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is a process that enables an individual to learn how to change physiological activity for the purposes of improving health and performance.
Precise instruments measure physiological activity such as brainwaves, heart function, breathing, muscle activity, and skin temperature. These
instruments rapidly and accurately 'feed back' information to the user. The presentation of this information often in conjunction with
changes in thinking, emotions, and behavior supports desired physiological changes. Over time, these changes can endure without
continued use of an instrument.
[6]
Biofeedback
116
Sensor modalities
Electromyograph
An electromyograph (EMG) uses surface electrodes to detect muscle action potentials from underlying skeletal
muscles that initiate muscle contraction. Clinicians record the surface electromyogram (SEMG) using one or more
active electrodes that are placed over a target muscle and a reference electrode that is placed within six inches of
either active. The SEMG is measured in microvolts (millionths of a volt).
[10][11]
Biofeedback therapists use EMG biofeedback when treating anxiety and worry, chronic pain, computer-related
disorder, essential hypertension, headache (migraine, mixed headache, and tension-type headache), low back pain,
physical rehabilitation (cerebral palsy, incomplete spinal cord lesions, and stroke), temporomandibular joint disorder
(TMD), torticollis, and fecal incontinence, urinary incontinence, and pelvic pain.
[12][13]
Feedback thermometer
A feedback thermometer detects skin temperature with a thermistor (a temperature-sensitive resistor) that is usually
attached to a finger or toe and measured in degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit. Skin temperature mainly reflects arteriole
diameter. Hand-warming and hand-cooling are produced by separate mechanisms, and their regulation involves
different skills.
[14]
Hand-warming involves arteriole vasodilation produced by a beta-2 adrenegeric hormonal
mechanism.
[15]
Hand-cooling involves arteriole vasoconstriction produced by the increased firing of sympathetic
C-fibers.
[16]
Biofeedback therapists use temperature biofeedback when treating chronic pain, edema, headache (migraine and
tension-type headache), essential hypertension, Raynauds disease, anxiety, and stress.
[13]
Electrodermograph
An electrodermograph (EDG) measures skin electrical activity directly (skin conductance and skin potential) and
indirectly (skin resistance) using electrodes placed over the digits or hand and wrist. Orienting responses to
unexpected stimuli, arousal and worry, and cognitive activity can increase eccrine sweat gland activity, increasing
the conductivity of the skin for electrical current.
[14]
In skin conductance, an electrodermograph imposes an imperceptible current across the skin and measures how
easily it travels through the skin. When anxiety raises the level of sweat in a sweat duct, conductance increases. Skin
conductance is measured in microsiemens (millionths of a siemens). In skin potential, a therapist places an active
electrode over an active site (e.g., the palmar surface of the hand) and a reference electrode over a relatively inactive
site (e.g., forearm). Skin potential is the voltage that develops between eccrine sweat glands and internal tissues and
is measured in millivolts (thousandths of a volt). In skin resistance, also called galvanic skin response (GSR), an
electrodermograph imposes a current across the skin and measures the amount of opposition it encounters. Skin
resistance is measured in k (thousands of ohms).
[17]
Biofeedback therapists use electrodermal biofeedback when treating anxiety disorders, hyperhidrosis (excessive
sweating), and stress.
[13][18]
Electrodermal biofeedback is used as an adjunct to psychotherapy to increase client
awareness of their emotions.
[19][20]
In addition, electrodermal measures have long served as one of the central tools
in polygraphy (lie detection) because they reflect changes in anxiety or emotional activation.
[21]
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Electroencephalograph
An electroencephalograph (EEG) measures the electrical activation of the brain from scalp sites located over the
human cortex. The EEG shows the amplitude of electrical activity at each cortical site, the amplitude and relative
power of various wave forms at each site, and the degree to which each cortical site fires in conjunction with other
cortical sites (coherence and symmetry).
[22]
The EEG uses precious metal electrodes to detect a voltage between at least two electrodes located on the scalp. The
EEG records both excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs) that
largely occur in dendrites in pyramidal cells located in macrocolumns, several millimeters in diameter, in the upper
cortical layers. Neurofeedback monitors both slow and fast cortical potentials.
[23]
Slow cortical potentials are gradual changes in the membrane potentials of cortical dendrites that last from 300 ms to
several seconds. These potentials include the contingent negative variation (CNV), readiness potential,
movement-related potentials (MRPs), and P300 and N400 potentials.
[24]
Fast cortical potentials range from 0.5Hz to 100Hz.
[25]
The main frequency ranges include delta, theta, alpha, the
sensorimotor rhythm, low beta, high beta, and gamma. The specific cutting points defining the frequency ranges vary
considerably among professionals. Fast cortical potentials can be described by their predominant frequencies, but
also by whether they are synchronous or asynchronous wave forms. Synchronous wave forms occur at regular
periodic intervals, whereas asynchronous wave forms are irregular.
[23]
The synchronous delta rhythm ranges from 0.5 to 3.5Hz. Delta is the dominant frequency from ages 1 to 2, and is
associated in adults with deep sleep and brain pathology like trauma and tumors, and learning disability.
The synchronous theta rhythm ranges from 4 to 7Hz. Theta is the dominant frequency in healthy young children and
is associated with drowsiness or starting to sleep, REM sleep, hypnagogic imagery (intense imagery experienced
before the onset of sleep), hypnosis, attention, and processing of cognitive and perceptual information.
The synchronous alpha rhythm ranges from 8 to 13Hz and is defined by its waveform and not by its frequency.
Alpha activity can be observed in about 75% of awake, relaxed individuals and is replaced by low-amplitude
desynchronized beta activity during movement, complex problem-solving, and visual focusing. This phenomenon is
called alpha blocking.
The synchronous sensorimotor rhythm (SMR) ranges from 12 to 15Hz and is located over the sensorimotor cortex
(central sulcus). The sensorimotor rhythm is associated with the inhibition of movement and reduced muscle tone.
The beta rhythm consists of asynchronous waves and can be divided into low beta and high beta ranges (1321Hz
and 2032Hz). Low beta is associated with activation and focused thinking. High beta is associated with anxiety,
hypervigilance, panic, peak performance, and worry.
EEG activity from 36 to 44Hz is also referred to as gamma. Gamma activity is associated with perception of
meaning and meditative awareness.
[23][26][27]
Neurotherapists use EEG biofeedback when treating addiction, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD),
learning disability, anxiety disorders (including worry, obsessive-compulsive disorder and posttraumatic stress
disorder), depression, migraine, and generalized seizures.
[13][28]
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Photoplethysmograph
An emWave2 photoplethysmograph
for monitoring heart rate variability
A photoplethysmograph (PPG) measures the relative blood flow through a digit
using a photoplethysmographic (PPG) sensor attached by a Velcro band to the
fingers or to the temple to monitor the temporal artery. An infrared light source is
transmitted through or reflected off the tissue, detected by a phototransistor, and
quantified in arbitrary units. Less light is absorbed when blood flow is greater,
increasing the intensity of light reaching the sensor.
[29]
A photoplethysmograph can measure blood volume pulse (BVP), which is the
phasic change in blood volume with each heartbeat, heart rate, and heart rate
variability (HRV), which consists of beat-to-beat differences in intervals between
successive heartbeats.
[30][31]
A photoplethysmograph can provide useful feedback when temperature feedback
shows minimal change. This is because the PPG sensor is more sensitive than a
thermistor to minute blood flow changes.
[27]
Biofeedback therapists can use a
photoplethysmograph to supplement temperature biofeedback when treating
chronic pain, edema, headache (migraine and tension-type headache), essential
hypertension, Raynauds disease, anxiety, and stress.
