Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
NONRESIDENT
TRAINING
COURSE
July 1990
Fluid Power
NAVEDTRA 14105
DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.
Although the words he, him, and
his are used sparingly in this course to
enhance communication, they are not
intended to be gender driven or to affront or
discriminate against anyone.
COMMANDING OFFICER
NETPDTC
6490 SAUFLEY FIELD RD
PENSACOLA, FL 32509-5237
ERRATA #3 19 Oct 99
Specific Instructions and Errata
FLUID POWER
1. This errata supersedes all previous erratas. No attempt has been made to
issue corrections for errors in typing, punctuation, etc., that do not affect
your ability to answer the question or questions.
2. To receive credit for deleted questions, show this errata to your local
course administrator (ESO/scorer). The local course administrator is directed
to correct the course and the answer key by indicating the question deleted.
3. Assignment Booklet
Delete the following questions, and leave the corresponding spaces blank
on the answer sheets:
Questions
2-6
2-9
2-15
3-5
Questions
4-52
5-22
5-67
Make the following changes:
Question
1-19
1-52
3-32
4-15
4-18
4-28
5-8
5-52/5-55
5-67
Change
In the questions, change the question to read "In the
metric system, the density of a substance is expressed
as..."
In the question, line 5, "60 cubic centimeters" is
equivalent to 60 milliliters.
In the blurb before the question, line 2, delete "and
3-33."
In alternative 3, change "form" to from."
In the question. line 2, change "instead" to "installed."
In alternative 2, change "el" to "element."
In the blurb preceding the question, line 1, change "1-8"
to "5-8."
In the column under "COMPONENTS", in alternative 3, add
"mover" after "prime."
In the blurb preceding the question, line 2, change
"5-71" to " 5-70."
i
PREFACE
By enrolling in this self-study course, you have demonstrated a desire to improve yourself and the Navy.
Remember, however, this self-study course is only one part of the total Navy training program. Practical
experience, schools, selected reading, and your desire to succeed are also necessary to successfully round
out a fully meaningful training program.
COURSE OVERVIEW: In completing this nonresident training course, you will demonstrate a
knowledge of the subject matter by correctly answering questions on the following: fundamental physics as
appropriate to fluids at rest and in motion; types and characteristics of hydraulic and pneumatic fluids; major
components of basic fluid power systems and diagrams used to illustrate these systems; proper procedures
and precautions for handling and replacing lines, connectors, and sealing devices; proper procedures for
eliminating contaminants; purpose, operation, application of pumps, reservoirs, strainers, filters,
accumulators, flow control and measuring devices, directional control valves, and actuators; arrangement
and operation of representative fluid power systems including the function and interrelationship of major
components.
THE COURSE: This self-study course is organized into subject matter areas, each containing learning
objectives to help you determine what you should learn along with text and illustrations to help you
understand the information. The subject matter reflects day-to-day requirements and experiences of
personnel in the rating or skill area. It also reflects guidance provided by Enlisted Community Managers
(ECMs) and other senior personnel, technical references, instructions, etc., and either the occupational or
naval standards, which are listed in the Manual of Navy Enlisted Manpower Personnel Classifications
and Occupational Standards, NAVPERS 18068.
THE QUESTIONS: The questions that appear in this course are designed to help you understand the
material in the text.
VALUE: In completing this course, you will improve your military and professional knowledge.
Importantly, it can also help you study for the Navy-wide advancement in rate examination. If you are
studying and discover a reference in the text to another publication for further information, look it up.
1990 Edition Prepared by
MMC Albert Beasley, Jr.
Published by
NAVAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING
PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
AND TECHNOLOGY CENTER
NAVSUP Logistics Tracking Number
0504-LP-026-7730
ii
Sailors Creed
I am a United States Sailor.
I will support and defend the
Constitution of the United States of
America and I will obey the orders
of those appointed over me.
I represent the fighting spirit of the
Navy and those who have gone
before me to defend freedom and
democracy around the world.
I proudly serve my countrys Navy
combat team with honor, courage
and commitment.
I am committed to excellence and
the fair treatment of all.
C ONT E NT S
CHAPTER
1. I ntroducti on to Fl ui d Power.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. Forces i n Li qui ds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. Hydraul i c Fl ui ds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5. Fl ui d Li nes and Fi tti ngs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6. Val ves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7. Seal i ng Devi ces and Materi al s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8. Measurement and Pressure Control Devi ces . . . . . . . . . .
9. Reservoi rs, Strai ners, Fi l ters, and Accumul ators . . . . . .
10. Actuators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11. Pneumati cs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12. Basi c Di agrams and Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
APPENDI X
I . Gl ossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I I . Mechani cal Symbol s Other than Aeronauti cal
for Fl ui d Power Di agrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I I I . Aeronauti cal Mechani cal Symbol s for Fl ui d
Power Di agrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Page
1-1
2-1
3-1
4-1
5-1
6-1
7-1
8-1
9-1
10-1
11-1
12-1
AI -1
AI I -1
AI I I -1
I NDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I NDEX-1
. . .
iii
CREDI TS
The compani es l i sted bel ow have provi ded permi ssi on to use certai n
tradenames/trademarks i n thi s edi ti on of Fluid Power. Permi ssi on to use these
tradenames/trademarks i s grateful l y acknowl edged. Permi ssi on to reproduce
or use these tradenames/trademarks must be obtai ned from the source.
SOURCE TEXT ON PAGE
DuPont
Greene, Tweed and Company
Mi nnesota Rubber
5-8
7-5
7-15
iv
v
INSTRUCTIONS FOR TAKING THE COURSE
ASSIGNMENTS
The text pages that you are to study are listed at
the beginning of each assignment. Study these
pages carefully before attempting to answer the
questions. Pay close attention to tables and
illustrations and read the learning objectives.
The learning objectives state what you should be
able to do after studying the material. Answering
the questions correctly helps you accomplish the
objectives.
SELECTING YOUR ANSWERS
Read each question carefully, then select the
BEST answer. You may refer freely to the text.
The answers must be the result of your own
work and decisions. You are prohibited from
referring to or copying the answers of others and
from giving answers to anyone else taking the
course.
SUBMITTING YOUR ASSIGNMENTS
To have your assignments graded, you must be
enrolled in the course with the Nonresident
Training Course Administration Branch at the
Naval Education and Training Professional
Development and Technology Center
(NETPDTC). Following enrollment, there are
two ways of having your assignments graded:
(1) use the Internet to submit your assignments
as you complete them, or (2) send all the
assignments at one time by mail to NETPDTC.
Grading on the Internet: Advantages to
Internet grading are:
you may submit your answers as soon as
you complete an assignment, and
you get your results faster; usually by the
next working day (approximately 24 hours).
In addition to receiving grade results for each
assignment, you will receive course completion
confirmation once you have completed all the
assignments. To submit your assignment
answers via the Internet, go to:
http://courses.cnet.navy.mil
Grading by Mail: When you submit answer
sheets by mail, send all of your assignments at
one time. Do NOT submit individual answer
sheets for grading. Mail all of your assignments
in an envelope, which you either provide
yourself or obtain from your nearest Educational
Services Officer (ESO). Submit answer sheets
to:
COMMANDING OFFICER
NETPDTC N331
6490 SAUFLEY FIELD ROAD
PENSACOLA FL 32559-5000
Answer Sheets: All courses include one
scannable answer sheet for each assignment.
These answer sheets are preprinted with your
SSN, name, assignment number, and course
number. Explanations for completing the answer
sheets are on the answer sheet.
Do not use answer sheet reproductions: Use
only the original answer sheets that we
providereproductions will not work with our
scanning equipment and cannot be processed.
Follow the instructions for marking your
answers on the answer sheet. Be sure that blocks
1, 2, and 3 are filled in correctly. This
information is necessary for your course to be
properly processed and for you to receive credit
for your work.
COMPLETION TIME
Courses must be completed within 12 months
from the date of enrollment. This includes time
required to resubmit failed assignments.
vi
PASS/FAIL ASSIGNMENT PROCEDURES
If your overall course score is 3.2 or higher, you
will pass the course and will not be required to
resubmit assignments. Once your assignments
have been graded you will receive course
completion confirmation.
