0oca 0ola% !tarbucks% 1esstle% dll) , &okok (#an"ak tetapi "ang terkenal adalah (arlboro) , Permen ((entos% 2inston% dll) , /iburan (/oll"'ood% Paramound 0ompan"% 2alt -isne") , Kosmetik dan kecantikan (3stee )auder% )oreal% &e4lon% 5ohnson and 5ohnson) , Komunikasi (1okia dan (otorola) , 6eknologi computer dan internet (7#( 0omp% 8696% 8pple 0omputer% 7ntel : Pentium% Yahoo% (icroso;t% % <oogle% dll) , (edia (assa (8#0% 011% 1ational <eographics% 1e' York 6imes% 6he 2ashingtoin Post% (ajalah 6ime% Kantor berita &euters. , =lahraga (&oma 8bramo4ic menguasai 0helsea% (alcom <la.er menguasai (>% -a4id -ein menguasai 8rsenal% pemilik 0!K8 (osco'% dll) , Perbankan dan 4aluta asing (#ank -unia% 7(?% <eorge !horosh) , -an bidang*bidang usaha lain seperti persenjataan% penerbangan% pakaian% elektronik% konstruksi% kesehatan% min"ak bumi% dll. +al yang sama /uga ter/adi dalam kehidupan orang >ahudi di negaranegara buangan tersebut di mana mereka muncul sebagai pedagangpedagang hebat sehingga mempunyai keunggulan dari sisi ekonomi. Kondisi ini memicu munculnya kebencian dari orangorang pribumi terhadap orang >ahudi. Qkibatnya di banyak negara orang >ahudi lalu ditekan, diusir dan dianiaya. Puncaknya pada sekitar abad pertengahan ter/adi pengusiran besarbesaran terhadap orang >ahudi dari negaranegara bagian timur. Irang >ahudi dalam /umlah yang besar lalu berpindah ke negaranegara barat terutama di #panyol. &an hal yang sama ter/adi yakni dalam waktu yang relatif singkat mereka lalu menguasai perekonomian. ,ni mendatangkan kebencian terhadap mereka dari orang orang #panyol. #ementara itu kekristenan yang telah menyimpang !Katolik" mempunyai pandangan yang buruk terhadap orang >ahudi di mana mereka dianggap sebagai musuh Kristen karena telah membunuh >esus Kristus. Paus lalu mengeluarkan se/umlah peraturan tentang orang >ahudi di #panyol di mana orang >ahudi tidak dii/inkan untuk memegang /abatan apa pun di dalam kehidupan bermasyarakat, semua orang #panyol boleh memin/am uang dari orang >ahudi tetapi tidak boleh mengembalikannya dengan bunga, orangorang >ahudi diwa/ibkan memakai pakaian khusus untuk bisa membedakan mereka dari orang asli #panyol, orang orang >ahudi lalu dimasukkan ke tempat khusus bernama 0+.TI. Anonim Kaum >ahudi tidak meyakini kepercayaan Kristen bahwa >esus adalah Qnak Qllah, dan banyak kaum Kristen yang menganggap penolakan untuk menerima sifat ketuhanan >esus ini sebagai sikap arogan. #elama berabadabad 0ere/a menga/arkan bahwa kaum >ahudi bertanggung /awab atas kematian >esus, tanpa mengindahkan fakta, sebagaimana yang diyakini para se/arawan hari ini, bahwa >esus dieksekusi oleh pemerintah -omawi karena para petinggi menganggapnya sebagai ancaman politis terhadap kekuasaan mereka. #elain konflik bermuatan agama terdapat /uga konflik ekonomi. Para penguasa memberlakukan pembatasanpembatasan atas kaum >ahudi, yaitu dengan melarang mereka menduduki posisiposisi tertentu dan men/adi pemilik tanah. !Antisemitisme : www. www.ushmm.org" Qkibat dari tekanan seperti ini maka banyak orang >ahudi meninggalkan #panyol dan pindah ke Portugis. Tapi kema/uan mereka dalam bidang ekonomi lagilagi menyulut kebencian masyarakat lokal terhadap mereka. Ketika Perang #alib berkobar, kekristenan !Katolik" pada saat itu bukan hanya membenci ,slam tetapi /uga orang >ahudi. &aknya adalah ter/adilah pembantaian besarbesaran terhadap orang >ahudi di Portugis yang memang mayoritas Katolik. &alam insiden ini, ada skeitar BR.RRR orang >ahudi dibantai. Irang Portugis lalu men/arah seluruh harta milik orang >ahudi, membakar semua rumah ibadah mereka dan mengumpulkan kitab kitab Taurat orang >ahudi sebanyak BE truk dan membakar habis semuanya. 'ereka lalu mengusir orang >ahudi secara besarbesaran dari seluruh wilayah Portugis. Irang >ahudi lalu meninggalkan Portugis dan masuk ke wilayah Perancis tetapi lagilagi di Perancis mereka mengalami nasib yang tidak /auh beda. Kema/uan ekonomi mereka menyebabkan kebencian yang besar terhadap mereka. Pada saat itu di seluruh .ropa ter/adilah sebuah bencana penyakit sampar yang dikenal sebagai 'QUT +,TQ'. Fanyak orang mati karenanya, termasuk orangorang di Perancis. .ntah darimana lalu muncullah isu dan fitnah terhadap orang >ahudi di Perancis di mana dikatakan bahwa kematiankematian itu disebabkan karena orangorang >ahudi membuang racun di dalam setiap sumur dan sungai yang ada di Perancis. Qkibat dari ini maka orangorang Perancis memberikan D alternatif bagi orang >ahudi : Anonim &i #panyol pada tahun AERRan, kaum >ahudi dipaksa pindah ke agama Kristen, meninggalkan negara tersebut, atau dieksekusi. !Antisemitisme : www.ushmm.org" &ari Perancis orang >ahudi lalu lari ke Jerman. &i Jerman mereka berkembang dengan cepat secara ekonomi. *agilagi faktor ekonomi ini menyebabkan ter/adinya kebencian terhadap mereka hingga munculnya sebuah isu dan fitnahan bahwa orangorang >ahudi telah diamdiam menangkap anakanak orang Kristen dan memakan daging mereka dalam perayaan Paskah orang >ahudi. ,ni membuat orang Jerman men/adi marah dan menindas orangorang >ahudi secara hebat dan mengusir mereka dari wilayahwilayah Jerman. Irangorang >ahudi yang diusir dari Jerman itu lalu melarikan diri ke Felanda, Polandia dan -usia. Tapi lagilagi mereka mendapatkan perlakuan yang tidak baik di D negara ini terutama di Polandia dan -usia. Peraturan khusus dikeluarkan untuk orang >ahudi di mana mereka tidak dii/inkan untuk bertaniSberdagang secara besarbesaran !hanya boleh kecil kecilan sa/a", mereka tidak boleh menduduki /abatan penting di dalam masyarakat, dan tidak ada /aminan bagi nyawa seorang >ahudi. Anonim &i -usia dan Polandia pada akhir tahun AMRRan pemerintah mengorganisasi atau tidak mencegah seranganserangan kekerasan terhadap pemukiman >ahudi, yang dinamakan dengan pogrom, kala gerombolan orang membunuh kaum >ahudi dan men/arah rumah dan toko mereka. !Antisemitisme : www.ushmm.org". &emikianlah nasib orang >ahudi secara umum di negaranegara lain. 'ereka dibenci, dimusuhi, diperlakukan dengan tidak adil, diusir bahkan dibunuh dan dibantai. Geore !"