[13]
Electrocardiograph
The electrocardiograph (ECG) uses electrodes placed on the torso, wrists, or legs, to measure the electrical activity
of the heart and measures the interbeat interval (distances between successive R-wave peaks in the QRS complex).
The interbeat interval, divided into 60 seconds, determines the heart rate at that moment. The statistical variability of
that interbeat interval is what we call heart rate variability.
[32]
The ECG method is more accurate than the PPG
method in measuring heart rate variability.
[29][33]
Biofeedback therapists use HRV biofeedback when treating asthma,
[34]
COPD,
[35]
depression,
[36]
fibromyalgia,
[37]
heart disease,
[38]
and unexplained abdominal pain.
[39]
Pneumograph
A pneumograph or respiratory strain gauge uses a flexible sensor band that is placed around the chest, abdomen, or
both. The strain gauge method can provide feedback about the relative expansion/contraction of the chest and
abdomen, and can measure respiration rate (the number of breaths per minute).
[24]
Clinicians can use a pneumograph
to detect and correct dysfunctional breathing patterns and behaviors. Dysfunctional breathing patterns include
clavicular breathing (breathing that primarily relies on the external intercostals and the accessory muscles of
respiration to inflate the lungs), reverse breathing (breathing where the abdomen expands during exhalation and
contracts during inhalation), and thoracic breathing (shallow breathing that primarily relies on the external
intercostals to inflate the lungs). Dysfunctional breathing behaviors include apnea (suspension of breathing),
gasping, sighing, and wheezing.
[40]
A pneumograph is often used in conjunction with an electrocardiograph (ECG) or photoplethysmograph (PPG) in
heart rate variability (HRV) training.
[30][41]
Biofeedback therapists use pneumograph biofeedback with patients diagnosed with anxiety disorders, asthma,
chronic pulmonary obstructive disorder (COPD), essential hypertension, panic attacks, and stress.
[13][42]
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119
Capnometer
A capnometer or capnograph uses an infrared detector to measure end-tidal CO
2
(the partial pressure of carbon
dioxide in expired air at the end of expiration) exhaled through the nostril into a latex tube. The average value of
end-tidal CO
2
for a resting adult is 5% (36 Torr or 4.8kPa). A capnometer is a sensitive index of the quality of
patient breathing. Shallow, rapid, and effortful breathing lowers CO
2
, while deep, slow, effortless breathing
increases it.
[40]
Biofeedback therapists use capnometric biofeedback to supplement respiratory strain gauge biofeedback with
patients diagnosed with anxiety disorders, asthma, chronic pulmonary obstructive disorder (COPD), essential
hypertension, panic attacks, and stress.
[13][42][43]
Rheoencephalograph
Rheoencephalography (REG), or brain blood flow biofeedback, is a biofeedback technique of a conscious control of
blood flow. An electronic device called a rheoencephalograph [from Greek rheos stream, anything flowing, from
rhein to flow] is utilized in brain blood flow biofeedback. Electrodes are attached to the skin at certain points on the
head and permit the device to measure continuously the electrical conductivity of the tissues of structures located
between the electrodes. The brain blood flow technique is based on non-invasive method of measuring
bio-impedance. Changes in bio-impedance are generated by blood volume and blood flow and registered by a
rheographic device.
[44]
The pulsative bio-impedance changes directly reflect the total blood flow of the deep
structures of brain due to high frequency impedance measurements.
[45]
Hemoencephalography
Hemoencephalography or HEG biofeedback is a functional infrared imaging technique. As its name describes, it
measures the differences in the color of light reflected back through the scalp based on the relative amount of
oxygenated and unoxygenated blood in the brain. Research continues to determine its reliability, validity, and
clinical applicability. HEG is used to treat ADHD and migraine, and for research.
[46]
Applications
Incontinence
Mowrer detailed the use of a bedwetting alarm that sounds when children urinate while asleep. This simple
biofeedback device can quickly teach children to wake up when their bladders are full and to contract the urinary
sphincter and relax the detrusor muscle, preventing further urine release. Through classical conditioning, sensory
feedback from a full bladder replaces the alarm and allows children to continue sleeping without urinating.
[47]
Kegel developed the perineometer in 1947 to treat urinary incontinence (urine leakage) in women whose pelvic floor
muscles are weakened during pregnancy and childbirth. The perineometer, which is inserted into the vagina to
monitor pelvic floor muscle contraction, satisfies all the requirements of a biofeedback device and enhances the
effectiveness of popular Kegel exercises.
[48]
Research has shown that biofeedback can improve the efficacy of pelvic floor exercises and help restore proper
bladder functions. The mode of action of vaginal cones, for instance involves a biological biofeedback mechanism .
Studies have shown that biofeedback obtained with vaginal cones is as effective as biofeedback induced through
physiotherapy electrostimulation.
[49]
In 1992, the United States Agency for Health Care Policy and Research recommended biofeedback as a first-line
treatment for adult urinary incontinence.
[50]
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120
EEG
Caton recorded spontaneous electrical potentials from the exposed cortical surface of monkeys and rabbits, and was
the first to measure event-related potentials (EEG responses to stimuli) in 1875.
[51]
Danilevsky published Investigations in the Physiology of the Brain, which explored the relationship between the
EEG and states of consciousness in 1877.
[52]
Beck published studies of spontaneous electrical potentials detected from the brains of dogs and rabbits, and was the
first to document alpha blocking, where light alters rhythmic oscillations, in 1890.
[53]
Sherrington introduced the terms neuron and synapse and published the Integrative Action of the Nervous System in
1906.
[54]
Pravdich-Neminsky photographed the EEG and event related potentials from dogs, demonstrated a 1214Hz rhythm
that slowed during asphyxiation, and introduced the term electrocerebrogram in 1912.
[55]
Forbes reported the replacement of the string galvanometer with a vacuum tube to amplify the EEG in 1920. The
vacuum tube became the de facto standard by 1936.
[56]
Berger (1924) published the first human EEG data. He recorded electrical potentials from his son Klaus's scalp. At
first he believed that he had discovered the physical mechanism for telepathy but was disappointed that the
electromagnetic variations disappear only millimeters away from the skull. (He did continue to believe in telepathy
throughout his life, however, having had a particularly confirming event regarding his sister). He viewed the EEG as
analogous to the ECG and introduced the term elektenkephalogram. He believed that the EEG had diagnostic and
therapeutic promise in measuring the impact of clinical interventions. Berger showed that these potentials were not
due to scalp muscle contractions. He first identified the alpha rhythm, which he called the Berger rhythm, and later
identified the beta rhythm and sleep spindles. He demonstrated that alterations in consciousness are associated with
changes in the EEG and associated the beta rhythm with alertness. He described interictal activity (EEG potentials
between seizures) and recorded a partial complex seizure in 1933. Finally, he performed the first QEEG, which is the
measurement of the signal strength of EEG frequencies.
[57]
Adrian and Matthews confirmed Berger's findings in 1934 by recording their own EEGs using a cathode-ray
oscilloscope. Their demonstration of EEG recording at the 1935 Physiological Society meetings in England caused
its widespread acceptance. Adrian used himself as a subject and demonstrated the phenomenon of alpha blocking,
where opening his eyes suppressed alpha rhythms.
[58]
Gibbs, Davis, and Lennox inaugurated clinical electroencephalography in 1935 by identifying abnormal EEG
rhythms associated with epilepsy, including interictal spike waves and 3Hz activity in absence seizures.
[52]
Bremer used the EEG to show how sensory signals affect vigilance in 1935.