If you receive less than a 3.2 on any assignment
and your overall course score is below 3.2, you
will be given the opportunity to resubmit failed
assignments. You may resubmit failed
assignments only once. Internet students will
receive notification when they have failed an
assignment--they may then resubmit failed
assignments on the web site. Internet students
may view and print results for failed
assignments from the web site. Students who
submit by mail will receive a failing result letter
and a new answer sheet for resubmission of each
failed assignment.
COMPLETION CONFIRMATION
After successfully completing this course, you
will receive a letter of completion.
ERRATA
Errata are used to correct minor errors or delete
obsolete information in a course. Errata may
also be used to provide instructions to the
student. If a course has an errata, it will be
included as the first page(s) after the front cover.
Errata for all courses can be accessed and
viewed/downloaded at:
http://www.advancement.cnet.navy.mil
STUDENT FEEDBACK QUESTIONS
We value your suggestions, questions, and
criticisms on our courses. If you would like to
communicate with us regarding this course, we
encourage you, if possible, to use e-mail. If you
write or fax, please use a copy of the Student
Comment form that follows this page.
For subject matter questions:
E-mail: n314.products@cnet.navy.mil
Phone: Comm: (850) 452-1001, Ext. 1826
DSN: 922-1001, Ext.1826
FAX: (850) 452-1370
(Do not fax answer sheets.)
Address: COMMANDING OFFICER
NETPDTC N314
6490 SAUFLEY FIELD ROAD
PENSACOLA FL 32509-5237
For enrollment, shipping, grading, or
completion letter questions
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Phone: Toll Free: 877-264-8583
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FAX: (850) 452-1370
(Do not fax answer sheets.)
Address: COMMANDING OFFICER
NETPDTC N331
6490 SAUFLEY FIELD ROAD
PENSACOLA FL 32559-5000
NAVAL RESERVE RETIREMENT CREDIT
If you are a member of the Naval Reserve, you
may earn retirement points for successfully
completing this course, if authorized under
current directives governing retirement of Naval
Reserve personnel. For Naval Reserve
retirement, this course is evaluated at 8 points.
(Refer to Administrative Procedures for Naval
Reservists on Inactive Duty, BUPERSINST
1001.39, for more information about retirement
points.)
vii
Student Comments
Course Title: Fluid Power
NAVEDTRA: 14105 Date:
We need some information about you:
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Your comments, suggestions, etc.:
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NETPDTC 1550/41 (Rev 4-00
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO FLUID POWER
Fl ui d power i s a term whi ch was created to
i ncl ude the generati on, control , and appl i cati on
of s mooth , effecti v e power of pu mped or
compressed fl ui ds (ei ther l i qui ds or gases) when
thi s power i s used to provi de force and moti on
to mechani sms. Thi s force and moti on maybe i n
the form of pushi ng, pul l i ng, rotati ng, regul ati ng,
or dri vi ng. Fl ui d power i ncl udes hydraul i cs, whi ch
i nvol ves l i qui ds, and pneumati cs, whi ch i nvol ves
gases. Li qui ds and gases are si mi l ar i n many
respects. The di fferences are poi nted out i n the
appropri ate areas of thi s manual .
Thi s manual presents many of the funda-
mental concepts i n the fi el ds of hydraul i cs and
pneumati cs. I t i s i ntended as a basi c reference for
al l personnel of the Navy whose duti es and
responsi bi l i ti es requi re them to have a knowl edge
of the fundamental s of fl ui d power . Conse-
quentl y, emphasi s i s pl aced pri mari l y on the
theory of operati on of typi cal fl ui d power systems
and components that have appl i cati ons i n naval
equi pment. Many appl i cati ons of fl ui d power are
presented i n thi s manual to i l l ustrate the functi ons
and operati on of di fferent systems and com-
ponents. However, these are onl y representati ve
of the many appl i cati ons of fl ui d power i n naval
equi pment. I ndi vi dual trai ni ng manual s for each
rate provi de i nformati on concerni ng the appl i ca-
ti on of fl ui d power to speci fi c equi pment for
whi ch the rati ng i s responsi bl e.
A br i ef summar y of the contents of thi s
tr ai ni ng manual i s gi ven i n the fol l owi ng
par agr aphs:
Chapter 2 covers the characteri sti cs of l i qui ds
and the factors affecti ng them. I t al so expl ai ns
the behavi or of l i qui ds at rest, i denti fi es the
characteri sti cs of l i qui ds i n moti on, and expl ai ns
the operati on of basi c hydraul i c components.
Chapter 3 di scusses the qual i ti es of fl ui ds
acceptabl e for hydraul i c systems and the types of
fl ui ds used. I ncl uded ar e secti ons on safety
precauti ons to fol l ow when handl i ng potenti al l y
hazar dous fl ui ds, l i qui d contami nati on, and
control of contami nants.
Chapter 4 covers the hydraul i c pump, the
component i n the hydr aul i c system whi ch
generates the force requi red for the system to
perform i ts desi gn functi on. The i nformati on
provi ded covers cl assi fi cati ons, types, operati on,
and constructi on of pumps.
Chapter 5 deal s wi th the pi pi ng, tubi ng and
fl exi bl e hoses, and connectors used to carry fl ui ds
under pressure.
Chapter 6 di scusses the cl assi fi cati on, types,
and operati on of val ves used i n the control of
fl ow, pressure, and di recti on of fl ui ds.
Chapter 7 covers the types and purposes of
seal i ng devi ces used i n fl ui d power systems,
i ncl udi ng the di fferent materi al s used i n thei r
constr ucti on. Addi ti onal l y, the gui del i nes for
sel ecti ng, i nstal l i ng, and removi ng O-ri ngs are
i ncl uded.
Chapter 8 di scusses the operati on of devi ces
used to measure and regul ate the pressure of fl ui ds
and to measure the temperature of fl ui ds.
Chapter 9 descri bes the functi ons and types
of reservoi rs, strai ners, fi l ters, and accumul ators,
and thei r uses i n fl ui d power systems.
Chapter 10 di scusses the types and operati on
of actuator s used to tr ansfor m the ener gy
generated by hydraul i c systems i nto mechani cal
force and moti on.
Chapter 11 deal s wi th pneumati cs. I t di scusses
the ori gi n of pneumati cs, the characteri sti cs and
compressi bi l i ty of gases, and the most commonl y
used gases i n pneumati c systems. Al so, secti ons
are i ncl uded to cover safety precauti ons and the
potenti al hazards of compressed gases.
Chapter 12 i denti fi es the types of di agrams
encountered i n fl ui d power systems. Thi s chapter
al so di scusses how components of chapters 4, 5,
6, 8, 9, and 10 are combi ned to form and operate
together as a system.
A gl ossary of terms commonl y used i n fl ui d
power i s pr ovi ded i n appendi x I . Appendi x I I
provi des symbol s used i n aeronauti cal mechani cal
1-1
systems, and appendi x I I I provi des symbol s used
i n nonaeronauti cal mechani cal systems.
The remai nder of chapter 1 i s devoted to the
advantages and probl ems of fl ui d power appl i -
cati ons. I ncl uded are bri ef secti ons on the hi story,
devel opment, and appl i cati ons of hydraul i cs,
the states of matter.
ADVANTAGES OF FLUID POWER
and
The extensi ve use of hydraul i cs and pneuma-
ti cs to transmi t power i s due to the fact that
properl y constructed fl ui d power systems possess
a number of favor abl e char acter i sti cs. They
el i mi nate the need for compl i cated systems of
gears, cams, and l evers. Moti on can be trans-
mi tted wi thout the sl ack i nherent i n the use of
sol i d machi ne parts. The fl ui ds used are not
subject to breakage as are mechani cal parts, and
the mechani sms are not subjected to great wear.
The di fferent parts of a fl ui d power system
can be conveni entl y l ocated at wi del y separated
poi nts, si nce the forces generated are rapi dl y
transmi tted over consi derabl e di stances wi th smal l
l oss. These forces can be conveyed up and down
or around corners wi th smal l l oss i n effi ci ency and
wi thout compl i cated mechani sms. Ver y l ar ge
forces can be control l ed by much smal l er ones and
can be transmi tted through comparati vel y smal l
l i nes and ori fi ces.