#$in%on ....setiap negara yang dahulu memburu mereka seperti hama masyarakat... L&'"# T("n)r" ...orang >ahudi diusir, terceraiberai ke seluruh dunia, men/adi bangsa tak bernegara, menyusuri u/ungu/ung bumi, terombangambing tak menentu, mewarisi kebencian yang kosongc 'embuat orang yang mendengarnya menghela nafasc !*atar Felakang PF A, hal. ANE". Qkibat dari semua ini maka pada tahun AMNJ seorang >ahudi bernama T+.I&I-. +.-b* mempelopori sebuah gerakan untuk orang >ahudi yang namanya b,IV,#'. yang bertu/uan untuk mengusakan sebuah daerahSnegara di mana orang >ahudi bisa hidup dengan aman dan mengatur diri mereka sendiri. Theodore +erHl Kami adalah masyarakat. Kami mencoba untuk tetap hidup dan berbaur dengan masyarakat lain. Kami tidak dihargai. Fegitu banyak penyerangan terhadap orangorang >ahudi di berbagai negara, -usia, -umania, Jerman, Perancis. #aya tidak percaya adanya kedamaian lagi. Jadi i/inkan kami untuk memerintah sebuah area di dunia ini di mana kami dapat mendirikan negara kami sendiri. Qda dua negara yang sesuai, Palestina dan Qrgentina. Pada kedua wilayah itu banyak orang >ahudi tinggal. Kami akan mencapai kesepakatan dengan penduduk yang telah ada dan menawarkan untuk membangun /alan/alan yang baru, akan meningkatkan kese/ahteraan di dalam negaranegara di sekitar kami melalui berbagai cara. #elan/utnya, nasib mereka cukup baik setelah bergulirnya reformasi Protestan oleh 'artin *uther. 0aragara reformasi ini /uga berubalah cara pandang banyak orang tentang perang salib sehingga penentangan terhadap perang salib /uga muncul dari kalangan Kristen sendiri. Ketika Protestanisme mulai berkembang dan merambah hampir seluruh negara .ropa, maka ini membawa angin segar bagi orang >ahudi di mana orangorang Protestan memperlakukan mereka dengan baik. !Kecuali di -usia dan #kotlandia". Qngin kebebasan ini dimanfaatkan oleh orangorang >ahudi untuk berkembang secara pesat. 'ereka lalu menyebar ke hampir seluruh negara di dunia, termasuk ke negaranegara yang dulunya pernah mengusir mereka. Karena itu masa setelah Protestan berkembang, orang >ahudi pun menyebar ke negaranegara .ropa, bahkan seluruh dunia seperti Polandia, ,ndia, Ukraina, Pakistan, 'yanmar, Fangladesh, $ina, ,talia, Felgia, Jerman, ,nggris, Qmerika, #panyol, ,ran, ,rak, Perancis, Portugis, Kanada, Qmerika, ,nggris, Frasil, Qustralia, dll. Fagaimana dengan di ,ndonesia^ #audara /angan kira orang >ahudi tidak sampai ke ,ndonesia. ,ngat bahwa orang >ahudi di Felanda cukup banyak dan Felanda men/a/ah ,ndonesia. ,ndonesia bagi Felanda saat itu adalah daerah penghasil rempahrempah untuk perdagangan dan orang >ahudi adalah /ago dalam bidang perdagangan. Karena itu mustahil kalau orang >ahudi di Felanda tidak melirik ,ndonesia yang saat itu bernama +india Felanda. '. Wibowo Konon warga >ahudi sudah banyak berdiam di ,ndonesia se/ak /aman kolonial Felanda, khususnya di Jakarta, tapi tidak ada tanggal pasti kaum >ahudi menetap di ,ndonesia. #ebuah situs komunitas >ahudi dunia mencatat bahwa pada tahun AMGR, seorang utusan dari Jerusalem, Jacob #aphir, yang mengun/ungi Fatavia !Jakarta", bertemu dengan seorang pedagang >ahudi dari Qmsterdam yang menyebutkan adanya BR keluarga >ahudi dari Felanda atau Jerman tinggal di sana, termasuk anggota pasukan kolonial Felanda. Feberapa orang >ahudi /uga tinggal di #emarang dan #urabaya. 'ereka punya beberapa hubungan dengan agama >udaisme !a/aran >ahudi". Qtas permintaan #aphir, komunitas Qmsterdam mengirimkan rabbi yang mencoba mengorganisasikan /emaat di Fatavia dan #emarang. #e/umlah >ahudi dari Faghdad atau asli orang Faghdad dan dari Qden /uga bermukim di Jawa. Pada tahun ANBA, utusan bionis dari ,srael yang bernama $ohen memperkirakan bahwa hampir ada BRRR orang >ahudi yang tinggal di Jawa. !>ahudi ,ndonesia, hal. ABJ". Wibowo >ahudi ,ndonesia menderita ketika pendudukan Jepang di ,ndonesia, dan mereka dipaksa untuk beker/a di kemah. #etelah perang, >ahudi yang dilepas menemui berbagai masalah, dan banyak yang berimigrasi ke ,nggris, Qmerika #erikat, Qustralia dan ,srael. Pada akhir ANJRan, diperkirakan BR >ahudi tinggal di Jakarta dan BG tinggal di #urabaya. Pada sensus penduduk tahun BRRR, orang ,ndonesia yang menyatakan sebagai suku >ahudi ber/umlah sekitar BRR orang sa/a. 'ereka memiliki sebuah sinagoge di #uarabaya, Jawa Timur. !>ahudi ,ndonesia, hal. ABE". !i*o+o Feberapa tokoh berdarah >ahudi ,ndonesia di antaranya : 'arini #ardi, artis. >apto #uryasumarno, politikus, tokoh pemuda. Vafa Urbach, artis. $ornelia Qgatha, artis. aviera +ollander, penulis, bintang erotika , pengusaha. Qhmad &hani, vokalis grup band &ewa AN. !Yahudi Indonesia, hal. ABJ". &i antara negaranegara di mana orang >ahudi berkembang dengan pesat adalah Jerman. 'enurut sensus bulan Juni ANDD, penduduk >ahudi di Jerman ber/umlah sekitar GRR.RRR /iwa dan MRT dari mereka !ERR.RRR" sudah berkebangsaan Jerman. Tidak semuanya beragama >ahudi. Qda yang sudah men/adi KatolikSProtestan. #ekian lama orang >ahudi di Jerman hidup dengan aman bahkan mereka beker/a dalam berbagai profesi penting seperti guru, dosen, tentara, hakim, dll. Tetapi bencana mulai datang atas mereka ketika seorang kanselir Jerman dari partai VaHi bernama Q&I*F +,T*.- men/adi pemimpin tertinggi di Jerman. #eberapa artis 7ndonesia ditengarai adalah keturunan Yahudi (1a;a >rbach% 0ornelia 8gatha% 8hmad -hani% (aria &enata% @a4iera /ollander). -alam Perang -unia 77% 5erman diba'ah /itler berhasil menaklukan berbagai negara "ang lalu tunduk di ba'ah 5erman. -an total orang Yahudi di seluruh daerah jajahan 5erman itu sekitar 9 juta orang. Pemikiran 8dol; /itler sangat dipengaruhi oleh seorang politikus 8ustria bernama Karl )ueger "ang sangat anti terhadap orang Yahudi. /itler lalu mengadopsi pemikiran )ueger tentang Aras unggulA di mana teorin"a adalah dunia ini akan menuju pada suatu kualitas "ang lebih baik kalau Aras unggulA dipertahankan dan dikembangbiakkan% sedangkan ras*ras "ang lain adalah ras buruk "ang harus dimusnahkan. (enurut /itler% ras unggul itu adalah ras 8r"an% ras asli 5erman. -an ras inilah "ang mempun"ai hak hidup. !edangkan orang*orang "ang cacat secara ;isik dan mental adalah ras buruk "ang tidak pantas untuk dibiarkan hidup. Karena itu dia'al Perang -unia 77% /itler memerintahkan untuk membunuh B membantai semua orang "ang cacat ;isik maupun mental. 