ABSTRACT

The aim of this experiment is to study the effect of cooling load and also the effect of
water flow rate to the cooling water. Two parameters been manipulated in this experiment
which are; power used and the water flow rate. On the first place, allow the cooling tower to
operate for about 10 minutes until temperature reached 42C with fully open blower. For the
first part of experiment, the cooling loads used are set to be 0.5 kW, 1.0 kW and 1.5 kW. The
water flow rate is set to be constant at 1.0 LPM. The temperatures from T1, T2, T3, T4, T5
and T6, as well as the heater power, orifice and column differentials are recorded after 10
minutes. The experiment is run for the next two cooling loads. For the second part of using
different water flow rate, the cooling load is set to be constant at 0.5 kW. The water flow
rates chose is 1.0 LPM, 1.5 LPM and 2.0 LPM. Same as the first part, the temperatures from
T1, T2, T3, T4, T5 and T6, as well as the heater power, orifice and column differentials are
recorded after 10 minutes for water flow rate of 1.0 LPM. After that, the other two values of
water flow rate are used to run the next experiment. As the result, the average temperature
at 0.5 kW, 1.0 kW and 1.5 kW are 30.80C, 33.15C and 36.25C, while the feed are 0.0004
kg/s, 0.0061 kg/s and 0.0064 kg/s respectively. While values of vapour calculated in the
second experiment are -0.0021 kg/s, -0.0054 kg/s and -0.0094 kg/s at 1.0 LPM, 1.5 LPM
and 2.0 LPM respectively.
















2

TABLE OF CONTENT
CONTENTS PAGE NUMBER
1.0 Introduction 3
2.0 Objective 5
3.0 Theory 5
4.0 Apparatus 9
5.0 Procedure 9
6.0 Results 11
7.0 Sample Calculation 14
8.0 Discussion 18
9.0 Conclusion 19
10.0 Recommendation 19
11.0 References 20
12.0 Appendices 20














3

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Cooling towers are very important part of many chemical plants. Cooling tower is
equipment that used to reduce the temperature of a water stream by extracting heat from
water and emitting it to the atmosphere. Cooling towers make use of evaporation whereby
some of the water is evaporated into a moving air stream and subsequently discharged into
the atmosphere. As a result, the remainder of the water is cooled down significantly. Cooling
towers are able to lower the water temperatures more than devices that use only air to reject
heat, like the radiator in a car, and therefore more cost-effective and energy efficient. The
primary task of a cooling tower is to reject heat into the atmosphere. They represent a
relatively inexpensive and dependable means of removing low-grade heat from cooling
water.

Common applications for cooling towers are providing cooled water for air-conditioning,
manufacturing and electric power generation. The smallest cooling towers are designed to
handle water streams of only a few gallons of water per minute supplied in small pipes like
those might see in a residence, while the largest cool hundreds of thousands of gallons per
minute supplied in pipes as much as 15 feet (about 5 meters) in diameter on a large power
plant.

The basic components of a cooling tower include the frame and casing, fill, cold-water
basin, drift eliminators, air inlet, louvers, nozzles and fans.

Frame and casing - Most towers have structural frames that support the exterior enclosures
(casings), motors, fans, and other components. With some smaller designs, such as some
glass fiber units, the casing may essentially be the frame.
Fill - Most towers built with fills (made of plastic or wood) to maximize heat transfer by
maximizing water and air contact. There are two types of fill: Splash fill is where water falls
over successive layers of horizontal splash bars, continuously breaking into smaller droplets,
while also wetting the fill surface. The other one is film fill which consists of thin, closely
spaced plastic surfaces over which the water spreads, forming a thin film in contact with the
air. The film type of fill is the more efficient and provides same heat transfer in a smaller
volume than the splash fill.
Cold-water basin - The cold-water basin is usually located at or near the bottom of the
tower, and it receives the cooled water that flows down through the tower and fill.
Drift eliminators - Capture water droplets entrapped in the air stream that otherwise would
be released to the atmosphere.
4

Air inlet - This is the point of entry for the air entering a tower. The inlet may take up an
entire side of a tower (cross-flow design) or be located low on the side or the bottom of the
tower (counter-flow design).
Louvers - Generally, only cross-flow towers have inlet louvers. The purpose of louvers is to
equalize air flow into the fill and retain the water within the tower. Many counter flow tower
designs do not have louvers.
Nozzles - These spray water to wet the fill. Uniform water distribution at the top of the fill is
essential to achieve proper wetting of the entire fill surface.
Fans - Both axial (propeller) and centrifugal fans are used in towers. Generally, propeller
fans are used in induced draft towers and both propeller and centrifugal fans are found in
forced draft towers.