I f the system i s wel l adapted to the work i t i s
requi red to perform, and i f i t i s not mi sused, i t
can pr ovi de smooth, fl exi bl e, uni for m acti on
wi thout vi brati on, and i s unaffected by vari ati on
of l oad. I n case of an overl oad, an automati c
rel ease of pressure can be guaranteed, so that the
system i s protected agai nst breakdown or strai n.
Fl ui d power systems can provi de wi del y vari abl e
moti ons i n both rotary and strai ght-l i ne trans-
mi ssi on of power. The need for control by hand
can be mi ni mi zed. I n addi ti on, fl ui d power
systems are economi cal to operate.
The questi on may ari se as to why hydraul i cs
i s used i n some appl i cati ons and pneumati cs i n
others. Many factors are consi dered by the user
and/or the manufacturer when determi ni ng whi ch
type of system to use i n a speci fi c appl i cati on.
Ther e ar e no har d and fast r ul es to fol l ow;
however, past experi ence has provi ded some
sound i deas that are usual l y consi dered when such
deci si ons are made. I f the appl i cati on requi res
speed, a medi um amount of pressure, and onl y
fai rl y accurate control , a pneumati c system may
be used. I f the appl i cati on requi res onl y a medi um
amount of pressure and a more accurate control ,
a combi nati on of hydraul i cs and pneumati cs may
be used. I f the appl i cati on requi res a great amount
of pressure and/or extremel y accurate control , a
hydraul i c system shoul d be used.
SPECIAL PROBLEMS
The extreme fl exi bi l i ty of fl ui d power el ements
presents a number of probl ems. Si nce fl ui ds have
no shape of thei r own, they must be posi ti vel y
confi ned throughout the enti re system. Speci al
consi derati on must be gi ven to the structural
i ntegri ty of the parts of a fl ui d power system.
Strong pi pes and contai ners must be provi ded.
Leaks must be pr evented. Thi s i s a ser i ous
probl em wi th the hi gh pressure obtai ned i n many
fl ui d power i nstal l ati ons.
The operati on of the system i nvol ves constant
movement of the fl ui d wi thi n the l i nes and
components. Thi s movement causes fr i cti on
wi thi n the fl ui d i tsel f and agai nst the contai ni ng
surfaces whi ch, i f excessi ve, can l ead to seri ous
l osses i n effi ci ency. Forei gn matter must not be
al l owed to accumul ate i n the system, where i t wi l l
cl og smal l passages or score cl osel y fi tted parts.
Chemi cal acti on may cause corrosi on. Anyone
worki ng wi th fl ui d power systems must know how
a fl ui d power system and i ts components operate,
both i n terms of the general pri nci pl es common
to al l physi cal mechani sms and of the pecul i ari ti es
of the parti cul ar arrangement at hand.
HYDRAULICS
The word hydraulics i s based on the Greek
word for water, and ori gi nal l y covered the study
of the physi cal behavi or of water at rest and i n
moti on. Use has broadened i ts meani ng to i ncl ude
the behavi or of al l l i qui ds, al though i t i s pri mari l y
concerned wi th the moti on of l i qui ds.
Hydraul i cs i ncl udes the manner i n whi ch
l i qui ds act i n tanks and pi pes, deal s wi th thei r
properti es, and expl ores ways to take advantage
of these properti es.
DEVELOPMENT OF HYDRAULICS
Al th ou gh th e moder n dev el opmen t of
hydraul i cs i s comparati vel y recent, the anci ents
were fami l i ar wi th many hydraul i c pri nci pl es and
thei r appl i cati ons. The Egypti ans and the anci ent
peopl e of Persi a, I ndi a, and Chi na conveyed water
1-2
al ong channel s for i r r i gati on and domesti c
purposes, usi ng dams and sl ui ce gates to control
the fl ow. The anci ent Cretans had an el aborate
pl umbi ng system. Archi medes studi ed the l aws of
fl oati ng and submerged bodi es. The Romans
constructed aqueducts to carry water to thei r
ci ti es.
After the breakup of the anci ent worl d, there
were few new devel opments for many centuri es.
Then, over a compar ati vel y shor t per i od,
begi nni ng near the end of the seventeenth century,
I tal i an physi ci st, Evangel i sta Torri cel l e, French
physi ci st, Edme Mar i otte, and l ater , Dani el
Bernoul l i conducted experi ments to study the
el ements of for ce i n the di schar ge of water
through smal l openi ngs i n the si des of tanks and
through short pi pes. Duri ng the same peri od,
Bl ai se Pascal , a French sci enti st, di scovered the
fundamental l aw for the sci ence of hydraul i cs.
Pascal s l aw states that i ncrease i n pressure on
the surface of a confi ned fl ui d i s transmi tted
undi mi ni shed throughout the confi ni ng vessel or
system (fi g. 1-1). (Thi s i s the basi c pri nci pl e of
hydraul i cs and i s covered i n detai l i n chapter 2
of thi s manual .)
For Pascal s l aw to be made effecti ve for
practi cal appl i cati ons, i t was necessary to have a
pi ston that fi t exactl y. I t was not unti l the l atter
part of the ei ghteenth century that methods were
found to make these snugl y fi tted parts requi red
i n hydraul i c systems. Thi s was accompl i shed by
the i nventi on of machi nes that were used to cut
and shape the necessary cl osel y fi tted parts and,
parti cul arl y, by the devel opment of gaskets and
packi ngs. Si nce that ti me, components such as
val ves, pumps, actuati ng cyl i nders, and motors
have been devel oped and r efi ned to mak e
hydraul i cs one of the l eadi ng methods of trans-
mi tti ng power.
Figure 1-1.Force transmitted through fluid.
Use of Hydraulics
The hydraul i c press, i nvented by Engl i shman
John Br ahmah, was one of the fi r st wor k-
abl e pi eces of machi nery devel oped that used
hydraul i cs i n i ts operati on. I t consi sted of a
pl unger pump pi ped to a l arge cyl i nder and a ram.
Thi s press found wi de use i n Engl and because i t
provi ded a more effecti ve and economi cal means
of appl yi ng l arge forces i n i ndustri al uses.
Today, hydraul i c power i s used to operate
many di ffer ent tool s and mechani sms. I n a
garage, a mechani c rai ses the end of an auto-
mobi l e wi th a hydraul i c jack. Denti sts and barbers
use hydraul i c power, through a few strokes of a
control l ever, to l i ft and posi ti on thei r chai rs to
a conveni ent worki ng hei ght. Hydraul i c doorstops
keep heavy door s fr om sl ammi ng. Hydr aul i c
brakes have been standard equi pment on auto-
mobi l es si nce the 1930s. Most automobi l es are
equi pped wi th automati c transmi ssi ons that are
hydraul i cal l y operated. Power steeri ng i s another
appl i cati on of hydr aul i c power . Constr ucti on
workers depend upon hydraul i c power for the
oper ati on of var i ous components of thei r
equi pment. For exampl e, the bl ade of a bul l dozer
i s normal l y operated by hydraul i c power.
Duri ng the peri od precedi ng Worl d War I I ,
the Navy began to appl y hydraul i cs to naval
mechani sms extensi vel y. Si nce then, naval
appl i cati ons have i ncreased to the poi nt where
many i ngeni ous hydraul i c devi ces are used i n the
sol uti on of probl ems of gunnery, aeronauti cs, and
navi gati on. Aboard shi p, hydraul i c power i s used
to operate such equi pment as anchor wi ndl asses,
cranes, steeri ng gear, remote control devi ces, and
power dri ves for el evati ng and trai ni ng guns and
rocket l aunchers. El evators on ai rcraft carri ers use
hydraul i c power to transfer ai rcraft from the
hangar deck to the fl i ght deck and vi ce versa.
Hydraul i cs and pneumati cs (chapter 11) are
combi ned for some appl i cati ons. Thi s combi na-
ti on i s referred to as hydropneumati cs. A n
exampl e of thi s combi nati on i s the l i ft used i n
garages and servi ce stati ons. Ai r pressure i s
appl i ed to the surface of hydraul i c fl ui d i n a
reservoi r. The ai r pressure forces the hydraul i c
fl ui d to rai se the l i ft.