[59]
Walter (1937, 1953) named the delta waves and theta waves, and the contingent negative variation (CNV), a slow
cortical potential that may reflect expectancy, motivation, intention to act, or attention. He located an occipital lobe
source for alpha waves and demonstrated that delta waves can help locate brain lesions like tumors. He improved
Berger's electroencephalograph and pioneered EEG topography.
[60]
Kleitman has been recognized as the "Father of American sleep research" for his seminal work in the regulation of
sleep-wake cycles, circadian rhythms, the sleep patterns of different age groups, and the effects of sleep deprivation.
He discovered the phenomenon of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep with his graduate student Aserinsky in 1953.
[61]
Dement, another of Kleitman's students, described the EEG architecture and phenomenology of sleep stages and the
transitions between them in 1955, associated REM sleep with dreaming in 1957, and documented sleep cycles in
another species, cats, in 1958, which stimulated basic sleep research. He established the Stanford University Sleep
Research Center in 1970.
[62]
Andersen and Andersson (1968) proposed that thalamic pacemakers project synchronous alpha rhythms to the cortex
via thalamocortical circuits.
[63]
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Kamiya (1968) demonstrated that the alpha rhythm in humans could be operantly conditioned. He published an
influential article in Psychology Today that summarized research that showed that subjects could learn to
discriminate when alpha was present or absent, and that they could use feedback to shift the dominant alpha
frequency about 1Hz. Almost half of his subjects reported experiencing a pleasant "alpha state" characterized as an
"alert calmness." These reports may have contributed to the perception of alpha biofeedback as a shortcut to a
meditative state. He also studied the EEG correlates of meditative states.
[64]
Brown (1970) demonstrated the clinical use of alpha-theta biofeedback. In research designed to identify the
subjective states associated with EEG rhythms, she trained subjects to increase the abundance of alpha, beta, and
theta activity using visual feedback and recorded their subjective experiences when the amplitude of these frequency
bands increased. She also helped popularize biofeedback by publishing a series of books, including New Mind, New
body (1974) and Stress and the Art of Biofeedback (1977).
[65][66][67]
Mulholland and Peper (1971) showed that occipital alpha increases with eyes open and not focused, and is disrupted
by visual focusing; a rediscovery of alpha blocking.
[68]
Green and Green (1986) investigated voluntary control of internal states by individuals like Swami Rama and
American Indian medicine man Rolling Thunder both in India and at the Menninger Foundation. They brought
portable biofeedback equipment to India and monitored practitioners as they demonstrated self-regulation. A film
containing footage from their investigations was released as Biofeedback: The Yoga of the West (1974). They
developed alpha-theta training at the Menninger Foundation from the 1960s to the 1990s. They hypothesized that
theta states allow access to unconscious memories and increase the impact of prepared images or suggestions. Their
alpha-theta research fostered Peniston's development of an alpha-theta addiction protocol.
[69]
Sterman (1972) showed that cats and human subjects could be operantly trained to increase the amplitude of the
sensorimotor rhythm (SMR) recorded from the sensorimotor cortex. He demonstrated that SMR production protects
cats against drug-induced generalized seizures (tonic-clonic seizures involving loss of consciousness) and reduces
the frequency of seizures in humans diagnosed with epilepsy. He found that his SMR protocol, which uses visual and
auditory EEG biofeedback, normalizes their EEGs (SMR increases while theta and beta decrease toward normal
values) even during sleep. Sterman also co-developed the Sterman-Kaiser (SKIL) QEEG database.
[70]
Birbaumer and colleagues (1981) have studied feedback of slow cortical potentials since the late 1970s. They have
demonstrated that subjects can learn to control these DC potentials and have studied the efficacy of slow cortical
potential biofeedback in treating ADHD, epilepsy, migraine, and schizophrenia.
[71]
Lubar (1989) studied SMR biofeedback to treat attention disorders and epilepsy in collaboration with Sterman. He
demonstrated that SMR training can improve attention and academic performance in children diagnosed with
Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity (ADHD). He documented the importance of theta-to-beta ratios in
ADHD and developed theta suppression-beta enhancement protocols to decrease these ratios and improve student
performance.
[72]
Electrodermal system
Fer demonstrated the exosomatic method of recording of skin electrical activity by passing a small current through
the skin in 1888.
[73]
Tarchanoff used the endosomatic method by recording the difference in skin electrical potential from points on the
skin surface in 1889; no external current was applied.
[74]
Jung employed the galvanometer, which used the exosomatic method, in 1907 to study unconscious emotions in
word-association experiments.
[75]
Marjorie and Hershel Toomim (1975) published a landmark article about the use of GSR biofeedback in
psychotherapy.
[19]
Meyer and Reich discussed similar material in a British publication.
[76]
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Musculoskeletal system
Jacobson (1930) developed hardware to measure EMG voltages over time, showed that cognitive activity (like
imagery) affects EMG levels, introduced the deep relaxation method Progressive Relaxation, and wrote Progressive
Relaxation (1929) and You Must Relax (1934). He prescribed daily Progressive Relaxation practice to treat diverse
psychophysiological disorders like hypertension.
[77]
Several researchers showed that human subjects could learn precise control of individual motor units (motor neurons
and the muscle fibers they control). Lindsley (1935) found that relaxed subjects could suppress motor unit firing
without biofeedback training.
[78]
Harrison and Mortensen (1962) trained subjects using visual and auditory EMG biofeedback to control individual
motor units in the tibialis anterior muscle of the leg.
[79]
Basmajian (1963) instructed subjects using unfiltered auditory EMG biofeedback to control separate motor units in
the abductor pollicis muscle of the thumb in his Single Motor Unit Training (SMUT) studies. His best subjects
coordinated several motor units to produce drum rolls. Basmajian demonstrated practical applications for
neuromuscular rehabilitation, pain management, and headache treatment.
[80]
Marinacci (1960) applied EMG biofeedback to neuromuscular disorders (where proprioception is disrupted)
including Bell Palsy (one-sided facial paralysis), polio, and stroke.
[81]
"While Marinacci used EMG to treat neuromuscular disorders, his colleagues only used the EMG for diagnosis.
They were unable to recognize its potential as a teaching tool even when the evidence stared them in the face! Many
electromyographers who performed nerve conduction studies used visual and auditory feedback to reduce
interference when a patient recruited too many motor units. Even though they used EMG biofeedback to guide the
patient to relax so that clean diagnostic EMG tests could be recorded, they were unable to envision EMG
biofeedback treatment of motor disorders."
[82]
Whatmore and Kohli (1968) introduced the concept of dysponesis (misplaced effort) to explain how functional
disorders (where body activity is disturbed) develop. Bracing your shoulders when you hear a loud sound illustrates
dysponesis since this action does not protect against injury.
[83]
These clinicians applied EMG biofeedback to diverse
functional problems like headache and hypertension. They reported case follow-ups ranging from 6 to 21 years. This
was long compared with typical 0-24 month follow-ups in the clinical literature. Their data showed that skill in
controlling misplaced efforts was positively related to clinical improvement. Last, they wrote The Pathophysiology
and Treatment of Functional Disorders (1974) that outlined their treatment of functional disorders.
[84]
Wolf (1983) integrated EMG biofeedback into physical therapy to treat stroke patients and conducted landmark
stroke outcome studies.
[85]
Peper (1997) applied SEMG to the workplace, studied the ergonomics of computer use, and promoted "healthy
computing."
[86]
Taub (1999, 2006) demonstrated the clinical efficacy of constraint-induced movement therapy (CIMT) for the
treatment of spinal cord-injured and stroke patients.
[87][88]
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Cardiovascular system
Shearn (1962) operantly trained human subjects to increase their heart rates by 5 beats-per-minute to avoid electric
shock.