Basically, cooling towers fall into two main categories: Natural draft and Mechanical
draft cooling tower. Natural draft towers use very large concrete chimneys to introduce air
through the media. Due to the large size of these towers, they are generally used for water
flow rates above 45,000 m3/hr. These types of towers are used only by utility power stations.
On the other hand, mechanical draft towers are a type of cooling tower that utilize large fans
to force or suck air through circulated water. The water falls downward over fill surfaces, help
increase the contact time between the water and the air - this helps maximize heat transfer
between the two. Cooling rates of mechanical draft towers depend upon their fan diameter
and speed of operation. Hence, by comparing those two types, mechanical draft cooling
towers are much more widely used in industry.

Cooling tower can be divided into two designs of cooling tower which is counter flow and
cross flow. The counter-flow and cross flows are two basic designs of cooling towers based
on the fundamentals of heat exchange. It is known that counter flow heat exchange is more
effective as compared to cross flow or parallel flow heat exchange. Cross-flow cooling
towers are provided with splash fill of concrete, wood or perforated PVC. Counter-flow
cooling towers are provided with both film fill and splash fill.

The laboratory cooling tower that used allows complete control of the speed of the fan
used in cooling the warm return water and the pump used to return the cooled water to the
water heater. Experiments can be conducted which to study how adjustment of one or both
of these parameters affects the amount of heat removed from the water provided to the
water heater. The laboratory cooling tower unit is supplied with a packed column having
packing density of approximately 110 m2/m3. The unit mainly consists of a load tank with a
5

total of 1.5 kW electric heaters, an air distribution chamber, a make-up tank and a test
column.

Figure 1: Schematic diagram of a general cooling water system


2.0 OBJECTIVES
- To study the basic principles and characteristics of evaporative water cooling tower
system.
- To estimate the evaporation rate of water (water loss) for the tower.
- To investigate cooling tower performance and key design factors.
- To study the performance at different range of cooling loads and inlet temperature
- To determine the correlation of water to air mass flow ratio with increasing water
flow rate.

3.0 THEORY
Cooling tower is a device used to reduce the temperature of water. The water is then
recycled back into the many processes and industries that use it. Some industries use the
water to control the temperature of a process like a car radiator.
The Basic Principle of Operation
Evaporating some of the circulating water and cools the majority of the water in a
cooling tower. The evaporation process only takes place on the surface of a liquid and needs
latent heat of vaporization to happen. Sensible heat is drawn from the body of the water to
6

the surface to supply the energy needed for the latent heat. It can be seen that for a little
evaporation a lot of sensible heat will be needed therefore the main body of the circulating
water is cooled for very little loss of water. Warm to hot water from the cooling process is
pumped to the top of the cooling tower and into the sprays where the water is broken up into
droplets and distributed over the Fill. The water droplet spreads out as it slides down the Fill
creating the surface area necessary for evaporation.
The evaporation rate of the water is restricted by the amount of moisture already in
the air around it. In order to maintain evaporation, the moistened air must be replaced with
dry air, usually by fans blowing into the tower.
Types of Towers
Two basic types:
a) Natural Draft Towers: rely on the heat of the water to generate the air movement
inside the tower. They are only used for very large capacity systems such as
Electricity Generation Plants, where they are called Hyperbolic Towers.
b) Mechanical Draft: are fitted with fans to improve the airflow through the tower which
increases the evaporation rate of the water which increases the capacity of the tower.
Mechanical Draft Towers are used just about everywhere. Generally a centrifugal fan
is used to force the air into a tower, and tube axial (propeller) fans are used to induce
the air out the water.
Orifice Constant