STATES OF MATTER
The materi al that makes up the uni verse i s
known as matter. Matter i s defi ned as any
substance that occupi es space and has wei ght.
1-3
Matter exi sts i n three states: sol i d, l i qui d, and gas;
each has di sti ngui shi ng characteri sti cs. Sol i ds have
a defi ni te vol ume and a defi ni te shape; l i qui ds
have a defi ni te vol ume, but take the shape of thei r
contai ni ng vessel s; gases have nei ther a defi ni te
shape nor a defi ni te vol ume. Gases not onl y take
the shape of the contai ni ng vessel , but al so expand
and fi l l the vessel , regardl ess of i ts vol ume.
Exampl es of the states of matter are i ron, water,
and ai r.
Matter can change from one state to another.
Water i s a good exampl e. At hi gh temperatures
i t i s i n the gaseous state known as steam. At
moderate temperatures i t i s a l i qui d, and at l ow
temperatures i t becomes i ce, whi ch i s defi ni tel y
a sol i d state. I n thi s exampl e, the temperature i s
the domi nant factor i n determi ni ng the state the
substance assumes.
Pressure i s another i mportant factor that wi l l
affect changes i n the state of matter. At pressures
l ower than atmospheri c pressure, water wi l l boi l
and thus change i nto steam at temperatures l ower
than 212 Fahrenhei t (F). Pressure i s al so a cri ti cal
factor i n changi ng some gases to l i qui ds or sol i ds.
Normal l y, when pressure and chi l l i ng are both
appl i ed to a gas, the gas assumes a l i qui d state.
Li qui d ai r, whi ch i s a mi xture of oxygen and
ni trogen, i s produced i n thi s manner.
I n the study of fl ui d power, we are concerned
pri mari l y wi th the properti es and characteri sti cs
of l i qui ds and gases. However, you shoul d keep
i n mi nd that the properti es of sol i ds al so affect
the characteri sti cs of l i qui ds and gases. The l i nes
and components, whi ch are sol i ds, encl ose and
contr ol the l i qui d or gas i n thei r r especti ve
systems.
1-4
CHAPTER 2
FORCES IN LIQUIDS
The study of l i qui ds i s di vi ded i nto two mai n
parts: l i qui ds at rest (hydrostati cs) and l i qui ds i n
moti on (hydraul i cs).
The effects of l i qui ds at r est can often
be expressed by si mpl e formul as. The effects
of l i qui ds i n moti on ar e mor e di ffi cul t to
expr ess due to fr i cti onal and other factor s
whose acti ons cannot be expressed by si mpl e
mathemati cs.
I n chapter 1 we l earned that l i qui ds have a
defi ni te vol ume but take the shape of thei r
contai ni ng vessel . Ther e ar e two addi ti onal
characteri sti cs we must expl ore pri or to pro-
ceedi ng.
Li qui ds ar e al most i ncompr essi bl e. For
exampl e, i f a pressure of 100 pounds per square
i nch (psi ) i s appl i ed to a gi ven vol ume of water
that i s at atmospheri c pressure, the vol ume wi l l
decrease by onl y 0.03 percent. I t woul d take a
force of approxi matel y 32 tons to reduce i ts
vol ume by 10 percent; however, when thi s force
i s removed, the water i mmedi atel y returns to i ts
ori gi nal vol ume. Other l i qui ds behave i n about
the same manner as water.
Another char acter i sti c of a l i qui d i s the
tendency to keep i ts free surface l evel . I f the
surface i s not l evel , l i qui ds wi l l fl ow i n the
di recti on whi ch wi l l tend to make the surface
l evel .
LIQUIDS AT REST
I n studyi ng fl ui ds at r est, we ar e con-
cer ned wi th the tr ansmi ssi on of for ce and
the factors whi ch affect the forces i n l i qui ds.
Addi ti onal l y, pressure i n and on l i qui ds and
factor s affecti ng pr essur e ar e of gr eat i m-
portance.
PRESSURE AND FORCE
The ter ms force and pressure ar e u s ed
extensi vel y i n the study of fl ui d power . I t
i s essenti al that we di sti ngui sh between the
ter ms. For ce means a total push or pul l .
I t i s the push or pul l exer ted agai nst the
total area of a parti cul ar surface and i s expressed
i n pounds or grams. Pressure means the amount
of push or pul l (force) appl i ed to each uni t area
of the surface and i s expressed i n pounds per
s qu ar e i n ch (l b/i n
2
) or gr ams per squar e
centi meter (gm/cm
2
). Pressure maybe exerted i n
one di recti on, i n several di recti ons, or i n al l
di recti ons.
Computing Force, Pressure, and Area
A for mul a i s used i n computi ng for ce,
pressure, and area i n fl ui d power systems. I n thi s
formul a, P refers to pressure, F i ndi cates force,
and A represents area.
Force equal s pressure ti mes area. Thus, the
formul a i s wri tten
Equati on 2-1.
Pressure equal s force di vi ded by area. By
rearrangi ng the formul a, thi s statement may be
condensed i nto
Equati on 2-2.
Si nce area equal s force di vi ded by pressure,
the formul a i s wri tten
Equati on 2-3.
2-1
Figure 2-1.Device for determining the arrangement of the
force, pressure, and area formula.
Fi gure 2-1 i l l ustrates a memory devi ce for
recal l i ng the di fferent vari ati ons of thi s formul a.
Any l etter i n the tri angl e may be expressed as the
product or quoti ent of the other two, dependi ng
on i ts posi ti on wi thi n the tri angl e.
For exampl e, to fi nd area, consi der the l etter
A as bei ng set off to i tsel f, fol l owed by an equal
si gn. Now l ook at the other two l etters. The l etter
F i s above the l etter P; therefore,
NOTE: Someti mes the ar ea may not be
expr essed i n squar e uni ts. I f the sur face i s
r ectangul ar , you can deter mi ne i ts ar ea by
mul ti pl yi ng i ts l ength (say, i n i nches) by i ts wi dth
(al so i n i nches). The majori ty of areas you wi l l
consi der i n these cal cul ati ons are ci rcul ar i n shape.
Ei ther the radi us or the di ameter may be gi ven,
but you must know the radi us i n i nches to fi nd
the area. The radi us i s one-hal f the di ameter. To
determi ne the area, use the formul a for fi ndi ng
the area of a ci rcl e. Thi s i s wri tten A = where
A i s the area, i s 3.1416 (3.14 or 3 1/7 for most
cal cul ati ons), and r
2
i ndi cates the radi us squared.
Atmospheric Pressure
The atmosphere i s the enti re mass of ai r that
surrounds the earth. Whi l e i t extends upward for
about 500 mi l es, the secti on of pri mary i nterest
i s the porti on that rests on the earths surface and
extends upward for about 7 1/2 mi l es. Thi s l ayer
i s cal l ed the troposphere.
I f a col umn of ai r 1-i nch square extendi ng al l
the way to the top of the atmosphere coul d
be wei ghed, thi s col umn of ai r woul d wei gh
approxi matel y 14.7 pounds at sea l evel . Thus,
atmospheri c pressure at sea l evel i s approxi matel y
14.7 psi .
As one ascends, the atmospheri c pressure
decreases by approxi matel y 1.0 psi for every 2,343
feet. However, bel ow sea l evel , i n excavati ons and
depressi ons, atmospheri c pressure i ncreases.
Pressures under water di ffer from those under ai r
onl y because the wei ght of the water must be
added to the pressure of the ai r.
Atmospheri c pressure can be measured by any
of sever al methods. The common l abor ator y
method uses the mercury col umn barometer. The
hei ght of the mer cur y col umn ser ves as an
i ndi cator of atmospheri c pressure. At sea l evel and
at a temperature of 0 Cel si us (C), the hei ght of
the mercury col umn i s approxi matel y 30 i nches,
or 76 centi meters. Thi s represents a pressure of
approxi matel y 14.7 psi . The 30-i nch col umn i s
used as a reference standard.
Another devi ce used to measure atmospheri c
pressure i s the aneroi d barometer. The aneroi d
bar ometer uses the change i n shape of an
evacuated metal cel l to measure vari ati ons i n
atmospheri c pressure (fi g. 2-2). The thi n metal of
the aneroi d cel l moves i n or out wi th the vari ati on
of pressure on i ts external surface. Thi s movement
i s transmi tted through a system of l evers to a
poi nter, whi ch i ndi cates the pressure.