[89]
In contrast to Shearn's slight heart rate increases, Swami Rama used yoga to produce atrial flutter at an
average 306 beats per minute before a Menninger Foundation audience. This briefly stopped his heart's pumping of
blood and silenced his pulse.
[69]
Engel and Chism (1967) operantly trained subjects to decrease, increase, and then decrease their heart rates (this was
analogous to ON-OFF-ON EEG training). He then used this approach to teach patients to control their rate of
premature ventricular contractions (PVCs), where the ventricles contract too soon. Engel conceptualized this training
protocol as illness onset training, since patients were taught to produce and then suppress a symptom.
[90]
Peper has
similarly taught asthmatics to wheeze to better control their breathing.
[91]
Schwartz (1971, 1972) examined whether specific patterns of cardiovascular activity are easier to learn than others
due to biological constraints. He examined the constraints on learning integrated (two autonomic responses change
in the same direction) and differentiated (two autonomic responses change inversely) patterns of blood pressure and
heart rate change.
[92]
Schultz and Luthe (1969) developed Autogenic Training, which is a deep relaxation exercise derived from hypnosis.
This procedure combines passive volition with imagery in a series of three treatment procedures (standard Autogenic
exercises, Autogenic neutralization, and Autogenic meditation). Clinicians at the Menninger Foundation coupled an
abbreviated list of standard exercises with thermal biofeedback to create autogenic biofeedback.
[93]
Luthe (1973)
also published a series of six volumes titled Autogenic therapy.
[94]
Fahrion and colleagues (1986) reported on an 18-26 session treatment program for hypertensive patients. The
Menninger program combined breathing modification, autogenic biofeedback for the hands and feet, and frontal
EMG training. The authors reported that 89% of their medication patients discontinued or reduced medication by
one-half while significantly lowering blood pressure. While this study did not include a double-blind control, the
outcome rate was impressive.
[95]
Freedman and colleagues (1991) demonstrated that hand-warming and hand-cooling are produced by different
mechanisms. The primary hand-warming mechanism is beta-adrenergic (hormonal), while the main hand-cooling
mechanism is alpha-adrenergic and involves sympathetic C-fibers. This contradicts the traditional view that finger
blood flow is exclusively controlled by sympathetic C-fibers. The traditional model asserts that when firing is slow,
hands warm; when firing is rapid, hands cool. Freedman and colleagues studies support the view that hand-warming
and hand-cooling represent entirely different skills.
[96]
Vaschillo and colleagues (1983) published the first studies of HRV biofeedback with cosmonauts and treated
patients diagnosed with psychiatric and psychophysiological disorders.
[97][98]
Lehrer collaborated with Smetankin
and Potapova in treating pediatric asthma patients
[99]
and published influential articles on HRV asthma treatment in
the medical journal Chest.
[100]
Pain
Budzynski and Stoyva (1969) showed that EMG biofeedback could reduce frontalis muscle (forehead)
contraction.
[101]
They demonstrated in 1973 that analog (proportional) and binary (ON or OFF) visual EMG
biofeedback were equally helpful in lowering masseter SEMG levels.
[102]
Budzynski, Stoyva, Adler, and Mullaney (1973) reported that auditory frontalis EMG biofeedback combined with
home relaxation practice lowered tension headache frequency and frontalis EMG levels. A control group that
received noncontingent (false) auditory feedback did not improve. This study helped make the frontalis muscle the
placement-of-choice in EMG assessment and treatment of headache and other psychophysiological disorders.
[103]
Sargent, Green, and Walters (1972, 1973) demonstrated that hand-warming could abort migraines and that autogenic
biofeedback training could reduce headache activity. The early Menninger migraine studies, although
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124
methodologically weak (no pretreatment baselines, control groups, or random assignment to conditions), strongly
influenced migraine treatment.
[104][105]
Flor (2002) trained amputees to detect the location and frequency of shocks delivered to their stumps, which resulted
in an expansion of corresponding cortical regions and significant reduction of their phantom limb pain.
[106]
McNulty, Gevirtz, Hubbard, and Berkoff (1994) proposed that sympathetic nervous system innervation of muscle
spindles underlies trigger points.
[107]
Clinical effectiveness
Research
Moss, LeVaque, and Hammond (2004) observed that Biofeedback and neurofeedback seem to offer the kind of
evidence-based practice that the health care establishment is demanding."
[108][109]
"From the beginning biofeedback
developed as a research-based approach emerging directly from laboratory research on psychophysiology and
behavior therapy, The ties of biofeedback/neurofeedback to the biomedical paradigm and to research are stronger
than is the case for many other behavioral interventions (p.151).
[110]
The Association for Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback (AAPB) and the International Society for
Neurofeedback and Research (ISNR) have collaborated in validating and rating treatment protocols to address
questions about the clinical efficacy of biofeedback and neurofeedback applications, like ADHD and headache. In
2001, Donald Moss, then president of the Association for Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback, and Jay
Gunkelman, president of the International Society for Neurofeedback and Research, appointed a task force to
establish standards for the efficacy of biofeedback and neurofeedback.
The Task Force document was published in 2002,
[111]
and a series of white papers followed, reviewing the efficacy
of a series of disorders.
[112]
The white papers established the efficacy of biofeedback for functional anorectal
disorders,
[113]
attention deficit disorder,
[114]
facial pain and temporomandibular disorder,
[115]
hypertension,
[116]
urinary incontinence,
[117]
Raynaud's phenomenon,
[118]
substance abuse,
[119]
and headache.
[120]
A broader review was published
[121]
and later updated,
[13]
applying the same efficacy standards to the entire range of
medical and psychological disorders. The 2008 edition reviewed the efficacy of biofeedback for over 40 clinical
disorders, ranging from alcoholism/substance abuse to vulvar vestibulitis. The ratings for each disorder depend on
the nature of research studies available on each disorder, ranging from anecdotal reports to double blind studies with
a control group. Thus, a lower rating may reflect the lack of research rather than the ineffectiveness of biofeedback
for the problem.
Efficacy
Yucha and Montgomery's (2008) ratings are listed for the five levels of efficacy recommended by a joint Task Force
and adopted by the Boards of Directors of the Association for Applied Psychophysiology (AAPB) and the
International Society for Neuronal Regulation (ISNR).
[111]
From weakest to strongest, these levels include: not
empirically supported, possibly efficacious, probably efficacious, efficacious, and efficacious and specific.
Level 1: Not empirically supported. This designation includes applications supported by anecdotal reports and/or
case studies in non-peer reviewed venues. Yucha and Montgomery (2008) assigned eating disorders, immune
function, spinal cord injury, and syncope to this category.
[13]
Level 2: Possibly efficacious. This designation requires at least one study of sufficient statistical power with well
identified outcome measures but lacking randomized assignment to a control condition internal to the study. Yucha
and Montgomery (2008) assigned asthma, autism, Bell palsy, cerebral palsy, COPD, coronary artery disease, cystic
fibrosis, depression, erectile dysfunction, fibromyalgia, hand dystonia, irritable bowel syndrome, PTSD, repetitive
strain injury, respiratory failure, stroke, tinnitus, and urinary incontinence in children to this category.
[13]
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Level 3: Probably efficacious. This designation requires multiple observational studies, clinical studies, wait list
controlled studies, and within subject and intrasubject replication studies that demonstrate efficacy. Yucha and
Montgomery (2008) assigned alcoholism and substance abuse, arthritis, diabetes mellitus, fecal disorders in children,
fecal incontinence in adults, insomnia, pediatric headache, traumatic brain injury, urinary incontinence in males, and
vulvar vestibulitis (vulvodynia) to this category.