Where

7


Figure 2: Cooling Tower
Cooling tower consists of water circuit and air circuit. Water circuit is where warm
water is pumped from the load tank through the control valve and water flow meter to the
column cap. After its temperature is measured, the water is uniformly distributed over the top
packing deck and, as it spreads over the plates, a large thin film of water is exposed to the
air stream. During its downward passage through the packing, the water is cooled, largely by
the evaporation of a small portion of the total flow.
The cooled water falls from the lowest packing deck into the basin, where its
temperature is again measured and then passes into the load tank where it is re-heated
before re-circulation. Due to evaporation, the level of the water in the load tank tends to fall.
This causes the float operated needle valve to open and transfer water from the make-up
tank into the load tank. Under steady condition, the rate at which the water leaves the make-
up tank is equal to the rate of evaporation plus any small airborne droplets in the air
discharge.
For air circuit, air from the atmosphere with temperature, enters the fan at a rate
which is controlled by the intake damper setting. The fan discharge into the distribution
chamber and the air passes wet and dry bulb sensors before entering the packed column.
As the air flows through the packing, its moisture content increase and the water is cooled.
On leaving the top of the column the air passes through droplet arrester, which traps most of
the entrained droplets and returns them to the packing. The air is then discharged to the
atmosphere via the air measuring orifice and further wet and dry bulb sensors.
8


Figure 3: Basic Principle of Cooling Tower
Assuming that the water is hotter than the air, it will be cooled:
1. By radiation this effect is likely to be very small at normal condition and may be
neglected.
2. By conduction and convection this will depend on the temperature difference, the
surface area, air velocity.
3. By evaporation this is by far the most important effect. Cooling takes place as
molecules of H
2
O diffuse from the surface into the surrounding air. These molecules
are then replaced by others from the liquid and the energy required for this is taken
from the remaining liquid.
Evaporation from a Wet Surface
The rate of evaporation from a wet surface into the surrounding air is determined by
the difference between the vapor pressure at the liquid surface. The latter is determined by
the total pressure of the air and its absolute humidity.
In an enclosed space, evaporation can continue until the two vapor pressures are
equal. However, it unsaturated air is constantly circulated, the wet surface will reach an
equilibrium temperature at which the cooling effect due to the evaporation is equal to the
heat transfer to the liquid by conduction and convection from the air, which under these
conditions, will be at a higher temperature. The equilibrium temperature reaches by the
surface under adiabatic condition in the absence of external heat gains or losses.
9

4.0 APPARATUS

Figure 4: Cooling Tower Equipment, H892
The equipment used for this experiment are:
- cooling tower unit (induced-draft counterflow cooling tower)
- graduated cylinder
- distilled or deionised water
- Packing installed: A
- Packing density: 110 m
2
per m
3

- Measuring instruments for dry bulb and wet bulb temperatures

5.0 PROCEDURES
Experimental Procedure
1. Ensure that valve V1 to V6 are closed and V7 is partially closed.
2. Load tank was filled with distilled or deionised water.
3. Make-up tank was filled with distilled or deionised water up to zero mark on the scale.
10

4. Distilled/deionised water was added to the wet bulb sensor reservoir till the fullest.
5. Appropriate cooling tower packing was installed for the experiment.
6. All appropriate tube was connected to the differential pressure sensor.
7. After that, temperature was set to the set point of temperature controller till 45
o
C.
Switch on the 1.0 kW water heaters and heat up the water until approximately 40
o
C.
8. Switch on the pump and slowly open the control valve V1 and set the water flow rate
to 2.0 LPM. Until the steady operation obtained, where the water was distributed and
flowing uniformly through the packing.
9. Fully open the fan damper, and then switch on the fan. Check that the differential
pressure sensor is giving reading:
i. To measure the differential pressure across the orifice, open valve V4
and V5: close valve V3 and V6.
ii. To measure the differential pressure across the column, open valve
V3 and valve V6: close valve V4 and V5.
10. Steps ( 7 9 ) was repeated with ( 0.5 kW ) water heaters, water flow rates with ( 1.4
LPM and 1.2 LPM ) and fan damper for ( semi-open and fully closed ).
11. After the units run for about 5 minutes to stable, data obtained was recorded in the
following table. Then, change the heaters power with different flow rates also
different air flow rates (fan damper).