7a dibantu oleh para dokter untuk melakukan pembunuhan*pembunuhan ini. -ari tahun 1940*194C% total ada D00.000 orang cacat "ang dibunuh oleh /itler. #agaimana cara pembunuhan itu+ Anonim : EF..mereka dibunuh di dalam kamar*kamar gas "ang dirancang secara khusus. #a"i dan anak kecil pen"andang cacat juga dibantai le'at suntikan obat dengan dosis "ang mematikan atau dengan cara dibiarkan kelaparan. (a"at korban dibakar di dalam o4en besar "ang disebut krematoriumA. (Pemerintahan Nazi : www. www.ushmm.org). /itler juga menetapkan beberapa kalangan lagi sebagai Aras burukA dan karenan"a ia juga membantai mereka semuan"a. 6indakan gila dari /itler ini mendapat protes "ang sangat besar dari ban"ak kalangan terutama orang* orang Yahudi "ang mempun"ai kedudukan "ang tinggi. 7ni membuat /itler sangat marah dan membenci Yahudi. Pada (aret 19GG% /itler mengkoordinasi pen"erangan brutal terhadap orang*orang Yahudi di 5erman. 6entara*tentara 1a.i men"erang toko*toko serba ada milik orang Yahudi di kota*kota 5erman% mereka memasuki ruang*ruang sidang untuk men"eret para hakim dan pengacara Yahudi ke jalan*jalan di mana mereka menerima aksi*aksi penghinaan oleh publik. 1a.i juga melakukan pemboikotan nasional atas usaha*usaha Yahudi di 5erman% dan /itler juga memecat seluruh P1! "ang berdarah Yahudi. !emua pekerja B manager di perusahaan*perusahaan "ang berdarah Yahudi 'ajib di P/K. !ementara itu dari Paris terdengar kabar bah'a seorang pemuda Yahudi telah membunuh seorang petinggi 5erman di Paris. 7ni membuat 1a.i begitu marah dan pada malam tanggal 9 1o4ember 19G% aksi kekerasan terhadap kaum Yahudi pecah di seluruh &eich. -alam dua hari% lebih dari DC0 sinagoge dibakar% lebih dari 7.000 tempat usaha milik kaum Yahudi dirusak dan dijarah% lusinan orang Yahudi dibunuh% dan kuburan% rumah sakit% sekolah% serta tempat tinggal kaum Yahudi dijarah sementara kepolisian dan pemadam kebakaran han"a berdiam diri. Keesokan pagin"a G0.000 laki*laki Yahudi*5erman ditangkap untuk HkejahatanH mereka sebagai orang Yahudi dan dikirim ke kamp*kamp konsentrasi% tempat di mana ratusan di antaran"a te'as. !ejumlah perempuan Yahudi juga ditangkap dan dikirim ke penjara setempat. >saha*usaha milik kaum Yahudi tidak dii.inkan beroperasi kembali kecuali jika dikelola oleh orang non*Yahudi. 5am malam diberlakukan bagi kaum Yahudi% "ang membatasi jumlah jam mereka boleh keluar rumah. 8nak*anak Yahudi sebelumn"a sudah dilarang memasuki museum% tempat bermain umum% serta kolam renang% dan kini mereka dikeluarkan dari sekolah*sekolah umum. Karena putus asa% ban"ak orang de'asa Yahudi "ang melakukan bunuh diri dan ban"ak keluarga "ang berupa"a keras keluar meninggalkan 5erman. Pada tahun 19G9% sekitar 900 orang Yahudi melarikan diri dari 5erman dengan menggunakan kapal !t. )ouis hendak menuju Kuba. !ebelumn"a mereka telah mendapat i.in masuk oleh pemerintah Kuba karena lobi orang 7nggris% tapi begitu kapal !t. )ouis berlabuh di pelabuhan /a4ana% mereka mendapat kabar bah'a pemerintah Kuba menarik kembali i.inn"a dan tidak mengijinkan 1 orang Yahudi pun turun di sana. (ereka lalu melanjutkan pela"aran mereka ke 8merika% tapi sesampain"a mereka ?lorida% mereka pun ditolak pemerintah 8merika sehingga dengan putus asa mereka terus berla"ar ke 3ropa. >ntunglah sejumlah negara 3ropa mau menerima mereka (#elgia menampung D14 ji'a% #elanda 11% 7nggris &a"a D7% dan Prancis DD4). 7ni semua membuat /itler sangat marah sehingga ia akhirn"a menetapkan orang Yahudi sebagai Eras burukA "ang la"ak untuk dimusnahkan seperti orang*orang cacat "ang dibasmi sebelumn"a. Karena 1a.i saat itu berkuasa hampir di seluruh negara 3ropa% maka /itler lalu mengumpulkan semua orang Yahudi di seluruh negara jajahann"a dan menempatkan mereka pada kamp*kamp konsentrasi. (8da sekitar G juta orang Yahudi). 7nsiden ini dikenal dengan istilah A/=)=08>!6A (P## menetapkan tanggal D7 5anuari sebagai hari peringatan /olocaust). =rang Yahudi "ang mati dalam insiden /olocaust ini sekitar G juta tapi sebelumn"a /itler telah membantai sekitar G juta orang Yahudi sehingga total orang Yahudi "ang dibunuh oleh /itler adalah I juta orang. 7ni semua jelas ancaman bagi komunitas orang Yahudi karena jumlah ini adalah DBG dari komunitas Yahudi "ang ada di seluruh 3ropa. 77. 63ļ>K1Y8 13<8&8 7!&83) (=-3&1. #eberapa tahun sebelum peristi'a /olocaust ini terjadi% kabar bah'a orang Yahudi telah mengalami pengania"aan "ang hebat di berbagai negara telah menjadi isu internasional. -an ini menggoncang komunitas Yahudi di seluruh dunia. (ereka pun kembali memikirkan misi Jionisme "ang dikumandangkan 6heodore /er.l pada tahun 19I $ 6heodore /er.l : AKami adalah mas"arakat. Kami mencoba untuk tetap hidup dan berbaur dengan mas"arakat lain. Kami tidak dihargai. #egitu ban"ak pen"erangan terhadap orang*orang Yahudi di berbagai negara% &usia% &umania% 5erman% Perancis. !a"a tidak perca"a adan"a kedamaian lagi. 5adi ijinkan kami untuk memerintah sebuah area di dunia ini di mana kami dapat mendirikan negara kami sendiri. ..... A Karena itu Jionisme internasional dengan serius memikirkan dan mengupa"akan adan"a sebuah 'ila"ah di dunia ini untuk dapat menjadi tempat tinggal bagi orang Yahudi di mana mereka "ang mengatur rumah tangga mereka sendiri tanpa ditindas oleh bangsa*bangsa lain. !esuai dengan pidato 6heodore /er.l% maka D 'ila"ah menjadi sasaran mereka "akni Palestina dan 8rgentina. 6etapi kelihatann"a tanah Palestina lebih diminati karena ;aktor sejarah di mana itu memang tanah "ang dijanjikan 6uhan pada mereka dan bangsa mereka pernah hidup dan ja"a di sana. Pada saat Perang -unia 7% negara 7nggris mendukung 8rab !audi untuk memberontak terhadap =ttoman 6urki dan sebagai imbalann"a% 8rab lalu memberikan 'ila"ah Palestina dan Yerusalem kepada 7nggris. -engan demikian seluruh 'ila"ah Palestina ada dalam kuasa 7nggris sejak tahun 1917. /ubungan "ang baik antara Perdana (enteri 7nggris saat itu 8rthur #al;our dengan seorang Jionis ka"a ra"a dan berpengaruh bernama )ord &othschild berujung dengan pena'aran #al;our kepada &othschild untuk memberikan 'ila"ah Palestina bagi orang Yahudi. )e'at berbagai proses dan lobi "ang panjang dan rumit% akhirn"a muncullah apa "ang dikenal sebagai A-3K)8&8!7 #8)?