The atmospher i c pr essur e does not var y
uni forml y wi th al ti tude. I t changes more rapi dl y
at l ower al ti tudes because of the compressi bi l i ty
of the ai r, whi ch causes the ai r l ayers cl ose to the
earths surface to be compressed by the ai r masses
above them. Thi s effect, however, i s parti al l y
counteracted by the contracti on of the upper
Figure 2-2.Simple diagram of the aneroid barometer.
2-2
l ayer s due to cool i ng. The cool i ng tends to
i ncrease the densi ty of the ai r.
Atmospheri c pressures are qui te l arge, but i n
most i nstances practi cal l y the same pressure i s
present on al l si des of objects so that no si ngl e
surface i s subjected to a great l oad.
Atmospheri c pressure acti ng on the surface of
a l i qui d (fi g. 2-3, vi ew A) i s transmi tted equal l y
throughout the l i qui d to the wal l s of the contai ner,
but i s bal anced by the same atmospheri c pressure
acti ng on the outer wal l s of the contai ner. I n vi ew
B of fi gure 2-3, atmospheri c pressure acti ng on
the surface of one pi ston i s bal anced by the same
pressure acti ng on the surface of the other pi ston.
The di fferent areas of the two surfaces make no
di fference, si nce for a uni t of area, pressures are
bal anced.
TRANSMISSION OF FORCES
THROUGH LIQUIDS
When the end of a sol i d bar i s struck, the mai n
force of the bl ow i s carri ed strai ght through the
bar to the other end (fi g. 2-4, vi ew A). Thi s
happens because the bar i s ri gi d. The di recti on
of the bl ow al most enti r el y deter mi nes the
di recti on of the transmi tted force. The more ri gi d
Figure 2-4.Transmission of force: (A) solid; (B) fluid.
the bar, the l ess force i s l ost i nsi de the bar or
tr ansmi tted outwar d at r i ght angl es to the
di recti on of the bl ow.
When a force i s appl i ed to the end of a col umn
of confi ned l i qui d (fi g. 2-4, vi ew B), i t i s
transmi tted strai ght through to the other end and
al so equal l y and undi mi ni shed i n every di recti on
throughout the col umnforward, backward, and
si dewaysso that the contai ni ng vessel i s l i teral l y
fi l l ed wi th pressure.
An exampl e of thi s di stri buti on of force i s
i l l ustrated i n fi gure 2-5. The fl at hose takes on
Figure 2-3.Effects of atmospheric pressure. Figure 2-5.Distribution of force.
2-3
a ci rcul ar cross secti on when i t i s fi l l ed wi th water
under pressure. The outward push of the water
i s equal i n every di recti on.
So far we have expl ai ned the effects of
atmospheri c pressure on l i qui ds and how external
forces are di stri buted through l i qui ds. Let us now
focus our attenti on on forces generated by the
wei ght of l i qui ds themsel ves. To do thi s, we must
fi rst di scuss densi ty, speci fi c gravi ty, and Pascal s
l aw.
Density and Specific Gravity
The densi ty of a substance i s i ts wei ght per uni t
vol ume. The uni t vol ume i n the Engl i sh system
of measurement i s 1 cubi c foot. I n the metri c
system i t i s the cubi c centi meter; therefore, densi ty
i s expressed i n pounds per cubi c foot or i n grams
per cubi c centi meter.
To fi nd the densi ty of a substance, you must
know i ts wei ght and vol ume. You then di vi de i ts
wei ght by i ts vol ume to fi nd the wei ght per uni t
vol ume. I n equati on form, thi s i s wri tten as
Equati on 2-4.
EXAMPLE: The l i qui d that fi l l s a certai n
contai ner wei ghs 1,497.6 pounds. The
contai ner i s 4 feet l ong, 3 feet wi de, and
2 feet deep. I ts vol ume i s 24 cubi c feet
(4 ft x 3 ft x 2 ft). I f 24 cubi c feet of thi s
l i qui d wei ghs 1,497.6 pounds, then 1 cubi c
foot wei ghs
or 62.4 pounds. Therefore, the densi ty of
the l i qui d i s 62.4 pounds per cubi c foot.
Thi s i s the densi ty of water at 4C and i s
usual l y used as the standar d for compar i ng
densi ti es of other substances. The temperature of
4C was sel ected because water has i ts maxi mum
densi ty at thi s temperature. I n the metri c system,
the densi ty of water i s 1 gr am per cubi c
centi meter. The standard temperature of 4C i s
used whenever the densi ty of l i qui ds and sol i ds
i s measured. Changes i n temperature wi l l not
change the wei ght of a substance but wi l l change
the vol ume of the substance by expansi on or
contracti on, thus changi ng the wei ght per uni t
vol ume.
I n physi cs, the word specific i mpl i es a rati o.
Wei ght i s the measure of the earths attracti on for
a body. The earths attracti on for a body i s cal l ed
gravi ty. Thus, the rati o of the wei ght of a uni t
vol ume of some substance to the wei ght of an
equal vol ume of a standard substance, measured
under standard pressure and temperature con-
di ti ons, i s cal l ed speci fi c gr avi ty. The ter ms
specific weight and specific density are someti mes
used to express thi s rati o.
The fol l owi ng formul as are used to fi nd the
speci fi c gravi ty (sp gr) of sol i ds and l i qui ds, wi th
water used as the standard substance.
or ,
The same formul as are used to fi nd the speci fi c
gravi ty of gases by substi tuti ng ai r, oxygen, or
hydrogen for water.
I f a cubi c foot of a certai n l i qui d wei ghs 68.64
pounds, then i ts speci fi c gravi ty i s 1.1,
Thus, the speci fi c gravi ty of the l i qui d i s the
rati o of i ts densi ty to the densi ty of water. I f the
speci fi c gravi ty of a l i qui d or sol i d i s known, the
densi ty of the l i qui d or sol i d maybe obtai ned by
mul ti pl yi ng i ts speci fi c gravi ty by the densi ty of
water. For exampl e, i f a certai n hydraul i c l i qui d
has a speci fi c gravi ty of 0.8, 1 cubi c foot of the
l i qui d wei ghs 0.8 ti mes as much as a cubi c foot
of water0.8 ti mes 62.4, or 49.92 pounds. I n the
metri c system, 1 cubi c centi meter of a substance
wi th a speci fi c gravi ty of 0.8 wei ghs 1 ti mes 0.8,
or 0.8 grams. (Note that i n the metri c system the
speci fi c gravi ty of a l i qui d or sol i d has the same
numeri cal val ue as i ts densi ty, because water
wei ghs 1 gram per cubi c centi meter.)
Speci fi c gravi ty and densi ty are i ndependent
of the si ze of the sampl e under consi derati on and
depend onl y on the substance of whi ch i t i s made.
A devi ce cal l ed a hydrometer i s used for
measuri ng the speci fi c gravi ty of l i qui ds.
2-4
Pascals Law
Recal l from chapter 1 that the foundati on of
modern hydraul i cs was establ i shed when Pascal
di scovered that pressure i n a fl ui d acts equal l y i n
al l di recti ons. Thi s pressure acts at ri ght angl es
to the contai ni ng sur faces. I f some type of
pressure gauge, wi th an exposed face, i s pl aced
beneath the surface of a l i qui d (fi g. 2-6) at a
speci fi c depth and poi nted i n di fferent di recti ons,
the pressure wi l l read the same. Thus, we can say
that pr essur e i n a l i qui d i s i ndependent of
di recti on.
Pressure due to the wei ght of a l i qui d, at any
l evel , depends on the depth of the fl ui d from the
surface. I f the exposed face of the pressure gauges,
fi gure 2-6, are moved cl oser to the surface of the
l i qui d, the i ndi cated pressure wi l l be l ess. When
the depth i s doubl ed, the i ndi cated pressure i s
doubl ed. Thus the pressure i n a l i qui d i s di rectl y
proporti onal to the depth.