[13]
Level 4: Efficacious. This designation requires the satisfaction of six criteria:
(a) In a comparison with a no-treatment control group, alternative treatment group, or sham (placebo) control using
randomized assignment, the investigational treatment is shown to be statistically significantly superior to the control
condition or the investigational treatment is equivalent to a treatment of established efficacy in a study with
sufficient power to detect moderate differences.
(b) The studies have been conducted with a population treated for a specific problem, for whom inclusion criteria are
delineated in a reliable, operationally defined manner.
(c) The study used valid and clearly specified outcome measures related to the problem being treated.
(d) The data are subjected to appropriate data analysis.
(e) The diagnostic and treatment variables and procedures are clearly defined in a manner that permits replication of
the study by independent researchers.
(f) The superiority or equivalence of the investigational treatment has been shown in at least two independent
research settings.
Yucha and Montgomery (2008) assigned anxiety, chronic pain, epilepsy, constipation (adult), headache (adult),
hypertension, motion sickness, Raynaud's disease, and temporomandibular disorder to this category.
[13]
Level 5: Efficacious and specific. The investigational treatment must be shown to be statistically superior to
credible sham therapy, pill, or alternative bona fide treatment in at least two independent research settings. Yucha
and Montgomery (2008) assigned urinary incontinence (females) to this category.
[13]
Criticisms
In a health care environment that emphasizes cost containment and evidence-based practice, biofeedback and
neurofeedback professionals continue to address skepticism in the medical community about the cost-effectiveness
and efficacy of their treatments. Critics question how these treatments compare with conventional behavioral and
medical interventions on efficacy and cost. The publication of white papers and rigorous evaluation of biofeedback
interventions can address these legitimate questions and educate medical professionals, third-party payers, and the
public about the value of these services.
[122]
Organizations
The Association for Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback (AAPB) is a non-profit scientific and professional
society for biofeedback and neurofeedback. The International Society for Neurofeedback and Research (ISNR) is a
non-profit scientific and professional society for neurofeedback. The Biofeedback Foundation of Europe (BFE)
[123]
sponsors international education, training, and research activities in biofeedback and neurofeedback.
[40]
The
Northeast Regional Biofeedback Association (NRBS)
[124]
sponsors theme centered educational conferences,
political advocacy for biofeedback friendly legislation, and research activities in biofeedback and neurofeedback in
the Northeast regions of the United States
Biofeedback
126
Certification
The Biofeedback Certification International Alliance (formerly the Biofeedback Certification Institute of America) is
a non-profit organization that is a member of the Institute for Credentialing Excellence (ICE). BCIA offers
biofeedback certification, neurofeedback (also called EEG biofeedback) certification, and pelvic muscle dysfunction
biofeedback. BCIA certifies individuals who meet education and training standards in biofeedback and
neurofeedback and progressively recertifies those who satisfy continuing education requirements. BCIA certification
has been endorsed by the Mayo Clinic,
[125]
the Association for Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback
(AAPB), the International Society for Neurofeedback and Research (ISNR),
[40]
and the Washington State
Legislature.
[126]
The BCIA didactic education requirement includes a 48-hour course from a regionally-accredited academic
institution or a BCIA-approved training program that covers the complete General Biofeedback Blueprint of
Knowledge and study of human anatomy and physiology. The General Biofeedback Blueprint of Knowledge areas
include: I. Orientation to Biofeedback, II. Stress, Coping, and Illness, III. Psychophysiological Recording, IV.
Surface Electromyographic (SEMG) Applications, V. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) Applications, VI.
Electroencephalographic (EEG) Applications, VII. Adjunctive Interventions, and VIII. Professional Conduct.
[127]
Applicants may demonstrate their knowledge of human anatomy and physiology by completing a course in human
anatomy, human physiology, or human biology provided by a regionally-accredited academic institution or a
BCIA-approved training program or by successfully completing an Anatomy and Physiology exam covering the
organization of the human body and its systems.
Applicants must also document practical skills training that includes 20 contact hours supervised by a
BCIA-approved mentor designed to them teach how to apply clinical biofeedback skills through self-regulation
training, 50 patient/client sessions, and case conference presentations. Distance learning allows applicants to
complete didactic course work over the internet. Distance mentoring trains candidates from their residence or
office.
[128]
They must recertify every 4 years, complete 55 hours of continuing education during each review period
or complete the written exam, and attest that their license/credential (or their supervisors license/credential) has not
been suspended, investigated, or revoked.
[129]
Pelvic muscle dysfunction
Pelvic Muscle Dysfunction Biofeedback (PMDB) encompasses "elimination disorders and chronic pelvic pain
syndromes."
[130]
The BCIA didactic education requirement includes a 28-hour course from a regionally-accredited
academic institution or a BCIA-approved training program that covers the complete Pelvic Muscle Dysfunction
Biofeedback Blueprint of Knowledge and study of human anatomy and physiology. The Pelvic Muscle Dysfunction
Biofeedback areas include: I. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback, II. Pelvic Floor Anatomy, Assessment,
and Clinical Procedures, III. Clinical Disorders: Bladder Dysfunction, IV. Clinical Disorders: Bowel Dysfunction,
and V. Chronic Pelvic Pain Syndromes.
Currently, only licensed health care providers may apply for this certification. Applicants must also document
practical skills training that includes a 4-hour practicum/personal training session and 12 contact hours spent with a
BCIA-approved mentor designed to teach them how to apply clinical biofeedback skills through 30 patient/client
sessions and case conference presentations. They must recertify every 3 years, complete 36 hours of continuing
education or complete the written exam, and attest that their license/credential has not been suspended, investigated
or revoked.
[129]
[131]
Biofeedback
127
History
Claude Bernard proposed in 1865 that the body strives to maintain a steady state in the internal environment (milieu
intrieur), introducing the concept of homeostasis.
[132]
In 1885, J.R. Tarchanoff showed that voluntary control of
heart rate could be fairly direct (cortical-autonomic) and did not depend on "cheating" by altering breathing rate.
[133]
In 1901, J. H. Bair studied voluntary control of the retrahens aurem muscle that wiggles the ear, discovering that
subjects learned this skill by inhibiting interfering muscles and demonstrating that skeletal muscles are
self-regulated.
[134]
Alexander Graham Bell attempted to teach the deaf to speak through the use of two devices - the
phonautograph, created by douard-Lon Scotts, and a manometric flame. The former translated sound vibrations
into tracings on smoked glass to show their acoustic waveforms, while the latter allowed sound to be displayed as
patterns of light.
[135]
After World War II, mathematician Norbert Wiener developed cybernetic theory, that proposed
that systems are controlled by monitoring their results.
[136]
The participants at the landmark 1969 conference at the
Surfrider Inn in Santa Monica coined the term biofeedback from Weiner's feedback. The conference resulted in the
founding of the Bio-Feedback Research Society, which permitted normally isolated researchers to contact and
collaborate with each other, as well as popularizing the term biofeedback.
[137]
The work of B.F. Skinner led
researchers to apply operant conditioning to biofeedback, decide which responses could be voluntarily controlled and
which could not. The effects of the perception of autonomic nervous system activity was initially explored by
George Mandler's group in 1958. In 1965, Maia Lisina combined classical and operant conditioning to train subjects
to change blood vessel diameter, eliciting and displaying reflexive blood flow changes to teach subjects how to
voluntarily control the temperature of their skin.
[138]
In 1974, H.D. Kimmel trained subjects to sweat using the
galvanic skin response.
[139]
Hinduism:
Biofeedback systems have been known in India and some other countries for millennia. Ancient Hindu practices like
Yoga and Pranayama (Breathing techniques)are essentially biofeedback methods. Many yogis and sadhus have been
known to exercise control over their physiological processes. In addition to recent research on Yoga, Paul Brunton,
the British writer who travelled extensively in India, has written about many cases he has witnessed.
