Chemistry summary notes

C1
All substances are made of atoms. Elements consist of only one type of atom while compounds
contain more than one type of atom and are held together by bonds. An atom is made up of a
tiny nucleus with electrons around it. Protons and neutrons are in the nucleus, electrons orbit
the nucleus. Protons have a positive charge and a relative mass of one, neutrons have a neutral
charge and a relative mass of one and electrons have a negative charge and a relative mass of
zero. Any atom contains equal numbers of protons and electrons.
The atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus, the periodic table is arranged in this
order. The mass number is the number of protons plus neutrons. Number of neutrons is mass
number minus atomic number. Each element has its own symbol in the periodic table. Columns
are called groups and rows are called periods. Elements in a group have similar properties, the
red staircase splits metals from nonmetals.
Electrons are arranged round the nucleus in shells. The closest shell to the nucleus has the
lowest energy level, electrons occupy the lowest available energy level. We draw electrons in
atoms as dots or xs in circles, the first shell only takes two electrons, the rest take eight. Atoms
with the same number of electrons in the outer shell belong to the same group in the periodic
table. The outer electrons determine how an element reacts. Noble gases have stable
arrangements and are unreactive.
Atoms react to form a compound in either of the following ways. Transferring electrons using
ionic bonding is when a metal and nonmetal react. Metals form positive ions and nonmetals
form negative ions, opposite charges attract so a giant lattice (interlaced grid structure) is
formed. Sharing electrons using covalent bonding is when two nonmetals bond. The outermost
electrons are shared and form a bond.
Chemical formulas tell us the ratio of each element in the compound, in ionic compounds the
charges have to cancel out. Chemical equations show the reactants and products, we use
symbols to shorten it. A balanced equation has the same number of each atom type on both
sides of the equation. They must balance, we may have to do this by adding big numbers in
front of a substance, this tells us how many elements are within a compound.

C2
Limestone is made mainly of Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3). Some types of limestone like chalk
were formed from the remains of animals and plants that lived millions of years ago. We use
limestone in many buildings by cutting it into blocks.
Cement = powdered limestone + powdered clay Concrete = cement + sand + water
Thermal decomposition is breaking down a chemical using heat.
Calcium Carbonate (TD) Calcium Oxide + Carbon Dioxide CaCO3 CaO + CO2
A rotary lime kiln is the furnace used to heat lots of calcium carbonate and turn it into calcium
oxide.
Calcium oxide is used in the building and agricultural industries. Buildings made from limestone
suffer damage from acid rain as carbonates react with acids to form a salt, water and carbon
dioxide.
Calcium Carbonate + Hydrochloric Acid Calcium Chloride + Water + Carbon Dioxide
CaCO3 + 2HCl CaCl2 + H2O + CO2
Limewater turns cloudy if CO2 is present so we use it to test for CO2. A precipitate (tiny solid
particles) of calcium carbonate forms causing the cloudiness.
Metal carbonate decomposes on heating to form the metal oxide and carbon dioxide.
MgCO3 MgO + CO2
We use limestone to make other materials in the construction industry:
Calcium carbonate (limestone) + HEAT = Calcium Oxide + WATER = Calcium Hydroxide +
WATER AND FILTER = Calcium Hydroxide Solution + CO2 = Calcium Carbonate.
CaCO3 CaO+CO2
CaO+H2O Ca(OH)2
Ca(OH)+H2O Ca(OH)2 (aq)
Ca(OH)2+CO2 CaCO3+H2O
Cement is made by heating limestone with clay in a kiln. Mortar is made by mixing cement and
sand with water. Concrete is made by mixing crushed rocks or stones (aggregate), cement and
sand with water.
Limestone industries provide jobs, lead to improved roads, can be used as landfill sites when
finished with or filled in to make fishing lakes or for planting trees. However, they destroy
habitats, increase emissions, are noisy and dusty, dangerous for children, ugly and create
busier roads.

C3
Metal compounds in rocks are called ores, they are mined from the ground then purified. The
metal is often combined with oxygen. Some metals are not worth extracting, the easier they are
to extract and the amount of metal the ore contains is important.
The reactivity series helps us decide this, metals below carbon can be reduced by carbon to
give the metal element. Metals more reactive than carbon cant have this done, they need other
methods like electrolysis to extract them.
Potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, aluminium, CARBON, zinc, iron, tin, lead,
HYDROGEN, copper, silver, gold, platinum.
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Iron ores contain iron combined with oxygen. Blast furnaces and carbon are used to extract it
(unless its less reactive than carbon). Carbon reduces the iron oxide: iron oxide + carbon iron
+ carbon dioxide
Iron from the blast furnace contains impurities, these make it hard and brittle and mean it can be
run into moulds to form cast iron or used in stoves and manhole covers.
Removing impurities makes pure iron, this is softer and easily shaped however it is too soft for
most uses so needs to be combined with other elements. A metal mixed with other elements is
called an alloy. Steel is an example as it is iron with carbon and other elements. There are
plenty of types of steel alloys - carbon steels, low-alloy steels, high-alloy steels and stainless
steels.
Aluminium is light, shiny, low density, conducts electricity and energy, malleable (shapeable)
and ductile (can be cable wires). It is used for drinking cans, cooking foils, saucepans, cables,
bikes, space vehicles and aeroplanes. Aluminium ore is mined, extracted, the oxide ore is then
melted. Next, an electric current is passed through at a high temperature. Electrolysis is an
expensive process due to the excessive need of heat and energy.
Titanium is strong, resistant to corrosion, has a high melting point (can be used at high temps)
and is less dense than most metals. It is used for high performance aircraft, race bikes, jet
engines, replacement hip joints and parts of nuclear reactors. Titanium is displaced from its ore
by using sodium or potassium. Sodium and magnesium is obtained from electrolysis. It is
expensive due to the many steps and lots of heat and electricity needed.
Copper rich ores contain a lot of copper. Smelting is how 80% of copper is produced, you heat
copper ore strongly in a furnace with air:Copper sulphide + Oxygen Copper + Sulphur
Dioxide
Then you use electrolysis to purify the copper. This is expensive as it needs a lot of heat and
electricity. The Copper Sulphate method is adding sulphuric acid to a copper ore to produce
copper sulphate then extracting the copper using electrolysis or displacement.
Low grade copper ores have smaller amounts of copper in them. Phytomining is when plants
absorb copper ions from low-grade ores, the plants are burned and the copper ions dissolved by
adding sulphuric acid. After, you use displacement or electrolysis to extract pure copper.
Bioleaching is when bacteria feeds on low-grade ore. The bacteria produces a waste product
that contains copper ions. Finally, you use displacement or electrolysis to extract pure copper.
Transition metals are found in the central block of the periodic table. They are good conductors
of electricity and energy, strong and malleable (shapeable). They are used to make buildings,
transport, heating systems and electrical wiring.
For example, copper are made into water pipes as they easily bent into shape, strong and do
not react with water. Copper can also be wires as it is ductile and conducts electricity. Copper
alloys include: Bronze - copper + tin, tough, resistant to corrosion. Brass - copper + zinc, harder
but workable.
Aluminium alloys are alloyed with a wide range of other elements and all have very different
properties, for example, in aircraft or armour plating. Gold alloys usually add copper to make the
jewellery last longer.
Mining to exploit ores has consequences: it scars the landscapes, is noisy and dusty, destroys
animal habitats, makes large heaps of waste rock, makes groundwater acidic and releases
gases that cause acid rain. Recycling metals saves money. Recycling aluminium saves 95% of
the energy used to extract it, iron and steel are easily recycled as they are magnetic and easily
separated however it is hard to recycle copper as it is often alloyed with other elements.
Building with metals is good as steel is strong for girders, aluminium is corrosion resistant, many
are malleable and copper is a good conductor that isnt too reactive. Unfortunately, extraction
causes pollution, iron and steel can rust and metals are more expensive than other materials
such as concrete.
Crude oil is a mixture of lots of different compounds (mixtures are compounds that arent
chemically bonded). We separate it into substances with similar boiling points called fractions.
This is done in a process called fractional distillation. Most compounds in crude oil are
hydrocarbons, these are mostly saturated hydrocarbons called alkanes. Alkanes have the
formula CnH(2n+2), they have single bonds.
Fractions are compounds with similar sized chains, the process relies on the boiling points of
these compounds and the properties a fraction has depends on the size of their hydrocarbon
chains. Short chains are very flammable, have low boiling points and are highly volatile (turn
into gases) with low viscosity (flow easily). Crude oil is fed into the bottom of the distillation
tower, the temperature decreases up the column and hydrocarbons with smaller chains are
found nearer the top.