=>&A (D 1o4ember 1917). -eklarasi #al;our : A!a"a begitu senang men"ampaikan pada anda% atas nama pemerintah "ang mulia% deklarasi simpati bersamaan dengan aspirasi tekah dikumpulkan dan disetujui oleh kabinet. Pemerintah "ang mulia mendukung pembentukkan di dalam Palestina sebagai kampung halaman nasional bagi orang*orang Yahudi% dan akan menguoa"akan segala sesuatu untuk mencapai tujuan ini. /al ini dapat dimengerti bah'a tidak ada "ang dapat dilakukan untuk mempengaruhi pihak sipil dan hak*hak keagamaan dari keberadaan komunitas non Yahudi di PalestinaA. Pada saat itu ma"oritas penghuni 'ila"ah Palestina adalah orang*orang 8rab "ang selama sekitar 1000 tahun telah menduduki 'ila"ah tersebut sebagai akibat dari kekuasaan 7slam atas 'ila"ah Palestina hingga tumbangn"a -inasti =ttoman 6urki. Ketika A-3K)8&8!7 #8)?=>&A disosialisasikan% maka orang*orang 8rab di Palestina mengadakan aksi protes dan menolak kehadiran orang*orang Yahudi di dalam 'ila"ah mereka. 6etapi negara 7nggris sebagai penguasa Palestina tidak mempedulikann"a. 7nggris lalu mengeluarkan apa "ang dikenal sebagai A(3(=&81->( #8)?=>&A. (emorandum #al;our : A-i Palestina% kami tidak menganjurkan untuk meneruskan proses konsultasi dengan penduduk setempat. Keempat kekuatan besar berkomitmen pada Jionisme% tidak peduli benar atau salah. Jionisme adalah lebih penting daripada 7000 orang 8rab "ang saat ini menduduki PalestinaA. !etelah keputusan ini dikeluarkan% mulailah orang Yahudi dari berbagai negara dianjurkan untuk pulang ke tanah Palestina. -an saat itu ada sekitar GC.000 orang Yahudi memasuki Palestina. Kedatangan mereka ditolak oleh orang*orang 8rab di Palestina dan mereka mengadakan pen"erangan terhadap orang*orang Yahudi (tahun 19GI) tetapi 7nggris lalu turun tangan dan menaklukan mereka. !ejak saat itu orang Yahudi dari berbagai belahan dunia terus berdatangan di 'ila"ah Palestina termasuk korban* korban /olocaust "ang merasa tidak ada lagi tempat aman bagi mereka di dunia ini. 6etapi orang*orang 8rab Palestina tidak mau merelakan tanah mereka untuk orang Yahudi dan sejak saat itulah permusahan 8rab : Yahudi di mulai sampai saat ini. &o"al 0ommission : Kon;lik "ang tidak terhentikan telah terjadi di antara kedua komunitas. !ekitar 1 juta orang 8rab berselisih dengan 400.000 orang Yahudi. (elihat kondisi seperti ini% 7nggris lalu akhirn"a menarik diri dari rencana mula*mula mereka sehingga orang Yahudi di Palestina tanpa dukungan sama sekali. (ereka mulai berjuang dari diri mereka sendri. !ementara ketegangan terjadi di Palestina% pecahlah insiden /olocaust di 5erman di ba'ah /itler. 7ni lalu memicu urgensitas dari pembentukan negara 7srael di Palestina. (asalah ini lalu di ba'ah ke tingkat internasional di P## pada tanggal D7 1o4ember 1947 dan dilakukan 4oting terhadap negara* negara anggota P## terhadap rencana pembentukan negara 7srael di Palestina. Pada saat itu Jionisme internasional mengadakan lobi politik ke P## untuk men"etujui pembentukan negara 7srael di Palestina. /asiln"a adalah 1G negara menolak% 10 negara abstain (termasuk 7nggris) dan GG negara men"etujuin"a termasuk 8merika !erikat. -an keputusann"a adalah 'ila"ah Palestina akan dibagi menjadi D "akni untuk 8rab Palestina di bagian barat laut "ang berbatasan dengan (esir. !isan"a diberikan kepada orang Yahudi sedangkan Yerusalem langsung dikendalikan oleh P##. !etelah keputusan itu Jionisme lalu mempersiapkan segala sesuatu untuk pembentukan negara mereka. 6etapi perla'anan mulai datang dari orang 8rab. Peperangan pun terjadi dengan diusirn"a orang*orang 8rab dari 'ila"ah 7srael "ang ditetapkan P##. 8khirn"a pada tanggal 14 (ei 194% jam 4 sore% -a4id #en* <urion mengumumkan negara 7srael merdeka. Proklamasi Kebangkitan #angsa 7srael 7srael adalah cikal bakal bangsa Yahudi% mereka sedemikian terbiasa dalam hal*hal rohani% keagamaan dan jabatan internasional% sekrang mereka meraih kemerdekaan% pertama*tama mereka membangun makna buda"a nasional maupun internasional% mereka mengutip catatan a"at*a"at 8lkitab untuk disambungkan dan dipraktekan pada dunia. =rang*orang Yahudi diusir untuk meninggalkan tanah 7srael% tercerai*berai ke berbagai negara% mereka tetap mengenang tanah ini% senantias berdoa mengarapkan untuk kembali ke tanah air mereka% mengembalikan negeri mereka kepada kebangsaan. -engan desakan kesatuan "ang bersejarah ini% orang*orang Yahudi selama ratusan tahun berupa"a untuk pulang ke tanah nenek mo"ang mereka% juga membangun kembali negeri mereka. Puluhan tahun akhir*akhir ini mereka berdu"un*du"un pulang ke negaran"a% membuka lahan% menggalangkan pemakaian bahasa 7brani% membangun kota*kota% menciptakan mas"arakat "ang penuh dinamis dan bersemangat baja% memiliki ciri khas buda"a perekonomian mandiri% mereka mencari kedamaian% juga mempersenjatai diri dari serangan musuh% mereka memberi angin kemas"uran kepada negara dan penduduk mereka% dengan pengharapan "ang tinggi terhadap kemerdekaan. 6ahun 197% sidang Jionism pertama diproklamasikan% rak"at Yahudi mempun"ai hak untuk turut membangun negeri% sidang ini resmi didirikan atas pengaruh 6heodore /er.l. /al ini diakui berdasarkan sumpah #al;our (6he #al;our -eclaration) pada tanggal D 1o4ember 1917% dan disaksikan oleh anggota pengurus Perserikatan #angsa*#angsa (P##)% terhadap hubungan bersejarah bangsa 7srael dan bangsa Palestina dan hak untuk berpartisipasi membangun negeri% detik ini diakui. Karena berkali*kali mereka mengalami pembantaian% membuat jutaan orang*orang Yahudi "ang diam di daratan 3ropa menjadi pilu% sekali lagi menjadi bukti kebutuhan "ang mendesak atas kebebasan orang*orang Yahudi di perantauan% harus membangun negara Yahudi% supa"a orang*orang Yahudi dapat kembali ke tanah air mereka% menikmati bernegeri% kebangsaan% kesederajatan. Kehidupan setelah mereka disiksa di 3ropa% dan orang*orang Yahudi "ang tercerai berai% sekalipun menghadapi ban"ak kesulitan% halangan% mara baha"a% mereka tetap berjuang untuk pulang ke taha 7srael% dan mereka tidak pernah berhenti untuk meningkatkan kehidupan "ang la"ak% bebas% hidup gotiong ro"ong di atas negeri leluhur mereka. Pada Perang -unia 77% orang*orang Yahudi Palestina dengan segenap tenaga membantu negara*negara "ang mencintai kebebasan% dan mela'an kuasa jahat 1a.i% pengorbanan dan perjuangan prajurit mereka% membuat mereka mempun"ai kedudukan "ang sederajat dengan negara*negara anggota Perserikatan #angsa*#angsa. 