Timeline
1958 - G. Mandler's group studied the process of autonomic feedback and its effects.
[140]
1962 - D. Shearn used feedback instead of conditioned stimuli to change heart rate.
[141]
1962 - Publication of Muscles Alive by John Basmajian and Carlo De Luca
[142]
1968 - Annual Veteran's Administration research meeting in Denver that brought together several biofeedback
researchers
1969 - April: Conference on Altered States of Consciousness, Council Grove, KS; October: formation and first
meeting of the Biofeedback Research Society (BRS), Surfrider Inn, Santa Monica, CA; co-founder Barbara B.
Brown becomes the society's first president
1972 - Review and analysis of early biofeedback studies by D. Shearn in the 'Handbook of Psychophysiology'.
[143]
1974 - Publication of The Alpha Syllabus: A Handbook of Human EEG Alpha Activity
[144]
and the first popular book
on biofeedback, New Mind, New Body
[145]
(December), both by Barbara B. Brown
1975 - American Association of Biofeedback Clinicians founded; publication of The Biofeedback Syllabus: A
Handbook for the Psychophysiologic Study of Biofeedback by Barbara B. Brown
[146]
1976 - BRS renamed the Biofeedback Society of America (BSA)
1977 - Publication of Beyond Biofeedback by Elmer and Alyce Green
[69]
and Biofeedback: Methods and Procedures
in Clinical Practice by George Fuller
[147]
and Stress and The Art of Biofeedback by Barbara B. Brown
[148]
1978 - Publication of Biofeedback: A Survey of the Literature by Francine Butler
[149]
Biofeedback
128
1979 - Publication of Biofeedback: Principles and Practice for Clinicians by John Basmajian
[150]
and Mind/Body
Integration: Essential Readings in Biofeedback by Erik Peper, Sonia Ancoli, and Michele Quinn
[151]
1980 - First national certification examination in biofeedback offered by the Biofeedback Certification Institute of
America (BCIA); publication of Biofeedback: Clinical Applications in Behavioral Medicine by David Olton and
Aaron Noonberg
[152]
and Supermind: The Ultimate Energy by Barbara B. Brown
[153]
1984 - Publication of Principles and Practice of Stress Management by Woolfolk and Lehrer
[154]
and Between
Health and Illness: New Notions on Stress and the Nature of Well Being by Barbara B. Brown
[155]
1987 - Publication of Biofeedback: A Practitioner's Guide by Mark Schwartz
[156]
1989 - BSA renamed the Association for Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback
1991 - First national certification examination in stress management offered by BCIA
1994 - Brain Wave and EMG sections established within AAPB
1995 - Society for the Study of Neuronal Regulation (SSNR) founded
1996 - Biofeedback Foundation of Europe (BFE) established
1999 - SSNR renamed the Society for Neuronal Regulation (SNR)
2002 - SNR renamed the International Society for Neuronal Regulation (iSNR)
2003 - Publication of The Neurofeedback Book by Thompson and Thompson
[157]
2004 - Publication of Evidence-Based Practice in Biofeedback and Neurofeedback by Carolyn Yucha and
Christopher Gilbert
[158]
2006 - ISNR renamed the International Society for Neurofeedback and Research (ISNR)
2008 - Biofeedback Neurofeedback Alliance formed to pool the resources of the AAPB, BCIA, and ISNR on joint
initiatives
2008 - Biofeedback Alliance and Nomenclature Task Force define biofeedback
2009 - The International Society for Neurofeedback & Research defines neurofeedback
[159]
2010 - Biofeedback Certification Institute of America renamed the Biofeedback Certification International Alliance
(BCIA)
In popular culture
Biofeedback data and biofeedback technology are used by Massimiliano Peretti in a contemporary art
environment, the Amigdalae project. This project explores the way in which emotional reactions filter and distort
human perception and observation. During the performance, biofeedback medical technology, such as the EEG,
body temperature variations, heart rate, and galvanic responses, are used to analyze an audience's emotions while
they watch the video art. Using these signals, the music changes so that the consequent sound environment
simultaneously mirrors and influences the viewer's emotional state.
[160][161]
More information is available at the
website of the CNRS French National Center of Neural Research [162].
Charles Wehrenberg implemented competitive-relaxation as a gaming paradigm with the Will Ball Games circa
1973. In the first bio-mechanical versions, comparative GSR inputs monitored each player's relaxation response
and moved the Will Ball across a playing field appropriately using stepper motors. In 1984 Wehrenberg
programmed the Will Ball games for Apple II computers. The Will Ball game itself is described as pure
competitive-relaxation; Brain Ball is a duel between one player's left and right brain hemispheres; Mood Ball is
an obstacle-based game; Psycho Dice is a psycho-kinetic game.
[163]
In 1999 The HeartMath Institute developed
an educational system based on heart rhythm measurement and display on a Personal Computer
(Windows/Macintosh). Their systems have been copied by many but are still unique in the way they assist people
to learn about and self-manage their physiology. A handheld version of their system was released in 2006 and is
Biofeedback
129
completely portable being the size of a small mobile phone and having rechargeable batteries. With this unit one
can move around and go about daily business while gaining feedback about inner psycho-physiological states.
In 2001, the company Journey to Wild Divine began producing biofeedback hardware and software for the
Macintosh and Windows operating systems. Third-party and open-source software and games are also available
for the Wild Divine hardware. Tetris 64 makes use of biofeedback to adjust the speed of the tetris puzzle game.
David Rosenboom has worked to develop musical instruments that would respond to mental and physiological
commands. Playing these instruments can be learned through a process of biofeedback.
In the mid-seventies, an episode of the television series, "The Bionic Woman", featured a doctor who could "heal"
himself using biofeedback techniques to communicate to his body and react to stimuli. For example, he could
exhibit "super" powers, such as walking on hot coals, by feeling the heat on the sole of his feet and then
convincing his body to react by sending large quantities of perspiration to compensate. He could also convince his
body to deliver extremely high levels of adrenalin to provide more energy to allow him to run faster and jump
higher. When injured, he could slow his heart rate to reduce blood pressure, send extra platelets to aid in clotting a
wound, and direct white blood cells to an area to attack infection.[164]
Footnotes
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[160] "under changes" (http:/ / www.kontinuita.com/ ). Kontinuita.com. . Retrieved 2012-01-09.
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External links
Biofeedback (http:/ / www. dmoz. org/ Health/ Alternative/ Biofeedback/ / ) at the Open Directory Project
Association for Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback (AAPB) (http:/ / www. aapb. org/ )
Biofeedback Certification Institute of America (BCIA) (http:/ / www. bcia. org/ )
Biofeedback Foundation of Europe (BFE) (http:/ / www. bfe. org/ )
Biofeedback groups may also be found in all the social media for discussion and information.
A number of regional groups which are offshoots of the AAPB can be accessed online.
Dreamachine
Homemade dreamachine at rest (not spinning), lit
internally.
The dreamachine (or dream machine) is a stroboscopic flicker
device that produces visual stimuli. Artist Brion Gysin and
William S. Burroughs's "systems adviser" Ian Sommerville created
the dreamachine after reading William Grey Walter's book, The
Living Brain.
[1][2]
History
In its original form, a dreamachine is made from a cylinder with
slits cut in the sides. The cylinder is placed on a record turntable
and rotated at 78 or 45 revolutions per minute. A light bulb is
suspended in the center of the cylinder and the rotation speed
allows the light to come out from the holes at a constant frequency
of between 8 and 13 pulses per second. This frequency range
corresponds to alpha waves, electrical oscillations normally
present in the human brain while relaxing.