Consi der a contai ner wi th ver ti cal si des
(fi g. 2-7) that i s 1 foot l ong and 1 foot wi de. Let
i t be fi l l ed wi th water 1 foot deep, provi di ng 1
cubi c foot of water. We l earned earl i er i n thi s
chapter that 1 cubi c foot of water wei ghs 62.4
pounds. Usi ng thi s i nformati on and equati on 2-2,
P = F/A, we can cal cul ate the pressure on the
bottom of the contai ner.
Si nce there are 144 square i nches i n 1 square foot,
Thi s can be stated as fol l ows: the wei ght of a
col umn of water 1 foot hi gh, havi ng a cross-
secti onal area of 1 square i nch, i s 0.433 pound.
I f the depth of the col umn i s tri pl ed, the
wei ght of the col umn wi l l be 3 x 0.433, or 1.299
pounds, and the pressure at the bottom wi l l be
1.299 l b/i n
2
(psi ), si nce pressure equal s the force
di vi ded by the area. Thus, the pressure at any
depth i n a l i qui d i s equal to the wei ght of the
col umn of l i qui d at that depth di vi ded by the
Figure 2-6.Pressure of a liquid is independent of direction.
cross-secti onal area of the col umn at that depth.
The vol ume of a l i qui d that produces the pressure
i s referred to as the fl ui d head of the l i qui d. The
pressure of a l i qui d due to i ts fl ui d head i s al so
dependent on the densi ty of the l i qui d.
I f we l et A equal any cross-secti onal area of
a l i qui d col umn and h equal the depth of the
col umn, the vol ume becomes Ah. Usi ng equati on
2-4, D = W/V, the wei ght of the l i qui d above area
A i s equal to AhD.
Figure 2-7.Water pressure in a 1-cubic-foot container.
2-5
Si nce pressure i s equal to the force per uni t area,
set A equal to 1. Then the formul a pressure
becomes
P = h D Equati on 2-5.
I t i s essenti al that h and D be expressed i n si mi l ar
uni ts. That i s, i f D i s expressed i n pounds per
cubi c foot, the val ue of h must be expressed i n
feet. I f the desi red pressure i s to be expressed i n
pounds per square i nch, the pressure formul a,
equati on 2-5, becomes
Equati on 2-6.
Pas cal was al s o th e fi r s t to pr ov e by
exper i ment that the shape and vol ume of a
contai ner i n no way al ters pressure. Thus i n fi gure
2-8, i f the pressure due to the wei ght of the l i qui d
at a poi nt on hori zontal l i ne H i s 8 psi , the
pressure i s 8 psi everywhere at l evel H i n the
system. Equati on 2-5 al so shows that the pressure
i s i ndependent of the shape and vol ume of a
contai ner.
Pressure and Force in Fluid Power Systems
Figure 2-9.Force transmitted through fluid.
of the shape of the contai ner. Consi der the effect
of thi s i n the system shown i n fi gure 2-9. I f there
i s a resi stance on the output pi ston and the i nput
pi ston i s pushed downward, a pressure i s created
through the fl ui d, whi ch acts equal l y at ri ght
angl es to surfaces i n al l parts of the contai ner.
I f force 1 i s 100 pounds and the area of the
i nput pi ston i s 10 square i nches, then the pressure
i n the fl ui d i s 10 psi
Recal l that, accordi ng to Pascal s l aw, any
force appl i ed to a confi ned fl ui d i s transmi tted
i n al l di recti ons throughout the fl ui d regardl ess
NOTE: Fl ui d pressure cannot be created
wi thout resi stance to fl ow. I n thi s case, resi stance
Figure 2-8.Pressure relationship
2-6
with shape.
i s pr ovi ded by the equi pment to whi ch the
output pi ston i s attached. The for ce of r e-
si stance acts agai nst the top of the output
pi ston. The pr essur e cr eated i n the system
by the i nput pi ston pushes on the undersi de of
the output pi ston wi th a force of 10 pounds on
each square i nch.
I n thi s case, the fl ui d col umn has a uni form
cross secti on, so the area of the output pi ston
i s the same as the area of the i nput pi ston,
or 10 squar e i nches. Ther efor e, the upwar d
for ce on the output pi ston i s 100 pounds
(10 psi x 10 sq. i n.), the same as the force appl i ed
to the i nput pi ston. Al l that was accompl i shed i n
thi s system was to transmi t the 100-pound force
around the bend. However, thi s pri nci pl e under-
l i es practi cal l y al l mechani cal appl i cati ons of fl ui d
power.
At thi s poi nt you shoul d note that si nce
Pascal s l aw i s i ndependent of the shape of
the contai ner , i t i s not necessar y that the
tube connecti ng the two pi stons have the same
cross-secti onal area of the pi stons. A connecti on
of any si ze, shape, or l ength wi l l do, as l ong as
an unobstructed passage i s provi ded. Therefore,
the system shown i n fi gure 2-10, wi th a rel ati vel y
smal l , bent pi pe connecti ng two cyl i nder s,
wi l l act exactl y the same as the system shown i n
fi gure 2-9.
MULTIPLICATION OF FORCES. Con-
si der the si tuati on i n fi gure 2-11, where the i nput
pi ston i s much smal l er than the output pi ston.
Assume that the area of the i nput pi ston i s 2
square i nches. Wi th a resi stant force on the output
pi ston a downward force of 20 pounds acti ng on
the i nput pi ston creates a pressure of or 10 psi
Figure 2-10.Transmitting force through a small pipe.
Figure 2-11.Multiplication of forces.
i n the fl ui d. Al though thi s force i s much smal l er
than the force appl i ed i n fi gures 2-9 and 2-10, the
pressure i s the same. Thi s i s because the force i s
appl i ed to a smal l er area.
Thi s pressure of 10 psi acts on al l parts of the
fl ui d contai ner , i ncl udi ng the bottom of the
output pi ston. The upward force on the output
pi ston i s 200 pounds (10 pounds of pressure on
each square i nch). I n thi s case, the ori gi nal force
has been mul ti pl i ed tenfol d whi l e usi ng the same
pressure i n the fl ui d as before. I n any system wi th
these di mensi ons, the rati o of output force to
i nput force i s al ways ten to one, regardl ess of the
appl i ed force. For exampl e, i f the appl i ed force
of the i nput pi ston i s 50 pounds, the pressure i n
the system wi l l be 25 psi . Thi s wi l l support a
resi stant force of 500 pounds on the output pi ston.
The system works the same i n reverse. I f we
change the appl i ed force and pl ace a 200-pound
force on the output pi ston (fi g. 2-11), maki ng i t
the i nput pi ston, the output force on the i nput
pi ston wi l l be one-tenth the i nput force, or 20
pounds. (Someti mes such resul ts are desi red.)
Therefore, i f two pi stons are used i n a fl ui d power
system, the force acti ng on each pi ston i s di rectl y
proporti onal to i ts area, and the magni tude of
each force i s the product of the pressure and the
area of each pi ston.
Note the whi te arrows at the bottom of fi gure
2-11 that i ndi cate up and down movement. The
movement they represent wi l l be expl ai ned l ater
i n the di scussi on of vol ume and di stance factors.
2-7
DIFFERENTIAL AREAS. Consi der the
speci al si tuati on shown i n fi gure 2-12. Here, a
si ngl e pi ston (1) i n a cyl i nder (2) has a pi ston rod
(3) attached to one of i ts si des. The pi ston rod
extends out of one end of the cyl i nder. Fl ui d under
pressure i s admi tted equal l y to both ends of the
cyl i nder. The opposed faces of the pi ston (1)
behave l i ke two pi stons acti ng agai nst each other.
The area of one face i s the ful l cross-secti onal area
of the cyl i nder, say 6 square i nches, whi l e the area
of the other face i s the area of the cyl i nder mi nus
the area of the pi ston rod, whi ch i s 2 square
i nches. Thi s l eaves an effecti ve area of 4 square
i nches on the ri ght face of the pi ston. The pressure
on both faces i s the same, i n thi s case, 20 psi .