Lighter fractions from crude oil make good fuels as they release energy when they are oxidised
(burnt in oxygen): propane + oxygen carbon dioxide + water
Fossil fuels produce a number of impurities when theyre burnt. Sulphur dioxide is a poisonous,
acidic gas that causes acid rain and engine corrosion. Carbon monoxide is produced when
theres not enough oxygen, it is a poisonous gas which prevents your blood from carrying
oxygen around your body. Particulates are tiny solid particles containing carbon and unburnt
hydrocarbons, they are carried in the air, damage lung cells and cause cancer.
Global warming is caused by carbon dioxide which is causing the average global temperature to
increase. Sulphur dioxide is caused by impurities in the fuel, it affects asthma sufferers and
causes acid rain, damaging plants and buildings.
Catalytic converters reduce the carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxide produced, they are not
expensive however they do not reduce CO2 amounts. Global dimming is caused by particulates
and reflects sunlight back into space, not as much light gets through to the Earth. Carbon
monoxide is caused by incomplete combustion.
Alternative fuels are renewable sources of energy that could replace fossil fuels (coal, oil and
gas). Biodiesel is less harmful to animals, breaks down five times faster, reduces particulates
and produces other useful products. It is CO2 neutral - plants grown to create it absorb the
same amount of CO2 generated when its burnt. However, large areas of farmland are required
which means less food can be produced, it also destructs habitats and freezes at low temps.
Ethanol is easily made by fermenting sugar cane and gives off CO2 but the sugar cane it comes
from absorbs CO2 when growing. Drawbacks are that large areas of farmland are required
which means less food produce since people are using the land for fuel instead.
Hydrogen is very clean and has no CO2 emissions, water is the only product. The trouble is
explosive and takes up a large volume so storage becomes an issue.

C5
Cracking is breaking down large hydrocarbon chains into smaller, more useful ones. The
cracking process is to heat hydrocarbons to a high temperature then either mixing them with
steam or passing them over a hot catalyst. Cracking is a thermal decomposition reaction:
C
C1H22 C5H12 + C3H6 + C2H4
Decane Pentane + Propene + Ethene
Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons with a double bond they have the formula CnH2n
Unsaturated hydrocarbons go colourless when bromine water is added so we know they are
alkenes, saturated hydrocarbons go orange (no reaction) when bromine water is added so they
alkanes.
Plastics are made up of lots of monomers joined up to make a polymer. Monomers are joined
up by breaking the double bond between the carbon and replacing it with single bonds so
thousands of monomers can join up, this is called polymerisation. To represent it, we show a
single bonded hydrocarbon with brackets around it and an n on the outside of the brackets to
signify any number.
Designer polymers are polymers made to do a specific job, for example they may be used for
dental fillings, linings for false teeth, packaging materials or implants that release drugs slowly.
Smart polymers have their properties changed by light, temperature and other changes in their
surroundings. Light sensitive plasters are an example, when the lower layer of the plaster is
exposed to light the adhesive loses stickiness so peels off the skin easily. Hydrogels make a
water trapping matrix which acts as wound dressing, allowing the body to heal in moist, sterile
conditions which is good for burns. Shape memory polymers are where the temperature of the
body make loosely stitched wound threads tighten and close up the wound with a good amount
of force.
Non-biodegradable plastics dont break down are unsightly, harms wildlife, fill up landfill sites,
litter streets and shores and last hundreds of years. Biodegradable plastics are plastics that
break down easily, granules of cornstarch are built into the plastic which microorganisms in soil
feed on, this breaks the plastic down.
We recycle by sorting plastics into different types then melt them down into new products. This
saves energy and resources however they are hard to transport and need to be sorted into
specific types. Farmers sell crops like corn to make plastics, this means there is more demand
for food and prices go up so less people can afford it causing starvation, also animal habitats
are destroyed to make new farmland.
There are two ways to make ethanol, fermentation is when sugar from plants is broken down by
enzymes in yeast. Sugar + Yeast Ethanol + Carbon Dioxide % of ethanol is made this way,
it uses renewable resources however CO2 is given off and it takes longer to produce. Ethene is
hydration reaction - ethene + steam Ethanol
C2H4 + H2O C2H5OH This is a continuous process so lots is made and produces no waste
products however it requires lots of heat and energy and relies on a non-renewable resource.