6anggal D9 1o4ember 1947% setelah disahkan di sidang anggota Perserikatan #angsa*#angsa% mereka berketetapan membangun negara Yahudi sebagai kebutuhan negara Palestina% dalam sidang itu penduduk "ang berdiam di sana mereka 'ajib membantu untuk mensukseskan rencana ini. Keputusan anggota Perserikatan #angsa*#angsa ini adalah tidak dapat disangkali. &ak"at Yahudi seperti negeri*negeri lain% di dalam negeri "ang diagungkan% mereka berhak menikmati kehidupan "ang merdeka% ini adalah hak kodrat alami. Karena itu% anggota parlemet rak"at kami% me'akili rak"at Yahudi Palestina dan <gerajakan Jionis -unia (2orld Jionism (o4ement) di ba'ah penga'asan negara 7nggris% hingga hari ini% berlandaskan hak alami dan "ang bersejarah dalam bangsa Yahudi% dan berdasarkan ketetapan Perserikatan #angsa* #angsa% berhimpun di depan sidang ini mengumumkan negara Yahudi "ang didirikan di atas tanah Palestina% di sebut negara 7srael. -i sini kami memproklamasikan sejak dari penga'asan negara 7nggris dari tanggal 14 (ei 194 telah selesai hingga ketetapan (ketetapan "ang ditetapkan 'akil*'akil rak"at pada tanggal 1 1o4ember 194)% mengangkat parlemen resmi% di antaran"a ada 'akil*'akil rak"at "ang memegang tampuk pemerintahan% tetapi dalam parlemen dibentuk pemerintahan sementara negeri 7srael. 1egara 7srael men"ambut orang*orang Yahudi di perantauan untuk pulang ke tanah air mereka% meningkatkan perkembangan dan perdagangan "ang ber;aedah bagi rak"at% berdasarkan cita*cita para nabi tentang kebebasan% keadilan dan damai% dan sebagain"a sebagai prinsip dasar dan tidak membedakan agama% pendidikan dan buda"a% memelihata 6anah !uci keagaamaa% dengansegenap hati mematuhi prinsip*prinsip -ekrit Perserikatan #angsa*#angsa. 1egara 7srael bersiap diri untuk bergabung dan bekerja sama dengan Perserikatan #angsa*#angsa dan 'akil*'akiln"a% sebagai konsekuensi ketetapan !idang &a"a pada tanggal D9 1o4ember 1947% juga mngambil tindakan% demi mensukseskan Perserikatan 3konomi (3conomic >nion) Palestina. Kami berseru kepada Perserikatan #angsa*#angsa untuk membantu rak"at Yahudi membangu negeri mereka sendiri% dan membiarkan mereka masuk sebagai salah satu anggota Perserikatan #angsa* #angsa. -i dalam masa penjajahan% kami mohon semua penduduk 7srael "ang ber'arga negara 8rab% memelihara perdamaian% berke'ajiban memajukan bangsa% mereka menikmati hak mutlak dalam berbangsa% dan memiliki hak sebagai 'akil dalam persekutuan*persekutuan "ang bersi;at sementara atau permanen. Kami berseru kepada negara*negara tetangga dan rak"atn"a% kami mengulurkan tangan perdamaian% memohon mereka demi kerjasama mereka antara keuntungan bersama dengan negara Yahudi "ang merdeka% negara 7srael bersedia memberikan sumbangsih untuk kemakmuran di sekitar 6imur 6engah. Kami berseru kepada bangsa Yahudi di seluruh dunia untuk berhimpun di satu lokasi% 'ajib ikut menanggung kaum pengungsi dan perkembangann"a% bersatu bersama kami% supa"a tergenapi mimpi pen"elamatan negara 7srael pada .aman ini. -emi perca"a kepada 8llah "ang (ahaesa% kami pada tanggal 14 (ei 194% kalender Yahudi C70 bulan 7"ar tanggal C menjelang hari !abat% di tanah air kami 6el 84i4 dalam sidang rapat darurat% kami memproklamasikan kemerdekaan ini. !ejak saat itu gelombang orang Yahudi dari berbagai negara pulang ke tanah air mereka% tanah "ang dijanjikan 8llah kepada nenek mo"ang mereka 8braham% 7shak dan Yakub. 1amun tidak sedikit juga "ang tetap tinggal dan menjadi 'arga di negara*negara lain "ang tersebar di seluruh dunia. -emikianlah bangsa 7srael "ang tidak bernegara selama hampir D000 tahun itu akhirn"a kembali muncul dalam sejarah sebagai sebuah negara "ang sah "ang harus diakui dunia internasional. 777. 67158>81 8)K768# 9 8P)7K8!7 P&8K67!. -alam beberapa seri dari khotbah 7srael ini kita sudah melihat bah'a peristi'a*peristi'a di dunia "ang berkenaan dengan kehidupan bangsa 7srael% semuan"a tern"ata sudah dinubuatkan di dalam Kitab !uci. 6idak ada satu pun "ang bersi;at kebetulan. -emikian juga kali ini% tadi sudah sa"a gambarkan bagaimana kehidupan orang Yahudi di negara*negara lain di mana nasib mereka sangat buruk. -iusir% diania"a% disiksa% dibunuhBdibantai. 6ern"ata ini pun tidak kebetulan karena ini sudah dinubuatkan dalam Kitab !uci. >l D$IG*I7 : (IG) A.... kamu akan dicabut dari tanah% ke mana engkau pergi untuk mendudukin"a. (I4) 6>/81 akan men"erakkan engkau ke antara segala bangsa dari ujung bumi ke ujung bumiK ....(IC) 3ngkau tidak akan mendapat ketenteraman di antara bangsa*bangsa itu dan tidak akan ada tempat berjejak bagi telapak kakimuK 6>/81 akan memberikan di sana kepadamu hati "ang gelisah% mata "ang penuh rindu dan ji'a "ang merana. (II) /idupmu akan terkatung*katung% siang dan malam engkau akan terkejut dan kuatir akan hidupmu. (I7) Pada 'aktu pagi engkau akan berkata$ 8h% kalau malam sekarangL dan pada 'aktu malam engkau akan berkata$ 8h% kalau pagi sekarangL karena kejut memenuhi hatimu% dan karena apa "ang dilihat matamu. -emikian juga tadi sudah sa"a jelaskan bah'a melalui jalan "ang begitu pelik dan sukar% akhirn"a orang Yahudi bisa kembali ke tanah air mereka% tanah Palestina. )agi*lagi ini juga bukan kebetulan karena peristi'a ini sudah dinubuatkan juga di dalam Kitab !uci. Yer 1I$1Cb $ .A... !ebab 8ku akan memba'a mereka pulang ke tanah "ang telah Kuberikan kepada nenek mo"ang mereka. Yeh 11$1I*17 : (1I) =leh sebab itu