Appl yi ng the rul e just stated, the force pushi ng
the pi ston to the ri ght i s i ts area ti mes the pressure,
or 120 pounds (20 x 6). Li kewi se, the for ce
pushi ng the pi ston to the l eft i s i ts area ti mes the
pressure, or 80 pounds (20 x 4). Therefore, there
i s a net unbal anced force of 40 pounds acti ng to
the r i ght, and the pi ston wi l l move i n that
di recti on. The net effect i s the same as i f the pi ston
and the cyl i nder had the same cross-secti onal area
as the pi ston rod.
VOLUME AND DISTANCE FACTORS.
You have l earned that i f a force i s appl i ed to a
system and the cross-secti onal areas of the i nput
and output pi stons are equal , as i n fi gures 2-9 and
2-10, the force on the i nput pi ston wi l l support
an equal resi stant force on the output pi ston. The
pressure of the l i qui d at thi s poi nt i s equal to the
force appl i ed to the i nput pi ston di vi ded by the
pi stons area. Let us now l ook at what happens
when a force greater than the resi stance i s appl i ed
to the i nput pi ston.
I n the system i l l ustrated i n fi gure 2-9, assume
that the resi stance force on the output pi ston i s
100 psi . I f a force sl i ghtl y greater than 100 pounds
i s appl i ed to the i nput pi ston, the pressure i n the
system wi l l be sl i ghtl y greater than 10 psi . Thi s
i ncrease i n pressure wi l l overcome the resi stance
force on the output pi ston. Assume that the i nput
pi ston i s forced downward 1 i nch. The movement
di spl aces 10 cubi c i nches of fl ui d. The fl ui d must
go somewhere. Si nce the system i s cl osed and the
fl ui d i s practi cal l y i ncompressi bl e, the fl ui d wi l l
move to the ri ght si de of the system. Because the
output pi ston al so has a cross-secti onal area of
10 square i nches, i t wi l l move 1 i nch upward to
accommodate the 10 cubi c i nches of fl ui d. You
may general i ze thi s by sayi ng that i f two pi stons
i n a cl osed system have equal cross-secti onal areas
and one pi ston i s pushed and moved, the other
pi ston wi l l move the same di stance, though i n the
opposi te di recti on. Thi s i s because a decrease i n
vol ume i n one part of the system i s bal anced by
one equal i ncrease i n vol ume i n another part of
the system.
Appl y thi s reasoni ng to the system i n fi gure
2-11. I f the i nput pi ston i s pushed down a di stance
Figure 2-12.Differential areas on a piston.
2-8
of 1 i nch, the vol ume of fl ui d i n the l eft cyl i nder
wi l l decrease by 2 cubi c i nches. At the same ti me,
the vol ume i n the ri ght cyl i nder wi l l i ncrease by
2 cubi c i nches. Si nce the di ameter of the ri ght
cyl i nder cannot change, the pi ston must move
upward to al l ow the vol ume to i ncrease. The
pi ston wi l l move a di stance equal to the vol ume
i ncrease di vi ded by the surface area of the pi ston
(equal to the surface area of the cyl i nder). I n thi s
exampl e, the pi ston wi l l move one-tenth of an i nch
(2 cu. i n. 20 sq. i n.). Thi s l eads to the second
basi c rul e for a fl ui d power system that contai ns
two pi stons: The di stances the pi stons move are
i nversel y proporti onal to the areas of the pi stons.
Or more si mpl y, i f one pi ston i s smal l er than the
other, the smal l er pi ston must move a greater
di stance than the l arger pi ston any ti me the pi stons
move.
LIQUIDS IN MOTION
I n the operati on of fl ui d power systems, there
must be a fl ow of fl ui d. The amount of fl ow wi l l
vary from system to system. To understand fl ui d
power systems i n acti on, i t i s necessar y to
understand some of the characteri sti cs of l i qui ds
i n moti on.
Li qui ds i n moti on have characteri sti cs di f-
ferent from l i qui ds at rest. Fri cti onal resi stances
wi thi n a fl ui d (vi scosi ty) and i nerti a contri bute to
these di fferences. (Vi scosi ty i s di scussed i n chapter
3.) I nertia, whi ch means the resi stance a mass
offers to bei ng set i n moti on, wi l l be di scussed
l ater i n thi s secti on. There are other rel ati onshi ps
of l i qui ds i n moti on wi th whi ch you must become
fami l i ar. Among these are vol ume and vel oci ty
of fl ow, fl ow r ate and speed, l ami nar and
turbul ent fl ow, and more i mportantl y, the force
and energy changes whi ch occur i n fl ow.
VOLUME AND VELOCITY OF FLOW
The vol ume of a l i qui d passi ng a poi nt i n a
gi ven ti me i s known as i ts volume of flow or fl ow
rate. The vol ume of fl ow i s usual l y expressed i n
gal l ons per mi nute (gpm) and i s associ ated wi th
rel ati ve pressures of the l i qui d, such as 5 gpm at
40 psi .
The velocity of flow or vel oci ty of the fl ui d
i s defi ned as the average speed at whi ch the fl ui d
moves past a gi ven poi nt. I t i s usual l y expressed
i n feet per second (fps) or feet per mi nute (fpm).
Vel oci ty of fl ow i s an i mportant consi derati on i n
si zi ng the hydraul i c l i nes. (Hydraul i c l i nes are
di scussed i n chapter 5.)
Vol ume and vel oci ty of fl ow ar e often
consi der ed together . Wi th other condi ti ons
unal ter edthat i s, wi th v ol u me of i n pu t
unchangedthe vel oci ty of fl ow i ncreases as the
cross secti on or si ze of the pi pe decreases, and the
vel oci ty of fl ow decreases as the cross secti on
i ncreases. For exampl e, the vel oci ty of fl ow i s sl ow
at wi de parts of a stream and rapi d at narrow
parts, yet the vol ume of water passi ng each part
of the stream i s the same.
I n fi gure 2-13, i f the cross-secti onal area of
the pi pe i s 16 square i nches at poi nt A and 4
square i nches at poi nt B, we can cal cul ate the
rel ati ve vel oci ty of fl ow usi ng the fl ow equati on
Q = v A Equati on 2-7.
where Q i s the vol ume of fl ow, v i s the vel oci ty
of fl ow and A i s the cross-secti onal area of the
l i qui d. Si nce the vol ume of fl ow at poi nt A, Q
1
,
i s equal to the vol ume of fl ow at poi nt B, Q
2
, we
can use equati on 2-7 to determi ne the rati o of the
Figure 2-13.Volume and velocity of flow.
2-9
vel oci ty of fl ow at poi nt A, v
1
, to the vel oci ty of
fl ow at poi nt B, v
2
.
Si n ce Q
1
= Q
2
, A
1
v
1
= A
2
v
2
From fi gure 2-13; A
1
= 16sq. i n., A
2
= 4sq. i n.
Substi tuti ng: 16v
1
= 4V
2
or v
2
= 4v
I
Therefore, the vel oci ty of fl ow at poi nt B i s four
ti mes the vel oci ty of fl ow at poi nt A.
VOLUME OF FLOW AND SPEED
I f you consi der the cyl i nder vol ume you must
fi l l and the di stance the pi ston must travel , you
can rel ate the vol ume of fl ow to the speed of the
pi ston. The vol ume of the cyl i nder i s found by
mul ti pl yi ng the pi ston area by the l ength the pi ston
must travel (stroke).
Suppose you have deter mi ned that two
cyl i nders have the same vol ume and that one
cyl i nder i s twi ce as l ong as the other. I n thi s case,
the cross-secti onal area of the l onger tube wi l l be
hal f of the cross-secti onal area of the other tube.
I f fl ui d i s pumped i nto each cyl i nder at the same
rate, both pi stons wi l l reach thei r ful l travel at the
same ti me. However, the pi ston i n the smal l er
cyl i nder must travel twi ce as fast because i t has
twi ce as far to go.