General Start-up Procedure

1. Ensure that valve V1 to V6 are closed and V7 is partially closed.
2. Fill the load tank with distilled or deionised water.
3. Fill the make-up tank with distilled or deionised water up to zero mark on the scale.
4. Add distilled/deionised water to the wet bulb sensor reservoir to the fullest.
5. Install the appropriate cooling tower packing for the experiment.
6. Connect all appropriate tubing to the differential pressure sensor.
7. Then, set the temperature set point of temperature controller to 45
o
C. Switch on the
1.0 kW water heaters and heat up the water until approximately 40
o
C.
8. Switch on the pump and slowly open the control valve V1 and set the water flow rate
to 2.0 LPM. Obtain a steady operation where the water is distributed and flowing
uniformly through the packing.
9. Fully open the fan damper, and then switch on the fan. Check that the differential
pressure sensor is giving reading:
11

i. To measure the differential pressure across the orifice, open valve V4
and V5: close valve V3 and V6.
ii. To measure the differential pressure across the column, open valve
V3 and valve V6: close valve V4 and V5.
10. Let the unit run for about 20 minutes, for the float valve to correctly adjust the level in
the load tank. Refill the make-up tank as required.
11. Now, the unit is ready for use.

General Shut-Down Procedure

1. Switch off heaters and let the water to circulate through the cooling tower system for
3-5 minutes until the water cooled down.
2. Switch off the fan and fully close the fan damper.
3. Switch off the pump and power supply.
4. Retain the water in the reservoir tank for the following experiment.
5. Completely drain off the water from the unit if it is not in used.

6.0 RESULT
Variable : Power (heater)
Table 1 : Experimental data for constant water flow rate at 1LPM
Unit Heater (kW)
0.5 1.0 1.5
T1 C 31.9 31.7 32.0
T2 C 29.1 28.9 29.1
T3 C 28.0 28.8 30.2
T4 C 27.8 28.5 29.8
T5 C 34.3 38.4 44.0
T6 C 27.3 27.9 28.5
Heater power W 433 828 1244
DP Orifice Pa 93 92 90
DP Column Pa 10 10 10
Blower Half-opened


12

Variable : Flow rate (water)
Table 2 : Experimental data for constant heater power at 0.5kW
Unit Water Flow Rate (LPM)
1.0 1.5 2.0
T1 C 31.5 31.4 31.8
T2 C 29.1 28.9 29.2
T3 C 28.4 28.6 28.3
T4 C 28.1 28.4 28.4
T5 C 36.2 33.7 32.7
T6 C 28.0 27.6 27.7
Heater power W 434 438 430
DP Orifice Pa 87 96 91
DP Column Pa 11 11 10
Blower Half-opened

Table 3 :The calculated correlation of water to air mass flow rate ratio at constant
heater power (0.5kW) and increasing water flow rates
Water Flow Rate (LPM) L/G
1.0 0.2895
1.5 0.1951
2.0 0.3808

Table 4: The wet bulb approaches with its respective cooling loads.
Cooling loads (kW) wet bulb approach (C)
0.5 0.5
1.0 1.0
1.5 0.6




13

Table 5: Rate of vaporized steam for water flow rate constant at 1 LPM
Heater Power (kW) The average temperature
(C)
Rate of vaporized steam, V
(kg/s)
0.5 30.80 0.0004
1.0 33.15 0.0061
1.5 36.25 0.0064

Table 6: Rate of vaporized steam for heater power constant at 0.5 kW
Water flow rate
(LPM)
The average temperature
(C)
Rate of vaporized steam, V
(kg/s)
1.0 32.10 -0.0021
1.5 30.65 -0.0054
2.0 30.20 -0.0094