katakanlah$ #eginilah ;irman 6uhan 8))8/$ 2alaupun 8ku memba'a mereka jauh*jauh di antara bangsa*bangsa dan men"erakkan mereka di negeri*negeri itu dan 8ku menjadi tempat kudus "ang sedikit artin"a bagi mereka di negeri*negeri di mana mereka datang% (17) oleh sebab itu katakanlah$ #eginilah ;irman 6uhan 8))8/$ 8ku akan menghimpunkan kamu dari bangsa*bangsa dan mengumpulkan kamu dari negeri*negeri di mana kamu berserak% dan 8ku akan memberikan kamu tanah 7srael. Yeh G4$1G * 8ku akan memba'a mereka keluar dari tengah bangsa*bangsa dan mengumpulkan mereka dari negeri*negeri dan memba'a mereka ke tanahn"aK 8ku akan menggembalakan mereka di atas gunung*gunung 7srael% di alur*alur sungain"a dan di semua tempat kediaman orang di tanah itu. Yeh GI$D4 * 8ku akan menjemput kamu dari antara bangsa*bangsa dan mengumpulkan kamu dari semua negeri dan akan memba'a kamu kembali ke tanahmu. Yeh G7$ (D1) katakanlah kepadan"a$ #eginilah ;irman 6uhan 8))8/$ !ungguh% 8ku menjemput orang 7srael dari tengah bangsa*bangsa% ke mana mereka pergiK 8ku akan mengumpulkan mereka dari segala penjuru dan akan memba'a mereka ke tanah mereka. (DD) 8ku akan menjadikan mereka satu bangsa di tanah mereka% di atas gunung*gunung 7srael% dan satu raja memerintah mereka seluruhn"aK mereka tidak lagi menjadi dua bangsa dan tidak lagi terbagi menjadi dua kerajaan. (DC) (ereka akan tinggal di tanah "ang Kuberikan kepada hamba*Ku Yakub% di mana nenek mo"ang mereka tinggal% "a% mereka% anak*anak mereka maupun cucu cicit mereka akan tinggal di sana untuk selama*laman"a ........(DI) .... 8ku akan memberkati mereka dan membuat mereka ban"ak ..... (D7) .... 8ku akan menjadi 8llah mereka dan mereka akan menjadi umat*Ku. (D) (aka bangsa*bangsa akan mengetahui bah'a 8ku% 6>/81% menguduskan 7srael% pada 'aktu tempat kudus*Ku berada di tengah*tengah mereka untuk selama*laman"a.H 8mos 9$14*1C : (14) 8ku akan memulihkan kembali umat*Ku 7srael$ mereka akan membangun kota* kota "ang licin tandas dan mendiamin"aK mereka akan menanami kebun*kebun anggur dan minum anggurn"aK mereka akan membuat kebun*kebun buah*buahan dan makan buahn"a. (1C) (aka 8ku akan menanam mereka di tanah mereka% dan mereka tidak akan dicabut lagi dari tanah "ang telah Kuberikan kepada mereka%H ;irman 6>/81% 8llahmu. -i sini kita bisa melihat lagi bah'a tern"ata jalann"a sejarah 7srael ini semuan"a telah dirancangkan dengan matang oleh 8llah sehingga tidak ada satu pun "ang bersi;at kebetulan. 8llah benar*benar mengontrol sejarah iniL !etelah mengetahui semua kisah perjalanan bangsa 7srael ini (terutama kemerdekaan mereka) lalu apa pelajaran rohani bagi kita+ !a"a melihat minimal ada D pelajaran rohani di dalamn"a $ a. 8llah adalah sumber segala keberhasilan. 6adi !udah sa"a jelaskan secara singkat bagaimana proses hingga terbentukn"a negara 7srael di mana ada ban"ak pihak "ang terlibat di dalamn"a. (6heodore /er.l% Jionisme% 7nggris% 8rthur #al;our% /itler dan 1a.i% 8merika% P## dan -a4id #en*<urion). 5adi rupan"a ada ban"ak AtanganA "ang bekerja di balik pulangn"a orang 7srael ke tanah air mereka dan terbentukn"a negara 7srael modern. 6etapi kalau kita melihat ke dalam nubuatan*nubuatan "ang ada% semuan"a berkata bah'a 6uhanlah "ang melakukan semuan"a itu. Yer 1I$1Cb $ .A... !ebab 8ku akan memba'a mereka pulang ke tanah "ang telah Kuberikan kepada nenek mo"ang mereka. Yeh 11$17 : A.... 8ku akan menghimpunkan kamu dari bangsa*bangsa dan mengumpulkan kamu dari negeri*negeri di mana kamu berserak% dan 8ku akan memberikan kamu tanah 7srael. Yeh G4$1G * 8ku akan memba'a mereka keluar dari tengah bangsa*bangsa dan mengumpulkan mereka dari negeri*negeri dan memba'a mereka ke tanahn"aK 8ku akan menggembalakan mereka di atas gunung*gunung 7srael% di alur*alur sungain"a dan di semua tempat kediaman orang di tanah itu. Yeh GI$D4 * 8ku akan menjemput kamu dari antara bangsa*bangsa dan mengumpulkan kamu dari semua negeri dan akan memba'a kamu kembali ke tanahmu. Yeh G7$ (D1) katakanlah kepadan"a$ #eginilah ;irman 6uhan 8))8/$ !ungguh% 8ku menjemput orang 7srael dari tengah bangsa*bangsa% ke mana mereka pergiK 8ku akan mengumpulkan mereka dari segala penjuru dan akan memba'a mereka ke tanah mereka. (DD) 8ku akan menjadikan mereka satu bangsa di tanah mereka% di atas gunung*gunung 7srael% dan satu raja memerintah mereka seluruhn"aK mereka tidak lagi menjadi dua bangsa dan tidak lagi terbagi menjadi dua kerajaan. (DC) (ereka akan tinggal di tanah "ang Kuberikan kepada hamba*Ku Yakub% di mana nenek mo"ang mereka tinggal% "a% mereka% anak*anak mereka maupun cucu cicit mereka akan tinggal di sana untuk selama*laman"a ........(DI) .... 8ku akan memberkati mereka dan membuat mereka ban"ak ..... (D7) .... 8ku akan menjadi 8llah mereka dan mereka akan menjadi umat*Ku. (D) (aka bangsa*bangsa akan mengetahui bah'a 8ku% 6>/81% menguduskan 7srael% pada 'aktu tempat kudus*Ku berada di tengah*tengah mereka untuk selama*laman"a.H 8mos 9$14*1C : (14) 8ku akan memulihkan kembali umat*Ku 7srael$ mereka akan membangun kota* kota "ang licin tandas dan mendiamin"aK mereka akan menanami kebun*kebun anggur dan minum anggurn"aK mereka akan membuat kebun*kebun buah*buahan dan makan buahn"a. (1C) (aka 8ku akan menanam mereka di tanah mereka% dan mereka tidak akan dicabut lagi dari tanah "ang telah Kuberikan kepada mereka%H ;irman 6>/81% 8llahmu. 5adi biar pun secara manusia ada ban"ak AtanganA "ang ikut campur di dalam pulangn"a orang 7srael% tetapi sebenarn"a tangan 6uhanlah "ang bekerja di balik semuan"a itu. =rang Yahudi akhirn"a bisa pulang ke tanah air mereka tetapi dari terang ?irman 6uhan "ang ada kita harus simpulkan bah'a bukan Jionisme "ang men"ebabkann"a% bukan negara 7nggris B 8merika B P## "ang men"ebabkann"a% bukan 6heodore /er.l B 8rthur #al;our B -a4id #en*<urion "ang men"ebabkan semuan"a. Yang men"ebabkan semuan"a adalah 6uhan 8llah 7srael itu. !emua ini mengajarkan pada kita bah'a 6uhanlah sumber segala keberhasilan. (a. 1D7$1 : A5ikalau bukan 6>/81 "ang membangun rumah% sia*sialah usaha orang "ang membangunn"aK jikalau bukan 6>/81 "ang menga'al kota% sia*sialah penga'al berjaga*jaga. !emua usaha manusia tanpa campur tangan 6uhan maka akan sia*sia. 7ngat pengalaman Petrus menjala ikan. Karena itu jangan sekali*kali merasa bah'a kita cukup kuat untuk berhasil tanpa 6uhan. !ebalikn"a% libatkanlah 6uhan di dalam pekerjaan saudara% rumah tangga saudara% pendidikan saudara% pergaulan saudara% dan pela"anan saudara. b. 8khir .aman sudah dekat% di ambang pintu. !epanjang khotbah 7srael kita telah melihat bah'a jalann"a sejarah dunia ini sudah dirancang oleh 8llah bahkan sampai detail*detailn"a. !ejarah 7srael "ang panjang ini dimulai dari panggilan terhadap 8braham (D000 !