[2]
The Dreamachine is the subject of the National Film Board of
Canada 2008 feature documentary film FLicKeR by Nik
Sheehan.
[3]
Dreamachine
135
Use
A dreamachine is "viewed" with the eyes closed: the pulsating light stimulates the optical nerve and alters the brain's
electrical oscillations. The user experiences increasingly bright, complex patterns of color behind their closed
eyelids. The patterns become shapes and symbols, swirling around, until the user feels surrounded by colors. It is
claimed that using a dreamachine allows one to enter a hypnagogic state.
[4]
This experience may sometimes be quite
intense, but to escape from it, one needs only to open one's eyes.
[1]
A dreamachine may be dangerous for people with photosensitive epilepsy or other nervous disorders. It is thought
that one out of 10,000 adults will experience a seizure while viewing the device; about twice as many children will
have a similar ill effect.
[5]
Notes
[1] Cecil, Paul (March 2000). "Everything is Permuted" (http:/ / www. permuted. org. uk/ dream1. htm). Flickers of the Dreamachine. . Retrieved
2007-03-27.
[2] Century, Dan (December 2000). "Brion Gysin and his Wonderful Dreamachine" (http:/ / www. legendsmagazine. net/ 105/ brion. htm).
Legends Magazine. . Retrieved 2007-03-27.
[3] Film Web site (http:/ / www. flickerflicker. com)
[4] Kerekes, David (2003). Headpress 25: William Burroughs & the Flicker Machine. Headpress. p.13. ISBN1-900486-26-1.
[5] Allen, Mark (2005-01-20). "Dcor by Timothy Leary" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2005/ 01/ 20/ garden/ 20mach. html?ex=1264050000&
en=2ead60550b324624& ei=5088& partner=rssnyt). The New York Times. . Retrieved 2007-03-27.
References
Cecil, Paul. (2000). Flickers Of The Dreamachine (http:/ / www. permuted. org. uk/ Flickers. htm). ISBN
1-899598-03-0 Download excerpts (http:/ / www. permuted. org. uk/ dmpdown. htm)
Further reading
McKenzie, Andrew M. (1989). "The Hafler Trio & Thee Temple Ov Psychick Youth - Present Brion Gysin's
Dreamachine" (http:/ / www. discogs. com/ release/ 582394). Belgium: KK records. Retrieved 2010-10-21.
Cecil, Paul (1996). Flickers of the Dreamachine (http:/ / www. permuted. org. uk/ Flickers. htm).
ISBN1-899598-03-0.
Geiger, John (2003). The Chapel of Extreme Experience: A Short History of Stroboscopic Light and the Dream
Machine (http:/ / softskull. com/ detailedbook. php?isbn=1-932360-01-8). ISBN1-932360-01-8.
Vale, V (1982). Re-Search: William S. Burroughs, Brion Gysin, Throbbing Gristle (http:/ / www. researchpubs.
com/ Blog/ ?page_id=13& product_id=54). ISBN0-940642-05-0.
Gysin, Brion (1992). Dreamachine Plans (http:/ / www. permuted. org. uk/ dmplan. htm). ISBN1-871744-50-4.
External links
Dreamachine exhibition at Cabaret Voltaire (birthplace of Dada), Zrich (http:/ / www. cabaretvoltaire. ch/
ausstellung. php?ID=31& modus=archive)
Dreamachine exhibition at Freud's Dreams Museum, St. Petersburg (Russia) (http:/ / freud. ru/ )
Subtleart Dr.Benways Simulacrum, Dreamachine Replica, Audiovisual installation, Collaborative project:
Subtleart, New World Revolution and Kito, 2009 (http:/ / cargocollective. com/ rudolfamaral#1934691/
dr-benways-dreamachine/ )
(French) Interzone: Dreamachine - Machine rver (http:/ / www. inter-zone. org/ dm. html)
FLicKeR Film Review (http:/ / www. flickerflicker. com)
(http:/ / dreamachine. ca/ )
JavaScript Dreamachine (http:/ / www. netliberty. net/ dreamachine. html)
Mind machine
136
Mind machine
A mind machine with headphones and strobe light goggles.
A mind machine (aka brain machine,
in some countries called a
psychowalkman) uses pulsing rhythmic
sound and/or flashing light to alter the
brainwave frequency of the user.
[1]
Mind machines are said to induce deep
states of relaxation, concentration, and
in some cases altered states of
consciousness that have been compared
to those obtained from meditation and
shamanic exploration.
The process applied by these machines
is also known as brainwave
synchronisation or entrainment.
Mind machines work by creating a
flickering ganzfeld. Since a flickering
ganzfeld produces different effects from a static one, mind machines can often also produce a static ganzfeld.
[2]
A mind machine is similar to a dreamachine in that both produce a flickering ganzfeld. The difference is that a
dreamachine can be used by several people at once, but generally has less technical features than a mind machine.
Overview
Mind machines typically consist of a control unit, a pair of headphones and/or strobe light goggles. The unit controls
the sessions and drives the LEDs in the goggles. Professionally, they are usually referred to as Auditory Visual
Stimulation Devices (AVS devices).
Sessions will typically aim at directing the average brainwave frequency from a high level to a lower level by
ramping down in several sequences. Target frequencies typically correspond to delta (1-3 hertz), theta (47Hz),
alpha (812Hz) or beta brain waves (1340Hz), and can be adjusted by the user based on the desired effects.
There have been a number of claims regarding binaural beats, among them that they may help people memorize and
learn, stop smoking, tackle erectile dysfunction and improve athletic performance.
Scientific research into binaural beats is very limited. No conclusive studies have been released to support the wilder
claims listed above.
Mind machines are often used together with biofeedback or neurofeedback equipment in order to adjust the
frequency on the fly.
[3]
Modern mind machines can connect to the Internet to update the software and download new sessions. When
sessions are used in conjunction with meditation, neurofeedback, etc. the effect can be amplified.
Some clinical research has been done on the use of auditory and visual stimulation to improve cognitive abilities in
learning-disabled children (research)
[4]
.
Mind machine
137
Safety
Rapidly flashing lights may be dangerous for people with photosensitive epilepsy or other nervous disorders. It is
thought that one out of 10,000 adults will experience a seizure while viewing such a device; about twice as many
children will have a similar ill effect.
[5]
References
[1] The Use of Auditory and Visual Stimulation for the Treatment of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Children (http:/ / www.
neuromedicstechnology. com/ Library/ final69.pdf). Micheletti, Larry S. Doctoral Dissertation, University of Houston, Houston, Texas
[2] Wackermann, Jir (2008). "Ganzfeld-induced hallucinatory experience, its phenomenology and cerebral electrophysiology" (http:/ / www.
efectoganzfeld. com/ uploads/ 5/ 3/ 0/ 3/ 5303662/ ganzfeld. pdf). Cortex 44 (2008) 1364 1378. Elsevier. .
[3] Mind machines together with online gsr biofeedback (http:/ / www. happy-electronics. eu/ products/ online-biofeedback/ ?lang=en). Happy
Electronics
[4] http:/ / proquest. umi.com/ pqdlink?Ver=1& Exp=10-13-2012& FMT=7& DID=766101161& RQT=309& attempt=1
[5] Allen, Mark (2005-01-20). "Dcor by Timothy Leary" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2005/ 01/ 20/ garden/ 20mach. html?ex=1264050000&
en=2ead60550b324624& ei=5088& partner=rssnyt). The New York Times. . Retrieved 2007-03-27.