Graph 1: Graph of rate of vaporized steam versus heater power

0
0.001
0.002
0.003
0.004
0.005
0.006
0.007
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 R
a
t
e

o
f

v
a
p
o
r
i
z
e
d

s
t
e
a
m

(
k
g
/
s
)

Heater Power (kW)
Rate of vaporized steam VS heater power
14


Graph 2: Graph of rate of vaporized steam versus water flow rate

7.0 SAMPLE OF CALCULATIONS
i) To calculate the correlation of water to air mass flow rate ratio at constant heater power
(0.5kW) and different water flow rates:
Thermodynamic rule indicates that the heat removed from the water must be equal to the
heat absorbed by the surrounding air:
L(T1-T2) = G(h2-h1)
L/G = (h2-h1) / (T1-T2)
Where L/G = liquid to gas mass flow rates ratio
T1 = hot water temperature (C)
T2 = cold water temperature (C)
h2 = enthalpy of air-water vapor mixture at outlet wet-bulb temperature
h1 = enthalpy of air-water vapor mixture at inlet wet-bulb temperature
*the enthalpy of water is determined in table of saturated water properties (attached in
appendices)
-0.01
-0.009
-0.008
-0.007
-0.006
-0.005
-0.004
-0.003
-0.002
-0.001
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
R
a
t
e

o
f

v
a
p
o
r
i
z
e
d

s
t
e
a
m

(
k
g
/
s
)

Water flor rate (LPM)
Rate of vaporized steam VS water flow rate
15


T1 = T5 = 36.2 C h1 (T2 = 29.1 C) = 2431.942
T2 = T6 = 28.0 C h2 (T4 = 28.1 C) = 2434.3158
Therefore,

The correlation of water to air mass flow rate ratio for increasing water flow rate of 1.5LPM
and 2.0LPM is calculated and tabulated in result section.
ii) To determine the the cooling load effect, effect of different air flow rates and the effects of
different flow rates on the wet bulb approach and the pressure drop through the packing.

For cooling load (heater power) at 0.5kW
| |
| |

For cooling load (heater power) at 1.0 kW
| |
| |

For cooling load (heater power) at 1.5kW
| |
| |

16


TO CALCULATE THE EVAPORATION RATE OF THE COOLING TOWER
Water flow rate constant at 1 LPM
V = 1.0 LPM Q = 0.5 kW

Assume that heat capacity of liquid water at 101.325 kPa, by using table A.2-5, (Transport
Process and Separation Process Principles). Therefore, Cp value at temperature 30.8 C is
4.181 kJ/kgC.

Density of water, = 1000 kg/m
3

m = (1.67 x 10
-5
m
3
/s) (1000 kg/m
3
)

L = m = 0.0167 kg/s


Therefore, the rate of vaporized steam:

V = F L
V = (0.0171 0.0167) kg/s
V = 0.0004 kg steam/s

17

Heater power constant at 0.5 kW
V = 1.0 LPM Q = 0.5 kW

Assume that heat capacity of liquid water at 101.325 kPa. By using table A.2-5, (Transport
Process and Separation Process Principles). Therefore, the Cp value at temperature 32.1 C
is 4.181 kJ/kgC.

Density of water, = 1000 kg/m
3

m = (1.67 x 10
-5
m
3
/s) (1000 kg/m
3
)

L = m = 0.0167 kg/s



Therefore, the rate of vaporized steam:

V = F L
V = (0.0146 0.0167) kg/s
V = -0.0021 kg steam/s


18

8.0 DISCUSSIONS
The cooling tower experiment is conducted in order to determine i) the correlation of
water to air mass flow rate ratio with increasing water flow rate, ii) the cooling load effect,
effect of different air flow rates and the effects of different flow rates on the wet bulb
approach and the pressure drop through the packing, iii) the evaporation rate of water
(water loss) for the tower. The experiment is divided into two part which are constant water
flow rates (1LPM) with increasing heater power and constant heater power (0.5kW) with
increasing water flow rates.
The correlation of water to air mass flow rates ratio (L/G) is calculated at increasing
water flow rates with a constant heater power (0.5kW). For water flow rate of 1.0, 1.5, and
2.0 LPM, the L/G calculated are 0.2895, 0.1951, and 0.3808 respectively. The L/G ratio of a
cooling tower is basically the ratio between the water and the air mass flow rates. In order to
get the best cooling tower effectiveness, the cooling towers itself requires adjustment and
tuning of water and air flow rates. Adjustments can be made by water box loading changes
or blade angle adjustments. At L/G < 1, the contact area between air and water is large and
better heat transfer rate will be achieved.
The cooling loads (or heat load) is defined as the amount of heat energy removed
from the water cooling system. The cooling load can be also referred to the heater powers
which are 0.5kW, 1.0kW and 1.5kW. The wet bulb approach is calculated for each cooling
loads which gives 0.5 C, 1.0 C and 0.6C respectively. The wet bulb approach is usually
known as an indicator of cooling tower performance. Generally, due to increased size, the
closer the approach to the wet bulb, the more expensive the cooling tower will be (Electrical
Energy, 2006). Besides, the blower is half-opened throughout the experiment for the
purpose of cooling down the hot water from the heater.
The evaporation rates are calculated for both part of experiment. At constant water
flow rate (1LPM), the rate of vaporised steam is calculated and a graph of rate of vaporized
steam versus heater power is plotted in figure 1. The vaporised steam is calculated to be
0.0004, 0.0061 and 0.0064 for heater power of 0.5, 1.0, and 1.5kW respectively. Based on
figure 1, it can be seen that the rate of vaporised steam is increased as heater power
increased. This is because more energy is removed as the heater power increased and thus
the system more steam will be vaporised.
On the other hand, at constant heater power of 0.5 kW, the rate of vaporised steam
for different water flow rate is calculated and a graph of rate of vaporised steam versus water
flow rate is plotted in figure 2. For water flow rates of 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0 LPM, the vaporised
19

steam is calculated to be -0.0021, -0.0054, and -0.0094 respectively. Based on figure 2, the
rate of vaporised is observed to be decreased as the water flow rate increases. This is
because, the higher the water flow rate, the smaller the area of heat transfer would takes
place. On top of that, the average temperature of water seems to be decreasing as water
flow rates increase. Which means as the water flow rates increase, the lower the energy is
removed from the system.
9.0 CONCLUSION
The objectives of the experiment to determine the correlation of water to air mass flow rate
ratio with increasing water flow rate, define the cooling load effect and the pressure drop
through the packing as well as the evaporation rate of water for the tower were fully
achieved. For the first experiment, water flow rate was kept constant and heater power was
varied. Meanwhile, for the second experiment, the heater power was kept constant and
water flow rate was varied. The correlation of water to air mass flow rate ratio at constant
heater power and wet bulb approaches were both fluctuated at increasing water flow rate
and heater power respectively. The rate of vaporized steam at increasing heater power
increased while the rate of vaporized steam at increasing water flow rate decreased with
time.
10.0 RECOMMENDATIONS
Several recommendations have been generated as a result of the experiences with the
cooling tower:
- The auxiliary heaters must be used during experiments in order to increase the
temperature difference between the return water from the water heater and the cool
supply water. This increase in temperature difference will allow for a larger enthalpy
difference and will decrease the possibility of the enthalpy difference being negligible.
- Only a few experiments can be planned due the time needed for the system to reach
steady state which is approximately 30 minutes, making it is insufficient to run all of
the experiments.
- Recalibrated the humidity recording devices so that more accurate and timely
measurements of humidity can be made.



20

11.0 REFERENCES
Perry H.R, Don W.G (1998). Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook, 6
th
Edition,
McGraw Hill.
United Nations Environment Programme. 2006. Electrical Energy Equipment:
Cooling Towers. What is a Cooling Tower? Pp 1 2. Retrieved from
www.energyefficiencyasia.org. on 9
th
November 2013.
Cooling Tower Experiment. Retrieved from
http://www.me.iitb.ac.in/~matrey/PDF's/cooling%20tower.pdf on November
17
th
,2013.
C.J. Geankoplis Transport Processes and Unit Operations, 3rd Ed., Prentice
Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ (1993).

12.0 APPENDICES