()% berlanjut pada 7shak dan Yakub% penindasan di (esir% peristi'a eModus (keluarn"a orang 7srael dari (esir) hingga pendudukan Kanaan% .aman hakim*hakim hingga .aman raja*raja (!aul% -aud% !alomo% dll)% terpecahn"a kerajaan 7srael ra"a (Yehuda dan 7srael)% hancurn"a D kerajaan itu hingga penaklukan di #abel% pulang dari pembuangan di #abel% pendirian #ait 8llah 77% lalu masa A!ilent YearsA 400 tahun% .aman (edia*Persia% .aman Yunani% .aman &oma'i% lalu hancurn"a Yerusalem dan terserakn"a bangsa Yahudi ke seluruh dunia% pen"iksaan*pen"iksaan "ang dialami orang Yahudi hingga kembalin"a mereka ke tanah air mereka. !emua ini memperlihatkan kepada kita tentang rentang sejarah "ang panjang "ang dirancang oleh 6uhan. -an jika kita menengok ke dalam catatan*catatan 8lkitab% rasan"a kembalin"a bangsa Yahudi ke tanah air mereka sudah merupakan babakan*bakakan terakhir dari jalann"a sejarah "ang dirancang 6uhan. )alu darimana kita bisa menduga bah'a jarak dari kemerdekaan 7srael dengan akhir .aman sudah dekat+ Perhatikan a"at ini $ (at D4$ (1) !esudah itu Yesus keluar dari #ait 8llah% lalu pergi. (aka datanglah murid*murid*1"a dan menunjuk kepada bangunan*bangunan #ait 8llah. (D) 7a berkata kepada mereka$ HKamu melihat semuan"a itu+ 8ku berkata kepadamu% sesungguhn"a tidak satu batu pun di sini akan dibiarkan terletak di atas batu "ang lainK semuan"a akan diruntuhkan.H (G) Ketika Yesus duduk di atas #ukit Jaitun% datanglah murid*murid*1"a kepada*1"a untuk bercakap*cakap sendirian dengan -ia. Kata mereka$ HKatakanlah kepada kami% bilamanakah itu akan terjadi dan apakah tanda kedatangan*(u dan tanda kesudahan dunia+H (1C) H5adi apabila kamu melihat Pembinasa keji berdiri di tempat kudus% menurut ;irman "ang disampaikan oleh nabi -aniel ** para pembaca hendaklah memperhatikann"a : (GD) 6ariklah pelajaran dari perumpamaan tentang pohon ara$ 8pabila ranting*rantingn"a melembut dan mulai bertunas% kamu tahu% bah'a musim panas sudah dekat. (GG) -emikian juga% jika kamu melihat semuan"a ini% ketahuilah% bah'a 'aktun"a sudah dekat% sudah di ambang pintu. (GI) 6etapi tentang hari dan saat itu tidak seorang pun "ang tahu% malaikat*malaikat di sorga tidak% dan 8nak pun tidak% han"a #apa sendiri. (G7) H!ebab sebagaimana haln"a pada .aman 1uh% demikian pula haln"a kelak pada kedatangan 8nak (anusia. (4D) Karena itu berjaga*jagalah% sebab kamu tidak tahu pada hari mana 6uhanmu datang (44) !ebab itu% hendaklah kamu juga siap sedia% karena 8nak (anusia datang pada saat "ang tidak kamu duga. -i bagian a'al dari (at D4 ini jelas Yesus sementara berbicara tentang kehancuran Yerusalem tetapi di bagian tengah dan akhirn"a Yesus berbicara tentang kedatangan*1"a "ang kedua kali. 5adi kelihatann"a bagian Yesus sementara menggabungkan pembicaraan tentang kehancuran Yerusalem dan kedatangan*1"a "ang kedua. (7ni menjadikan bagian 8lkitab ini sukar dita;sirkan). !ekarang perhatikan a"at GG $ (at D4$GG * -emikian juga% jika kamu melihat semuan"a ini% ketahuilah% bah'a 'aktun"a sudah dekat% sudah di ambang pintu. 8rtin"a% jika kamu melihat semuan"a itu (kehancuran Yerusalem)% ketahuilah bah'a 'aktun"a sudah dekat ('aktu kedatangan Yesus kedua kalin"a)% sudah di ambang pintu. 1ah jika Yesus berkata bah'a jarak antara kehancuran Yerusalem (tahun 70) dan kedatangan*1"a sudah dekatBdi ambang pintu% maka tentu jarak antara kemerdekaan 7srael (194) dan akhir .aman lebih dekat lagi mengingat jarak antara kehancuran Yerusalem dan kemerdekan 7srael adalah 17 tahun (tahun 70 : 194). -an jarak ini makin dekat lagi mengingat sekarang kita sudah ada di tahun D010 (ID tahun setelah kemerdekaan 7srael). Karena bolehlah kita katakan bah'a kita sudah sangar*sangat dekat dengan akhir .amanBkedatangan Yesus Kristus kedua kalin"a. !atu hal "ang perlu dicamkan adalah 'alaupun kita sudah sangat dekat dengan akhir .aman namun hari kedatangan*1"a tetaplah suatu rahasia "ang tidak mungkin diketahui manusia. (at D4$ GI% 44 * (GI) 6etapi tentang hari dan saat itu tidak seorang pun "ang tahu% malaikat*malaikat di sorga tidak% dan 8nak pun tidak% han"a #apa sendiri. (44) .....8nak (anusia datang pada saat "ang tidak kamu duga. 1 6es C$D * karena kamu sendiri tahu benar*benar% bah'a hari 6uhan datang seperti pencuri pada malam. (engapa 6uhan merahasiakan hari kedatangan*1"a+ Karena -ia tahu bah'a jika 7a memberitahu hari kedatangan*1"a% maka manusia baru akan mau perca"aBbertobat kurang 1 menit dari hariBjam kedatangan*1"a itu. Karena itu jangan coba*coba untuk meramal hari kedatangan Yesus dan juga jangan perca"a pada siapa pun "ang meramal dan menentukan hariBbulanBtahun kedatangan Yesus seperti (angapin !ibuea% gerakan 8d4entism% !aksi Yeho4ah (0.6.