Literature
Mind Machine FAQ (http:/ / www. realization. org/ page/ doc0/ doc0036. htm) by J.Brad Hicks Dead link
2012-Dec-18
Article Sources and Contributors
138
Article Sources and Contributors
Brainwave entrainment Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=528655771 Contributors: 2over0, A. di M., Aaron Kauppi, AbsolutDan, Adamantios, Aesir.le, Akerans, Allens,
Anarchist42, Army1987, Beccare, Bendroz, Betacommand, Bigjoestalin, Binksternet, Bobsterz, Bonni, CJLL Wright, Clicketyclack, CommonsDelinker, Crommo, Crystaln1, Cst17, DGG, DPic,
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Audiovisual entrainment Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=511906109 Contributors: Aaron Kauppi, Amandaj16, Cffrost, ClintGoss, Colonies Chris, DPic, Dicklyon,
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Binaural beats Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=527331015 Contributors: Aaronbrick, Acousticsheep, Adamantios, Aitias, Algae, All Is One, Allen4names, Andres,
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Isochronic tones Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=523164083 Contributors: Akerans, Arda Xi, Bearcat, DPic, DVdm, Djpeters, DoctorKubla, GoingBatty, Johnscheer,
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Electroencephalography Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=528942739 Contributors: A.Warner, A314268, AFLastra, AGToth, AVJP619, AbsolutDan, Adnan niazi, Alex
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Thalamus Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=525387679 Contributors: 10k, @pple, A314268, Alansohn, Alex.tan, AlexDitto, Anatomist90, Ancheta Wis, Arcadian, Argumzio,
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Delta wave Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=523538361 Contributors: A314268, AGToth, Anton Summers, Argumzio, Balloonguy, Ben Ben, BirdValiant, Boud, Chirality,
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Tryptofish, Tycho, WLU, XApple, ZZninepluralZalpha, 44 anonymous edits
Theta rhythm Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=523538396 Contributors: A. di M., A314268, AGToth, Argumzio, Armarshall, Benhocking, Chris the speller, Clicketyclack,
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Tryptofish, UberScienceNerd, Uchaschiysya, Wikitavanti, XApple, Xetxo, 50 anonymous edits
Alpha wave Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=529261047 Contributors: 2over0, A314268, AGToth, Ali ringo, Anonywiki, Arcadian, Argumzio, Brighterorange, Chirality,
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Beta wave Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=523538278 Contributors: A314268, AGToth, Argumzio, Army1987, BenKovitz, Benbest, Chirality, Clayoquot, Djsuess, Drilnoth,
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Gamma wave Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=523538319 Contributors: A314268, AGToth, Aaron Brenneman, Adinsmoor, AdjustShift, Anna Lincoln, Antaeus Feldspar,
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Dick, Whatever404, William Ortiz, YUL89YYZ, 91 anonymous edits
Mu wave Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=528003350 Contributors: Addone, Arcadian, Arjayay, Djsuess, Eitt, Eubulides, Funky3cold3medina, FutureSocialNeuroscientist,
Garkbit, Johndarrington, Jonsafari, JorisvS, Lighthead, Midgley, Neurorel, Ombudsman, Rjwilmsi, Tnxman307, Tryptofish, Wilhelmina Will, 8 anonymous edits
Hypothalamus Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=524319005 Contributors: A314268, AC+79 3888, AGK, Ado2013, Adolphus79, Aelindor, AlbertHall, Alison, Allens,
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Hippocampus Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=528667568 Contributors: 404 page not found, 5glacieres, A More Perfect Onion, A314268, ABF, Action potential, Aitias,
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Wikiwikifast, Wimt, Wingman4l7, Wouterstomp, Wpd0001, Xenonice, Zibart, 373 anonymous edits
Neural oscillation Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=528786915 Contributors: 2602:304:6F8B:2239:43C:46A4:7380:A91E, Alexanderabbit, Alexbacker, Animalresearcher,
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kebrke, 81 anonymous edits
Sensorimotor rhythm Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=523538467 Contributors: A314268, AnthraxMan, ArchonMD, Clicketyclack, ClintGoss, Collin Stocks, Djsuess, Eitt,
Eubulides, Hgamboa, Jonsafari, Ktr101, LittleHow, Lova Falk, Mckeuken, Michael Tangermann, Ophion, Ost316, Rjwilmsi, Rl, Scottalter, TjeerdB, Tranhungnghiep, Tryptofish, Ttsuchi,
Zbisasimone, 21 anonymous edits
Sleep spindle Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=523538444 Contributors: Aaron Kauppi, Antonio Lopez, Benandorsqueaks, Bobianite, Bwrs, Darktremor, DickAB,
Discospinster, Eliptis, Galatea151, Ihope127, Ijustam, Iqzaquezzs, ItsWoody, Jonsafari, Jstedehouder, Kayemmdee, Kstrojny, Mesonym, Mistral2099, Mycroft7, NSR, Neocadre, Niluop, Retpyrc,
RichardF, Simbven, TjeerdB, Toferscd, 26 anonymous edits
Biofeedback Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=527668673 Contributors: ***Ria777, 0x6D667061, ASK, AThing, AerobicFox, Afterwriting, Amire80, AnakngAraw,
Andonic, AndreasJS, Angela, Angelito7, Arcadian, Arjayay, Arnaudf, BMello1618, Babbage, Barticus88, Baseball Watcher, Baz2007, Belovedfreak, Ben James Ben, Ben123holland, Bendzh,
Biofeedback, Bluetribe, Bob Bermani, Bonadea, Boy1jhn, Brainstatetech, Brock Steel, BullRangifer, Burpen, C.Fred, CMG, CheekyMonkey, Chelsea99, ChrisGualtieri, Claireislovely, CliffC,
Colincbn, CommonsDelinker, CompulsiveProofReader, Cowprof, CyberSkull, DabMachine, Daniam, DarenDrysdale, Davenru, Destynova, Discospinster, Dlogtenberg, Donshearn, Dr. Yigal
Gliksman, Dreid1987, Drtimlow, Edalton, Ericoides, Everything Else Is Taken, Ezriilc, Falcon8765, Flopster2, Frap, Fredricshaffer, Gaviidae, Gene Nygaard, George100, Geraeusch, Gmandler,
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J04n, JAltman752, JForget, Jayadev.madhavam, Jfdwolff, Jimp, Jleon, Jmh649, JoanneB, John of Reading, Johnkarp, Jonjohn, Jtoomim, JustinHall, Kane5187, Katsam, Kbrd, Kelly Martin,
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Dreamachine Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=526410524 Contributors: ***Ria777, 5 albert square, Adamantios, Akseli.palen, BesigedB, Betacommand, Boson, C1k3,
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Silvers, JensAlfke, Jerzy, Lagoona, Luna Santin, MaveenOlam, Maxronnersjo, McGeddon, Mitsukai, Niksheehan, Nof20, Permuted, Pete4512, Qmwpeto, Riefenstahl, Robert551, Ronz, Shadow
box, Shawn in Montreal, Sherefong, SimonP, Soniclife89, Sparkit, The despot, TheOldJacobite, Timothyreal, Tregoweth, Trivialist, Useight, Viriditas, Will Beback, Zafiroblue05, , 106
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Mind machine Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=528764801 Contributors: AbsolutDan, Aenar, Amandaj16, Aragorn23, Army1987, B7T, Birdseed101, Crystallina, Devil
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Abdassabur, J, 61 anonymous edits
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
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File:Binaural beats.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Binaural_beats.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: DPic
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File:Isochronic-toes.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Isochronic-toes.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: DPic
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File:EEG_cap.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:EEG_cap.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Thuglas at en.wikipedia
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File:1st-eeg.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1st-eeg.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Hans Berger
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141
Image:Human brain left dissected midsagittal view description 2.JPG Source:
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Dep't. of Cellular Biology & Anatomy, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center Shreveport
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Ramn y Cajal (18521934) derivative = Looie496
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