Ethanol is used to make alcohol, perfume, rocket fuel, solvents and antiseptic wipes.

C6
There are two ways to extract vegetable oils from plants:
Pressing is when farmers collect seeds from plants which are crushed and pressed, extracting
oil from them. Then the impurities are removed and the oil is processed to make it into a useful
product. Distillation is when plants are put into water and boiled, oil and water evaporate
together and oil is collected by condensing (cooling the gas vapour), Lavender oil is extracted
this way.
Vegetable oils are important foods as they provide important nutrients like vitamin E, contain
lots of energy so can be used as fuels and unsaturated oils contain double bonds which
decolourises bromine water.
Cooking in oil makes food cook quicker and causes the outside of the food to be crispier and the
inside softer. The food absorbs some of the oil which means that there is a higher energy
content so too much is unhealthy. Reacting vegetable oils with hydrogen hardens them which
increases melting points, this makes them solid at room temperature and they are therefore
spreads. They are double bonds converted to single bonds, now called hydrogenated oil, a
reaction occurs at 6 C with a nickel catalyst.
Oils do not dissolve in water, emulsion is where oil and water are dispersed (spread out) in each
other, these often have special properties. Examples are mayonnaise, milk, ice cream,
cosmetics and paint. Emulsifiers stop oil and water separating out into layers and have two
parts that make them work; hydrophobic tail is attracted to oil, hydrophilic head is attracted to
water and has a negative charge.
Food additives are substances added to food to preserve it, improve its taste, texture and
appearance. E number are additives approved for use in Europe. Emulsifiers improve textures
and taste of foods containing fats and oils, they also make them more palatable (tasty) and
tempting to eat, like chocolate.
Vegetable oil are unsaturated fats that have sources of nutrients like vitamin E, keep arteries
clear, reduce heart disease and lower cholesterol levels. Animal fats are saturated fats are not
good for us, increase risk of heart disease and cholesterol.

C7
The Earth has many layers. The atmosphere lies within 10 km of the surface, the rest is within
100 km roughly. The crust is solid, lies 6 km beneath oceans and 35 km beneath land. The
mantle behaves like a solid as it flows very slowly and is about 3000 km deep. The core is made
of nickel and iron. The outer core is liquid and inner core is solid and the radius is 3500 km.
The Earths crust and upper mantle are cracked into a number of pieces called tectonic plates,
these are constantly moving very slowly. Motion is caused by convection currents in the mantle
due to radioactive decay. The continents roughly fit together so scientists believe they were
once one large land mass called pangaea which then broke off into smaller chunks.
Earthquakes and volcanoes happen when tectonic plates meet, these are very difficult to
predict.
For billions of years, volcanoes kept erupting out steam and CO2, the early atmosphere was
nearly all CO2. The Earth cooled and water vapour condensed to form the oceans. Phase two is
when green plants bacteria and algae grew in the ocean, the green plants converted CO2 into
O2 by the photosynthesis process. Nitrogen was released by denitrifying bacteria and plants
colonised the land, making oxygen levels steadily increase. The final phase was when the build
up of O2 killed off early organisms thus allowing evolution of complex organisms, the O2
created the ozone layer (O3) which blocks harmful UV rays from the sun so there was barely
any CO2 left.
The Miller-Urey experiment suggests that compounds for life on Earth came from reactions
involving hydrocarbons (e.g. methane) and ammonia. The energy for this could have been
provided by lightning. Other theories are: molecules for life (amino acids) came on meteorites
from outer space; actual living organisms arrived on meteorites; biological molecules were
released from deep ocean vents.
The main gases in todays atmosphere today are nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), argon (0.9%)
and carbon dioxide (0.04%). Carbon dioxide is taken in by plants during photosynthesis, when
plants and animals die the carbon is transferred to rocks and some forms of fossil fuel which
released into the atmosphere when burnt. The main gases in air can be separated out by
fractional distillation, these gases are useful in industry.
Carbon moves into and out of the atmosphere due to plants (photosynthesis and decay) and
animals (respiration and decay), oceans (store CO2) and rocks (store CO2 and release it when
burnt). CO2 levels have increased in the atmosphere recently largely due to the amount of fossil
fuels we now burn.