&useel)% ramalan kiamat tahun D01D% dll. Yang harus kita lakukan kalau kita tahu bah'a akhir .aman sudah dekat adalah mempersiapkan diri kita. (at D4$4D% 44 * (4D) Karena itu berjaga*jagalah% sebab kamu tidak tahu pada hari mana 6uhanmu datang (44) !ebab itu% hendaklah kamu juga siap sedia% karena 8nak (anusia datang pada saat "ang tidak kamu duga. )alu bagaimana kita mempersiapkan diri+ 1) Kita harus sungguh*sungguh beriman kepada*1"a. )uk 1$ : A..... jika 8nak (anusia itu datang% adakah 7a mendapati iman di bumi+H Kata*kata 6uhan ini berarti bah'a beriman kepada -ia adalah hal "ang paling penting dan menentukan. (atthe' /enr" : 7ni berarti bah'a iman adalah hal utama "ang Kristus cari. 7a mengamati anak*anak manusia dan tidak bertan"a Aapakah ada "ang tidak bersalah+A namun Aapakah ada iman+A. (7njil )ukas% 1G*D4% hal. I77) Kata*kata ini juga berarti han"a di bumi saja ada kesempatan untuk beriman karena begitu saudara mati dan beralih dari dunia ini% tidak ada lagi kesempatan untuk beriman. Karena itu kesempatan untuk beriman% kesempatan untuk perca"a Yesus sebagai 6uhan dan 5uruslamat pribadi adalah selama engkau masih ada di bumi ini. 5ika sepanjang hidup di bumi ini saudara tidak beriman% maka maka saudara akan kehilangan semua kesempatan itu dan biar pun saudara berteriak dengan menggenaskan seperti teriakan orang ka"a dalam cerita orang ka"a dan )a.arus% kesempatan itu telah tertutup dan selamat menikmati neraka untuk selama*laman"a. A5ika 8nak (anusia itu datang% adakah 7a mendapati iman di bumi+H Karena itu bagi "ang belum beriman secara pribadi kepada Yesus% berimanlah sekarangL D) Kita harus bertekun di dalam iman. 5ikalau bagi orang "ang tidak beriman% Kristus menuntutBiman% maka bagi orang "ang sudah memiliki iman% Kristus menuntut ketekunan. 7ngatlah perumpamaan tentang C gadis "ang bijaksana dan C gadis "ang bodoh. C gadis "ang bodoh itu jelas mengadakan persiapan untuk men"ambut kedatangan mempelai laki*laki% tetapi karena tidak bisa bertekun sampai akhir% maka semua persiapan mereka sia*sia sama sekali. 7ni menunjukkan bah'a orang Kkristen "ang bersiap sedia% tetapi tidak bertekun sampai akhir% juga akan binasa. 7ni tidak bertentangan dengan doktrin Perse4erance o; the !aints% karena kalau bagian ini dipelajari dengan teliti maka akan terlihat bah'a C gadis bodoh ini melakukan persiapan "ang tidak memadai% dan itu menunjukkan bah'a mereka bukan orang Kkristen sejati. 5uga Kitab !uci menunjukkan bah'a orang "ang tidak bertekun sampai akhir% memang bukan orang Kristen "ang sejati (Yoh $G1 1Yoh D$19). 5adi% mereka bukann"a kehilangan keselamatan% tetapi mereka memang tidak pernah selamatL 5adi kalau saudara adalah orang Kristen sejati% maka saudara pasti akan bertekun di dalam menanti kedatangan 6uhan. !ekarang% bagaimana dengan ketekunan saudara+ 8pakah saudara bertekun dalam mencari ?irman 6uhan% mentaati ?irman 6uhan B menguduskan diri% berbakti kepada 6uhan dan berdoa+% 8tau saudara sering malas dalam melakukan hal*hal itu+ Kalau "a% bertobatlah dan bertekunlah% atau semua itu akan sia*sia belaka. 7br 10$DC * 5anganlah kita menjauhkan diri dari pertemuan*pertemuan ibadah kita% seperti dibiasakan oleh beberapa orang% tetapi marilah kita saling menasihati% dan semakin giat melakukann"a menjelang hari 6uhan "ang mendekat. G) Kita harus giat di dalam pela"anan. D 6im 4$C* : (C) A.... lakukanlah pekerjaan pemberita 7njil dan tunaikanlah tugas pela"ananmuL (I) (engenai diriku% darahku sudah mulai dicurahkan sebagai persembahan dan saat kematianku sudah dekat. (7) 8ku telah mengakhiri pertandingan "ang baik% aku telah mencapai garis akhir dan aku telah memelihara iman. () !ekarang telah tersedia bagiku mahkota kebenaran "ang akan dikaruniakan kepadaku oleh 6uhan% /akim "ang adil% pada hari*1"aK tetapi bukan han"a kepadaku% melainkan juga kepada semua orang "ang merindukan kedatangan*1"a. &asul Paulus mengatakan bah'a ia telah mengakhiri pertandingan "ang baik (pela"anan*1"a) dan karena itu ia akan dikaruniakan mahkota oleh 6uhan pada hari*1"a (/ari kedatangan 6uhan). Paulus juga berkata bah'a mahkotaBupah itu juga akan diberikan kepada semua orang "ang merindukan kedatangan Yesus. Ya benar sekaliL 5ika kita sadar bah'a kedatangan 6uhan sudah dekat% di mana 7a akan datang kembali dan menghakimi setiap manusia. Yang tidak perca"a diberikan hukuman dan "ang perca"a diberikan dan setia mela"ani akan diberikan upah% maka 'aktu "ang singkat ini sebelum Kristus datang kembali adalah kesempatan untuk mela"ani seban"ak*ban"akn"a demi upah "ang menanti saat hari Kristus datang kembali. (asuk surga itu memang anugerah tetapi upah di surga itu bergantung kerja keras% perbuatan baik dan pela"anan kita di bumi ini. Karena itu marilah menjelang kedatangan 6uhan "ang semakin dekat ini kita semakin giat mela"ani. 6idak usah bersungut*sungut di dalam pela"anan apabila orang lain bermalas*malasan% ambillah pela"anan seban"ak mungkin karena besar upah "ang menanti engkau di sana. (at D4$44*4I : (44) !ebab itu% hendaklah kamu juga siap sedia% karena 8nak (anusia datang pada saat "ang tidak kamu duga.H (4C) H!iapakah hamba "ang setia dan bijaksana% "ang diangkat oleh tuann"a atas orang*orangn"a untuk memberikan mereka makanan pada 'aktun"a+ (4I) #erbahagialah hamba% "ang didapati tuann"a melakukan tugasn"a itu% ketika tuann"a itu datang. Ya% kemerdekaan 7srael adalah sebuah tanda .aman "ang harus bisa kita baca bah'a kedatangan 6uhan Yesus sudah sangat dekat. (arilah kita melakukan G pesan di atas sambil mengingat kata*kata penulis !urat 7brani $ 7br 10$G7 * H!ebab sedikit% bahkan sangat sedikit 'aktu lagi% dan 7a "ang akan datang% sudah akan ada% tanpa menangguhkan kedatangan*1"a. * 8(71 * -iposkan oleh P3)81<7 K8!7/ (717!6&Y Pada DG.47 Kirimkan 7ni le'at 3mail#log6hisL#erbagi ke 6'itter#erbagi ke ?acebook )abel$ 7srael Pendapat anda $ D komentar$ 8nonimC 5uli D01G 1G.44 'ah"u (jakarta) dari sejarah "ahudi di atas memang luar biasa pekerjaan 6uhan% begitu detail. di jakarta sekarang ini sedang terjadi peperangan atas rohD "ang ingin merebut keselamatan "g sdh Yesus berikan buat kita% dan untuk mempertahankan itu kita harus tetap bertekun.....sampai Yesus datang kedua kalin"a.5#> #alas patarts hans1C 5uli D01G D0.0C Patar(!amarinda) !etelah membaca dan merenung uraian diatas memang semuan"a tidak ada "g secara kebetulan% tapi sudah terencana dan sesuai ketetapan 6uhan (/ancurn"a 5erusalem thn 70(% Yahudi disiksa dan tercerai berai keseluruh dunia dan akhirn"a terbentukn"a 1egara 7srael 194% ini pertanda 8khir Jaman sdh dekat )% semoga kita siap se'aktu 'aktu &aja diatas segala &aja turun ke dunia didapatin"a kita #er*7man...5#>
On Orthodox Regard for Non-observant Jews (Thoughts on Kashruth Certification Policies), and on Sociology Leading to Polemicism in Halakhah (on German Neo-Orthodox Responses to Reform and Haredi Responses to Modernity)