There are two ways of control l i ng the speed
of the pi ston, (1) by varyi ng the si ze of the cyl i nder
and (2) by varyi ng the vol ume of fl ow (gpm) to
the cyl i nders. (Hydraul i c cyl i nders are di scussed
i n detai l i n chapter 10. )
STREAMLINE AND
TURBULENT FLOW
At l ow vel oci ti es or i n tubes of smal l di ameter,
fl ow i s streaml i ned. Thi s means that a gi ven
parti cl e of fl ui d moves strai ght forward wi thout
bumpi ng i nto other parti cl es and wi thout crossi ng
thei r paths. Streaml i ne fl ow i s often referred to
as l ami nar fl ow, whi ch i s defi ned as a fl ow
si tuati on i n whi ch fl ui d moves i n paral l el l ami na
or l ayers. As an exampl e of streaml i ne fl ow,
consi der fi gure 2-14, whi ch i l l ustrates an open
stream fl owi ng at a sl ow, uni form rate wi th l ogs
fl oati ng on i ts surface. The l ogs represent parti cl es
of fl ui d. As l ong as the stream fl ows at a sl ow,
uni form rate, each l og fl oats downstream i n i ts
Figure 2-14.Streamline flow.
own path, wi thout crossi ng or bumpi ng i nto the
other.
I f the stream narrows, however, and the
vol ume of fl ow remai ns the same, the vel oci ty
of fl ow i ncr eases. I f the vel oci ty i ncr eases
suffi ci entl y, the water becomes turbul ent. (See
fi g. 2-15.) Swi rl s, eddi es, and cross-moti ons are
set up i n the water. As thi s happens, the l ogs are
thrown agai nst each other and agai nst the banks
of the stream, and the paths fol l owed by di fferent
l ogs wi l l cross and recross.
Parti cl es of fl ui d fl owi ng i n pi pes act i n the
same manner. The fl ow i s streaml i ned i f the fl ui d
fl ows sl owl y enough, and remai ns streaml i ned at
greater vel oci ti es i f the di ameter of the pi pe i s
smal l . I f the vel oci ty of fl ow or si ze of pi pe i s
i ncreased suffi ci entl y, the fl ow becomes turbul ent.
Whi l e a hi gh vel oci ty of fl ow wi l l produce
turbul ence i n any pi pe, other factors contri bute
to turbul ence. Among these are the roughness of
the i nsi de of the pi pe, obstructi ons, the degree of
curvature of bends, and the number of bends i n
the pi pe. I n setti ng up or mai ntai ni ng fl ui d power
systems, care shoul d be taken to el i mi nate or
Figure 2-15.Turbulent flow.
2-10
mi ni mi ze as many causes of tur bul ence as
possi bl e, si nce the energy consumed by turbul ence
i s wasted. Li mi tati ons rel ated to the degree
and number of bends of pi pe are di scussed i n
chapter 5.
Whi l e desi gners of fl ui d power equi pment do
what they can to mi ni mi ze turbul ence, i t cannot
be avoi ded. For exampl e, i n a 4-i nch pi pe at 68F,
fl ow becomes turbul ent at vel oci ti es over approxi -
matel y 6 i nches per second or about 3 i nches per
second i n a 6-i nch pi pe. These vel oci ti es are far
bel ow those commonl y encountered i n fl ui d power
systems, where vel oci ti es of 5 feet per second and
above are common. I n streaml i ned fl ow, l osses
due to fri cti on i ncrease di rectl y wi th vel oci ty. Wi th
turbul ent fl ow these l osses i ncrease much more
r api dl y.
FACTORS INVOLVED IN FLOW
An understandi ng of the behavi or of fl ui ds i n
moti on, or sol i ds for that matter, requi res an
understandi ng of the term inertia. I nerti a i s the
term used by sci enti sts to descri be the property
possessed by al l forms of matter that makes the
matter resi st bei ng moved i f i t i s at rest, and
l i kewi se, resi st any change i n i ts rate of moti on
i f i t i s movi ng.
The basi c statement cover i ng i ner ti a i s
Newtons fi rst l aw of moti oni nerti a. Si r I saac
Newton was a Bri ti sh phi l osopher and mathe-
mati ci an. Hi s fi rst l aw states: A body at rest tends
to remain at rest, and a body in motion tends to
remain in motion at the same speed and direction,
unless acted on by some unbalanced force.
Thi s si mpl y says what you have l ear ned by
experi encethat you must push an object to start
i t movi ng and push i t i n the opposi te di recti on
to stop i t agai n.
A fami l i ar i l l ustrati on i s the effort a pi tcher
must exert to make a fast pi tch and the opposi ti on
the catcher must put forth to stop the bal l .
Si mi l arl y, consi derabl e work must be performed
by the engi ne to make an automobi l e begi n
to rol l ; al though, after i t has attai ned a certai n
vel oci ty, i t wi l l rol l al ong the road at uni form
speed i f just enough effor t i s expended to
overcome fri cti on, whi l e brakes are necessary to
stop i ts moti on. I nerti a al so expl ai ns the ki ck or
recoi l of guns and the tremendous stri ki ng force
of projecti l es.
Inertia
To
and Force
overcome the tendency of an object to
resi st any change i n i ts state of rest or moti on,
some force that i s not otherwi se cancel ed or
unbal anced must act on the obj ect. Some
unbal anced force must be appl i ed whenever fl ui ds
are set i n moti on or i ncreased i n vel oci ty; whi l e
conversel y, forces are made to do work el sewhere
whenever fl ui ds i n moti on ar e r etar ded or
stopped.
There i s a di rect rel ati onshi p between the
magni tude of the force exerted and the i nerti a
agai nst whi ch i t acts. Thi s force i s dependent
on two factor s: (1) the mass of the obj ect
(whi ch i s proporti onal to i ts wei ght), and (2)
the r ate at whi ch the vel oci ty of the object
i s changed. The rul e i s that the force i n
pounds requi red to overcome i nerti a i s equal
to the wei ght of the object mul ti pl i ed by the
change i n vel oci ty, measured i n feet per second,
and di vi ded by 32 ti mes the ti me i n seconds
requi red to accompl i sh the change. Thus, the rate
of change i n vel oci ty of an object i s proporti onal
to the force appl i ed. The number 32 appears
because i t i s the conversi on factor between wei ght
and mass.
There are fi ve physi cal factors that can act on
a fl ui d to affect i ts behavi or. Al l of the physi cal
acti ons of fl ui ds i n al l systems are determi ned by
the rel ati onshi ps of these fi ve factors to each
other. Summari zi ng, these fi ve factors are as
fol l ows:
1. Gravi ty, whi ch acts at al l ti mes on al l
bodi es, regardl ess of other forces
2. Atmospher i c pr essur e, whi ch acts on
any par t of a system exposed to the open
ai r
3. Speci fi c appl i ed forces, whi ch mayor may
not be present, but whi ch, i n any event, are
enti rel y i ndependent of the presence or absence
of moti on
4. I nerti a, whi ch comes i nto pl ay whenever
there i s a change from rest to moti on or the
opposi te, or whenever ther e i s a change i n
di recti on or i n rate of moti on
5. Fri cti on, whi ch i s al ways present whenever
there i s moti on
2-11
Fi gure 2-16 i l l ustrates a possi bl e rel ati onshi p
of these factors wi th respect to a parti cl e of fl ui d
(P) i n a system. The di fferent forces are shown
i n terms of head, or i n other words, i n terms of
verti cal col umns of fl ui d requi red to provi de
the for ces. At the par ti cul ar moment under
consi derati on, a parti cl e of water (P) i s bei ng acted
on by appl i ed force (A), by atmospheri c pressure
(B), and by gravi ty (C) produced by the wei ght
of the fl ui d standi ng over i t. The parti cl e possesses
suffi ci ent i nerti a or vel oci ty head to ri se to l evel
P1, si nce head equi val ent to F was l ost i n fri cti on
as P passed through the system. Si nce atmospheri c
pressure (B) acts downward on both si des of the
system, what i s gai ned on one si de i s l ost on the
other.
I f al l the pressure acti ng on P to force i t
through the nozzl e coul d be recovered i n the form
of el evati on head, i t woul d ri se to l evel Y. I f
account i s taken of the bal ance i n atmospheri c
pressure, i n a fri cti onl ess system, P woul d ri se to
l evel X, or preci sel y as hi gh as the sum of the
gravi ty head and the head equi val ent to the
appl i ed force.
Kinetic Energy
I t was previ ousl y poi nted out that a force must
be appl i ed to an object i n order to gi ve i t a vel oci ty
or to i ncrease the vel oci ty i t al ready has. Whether
the force begi ns or changes vel oci ty, i t acts over
a certai n di stance. A force acti ng over a certai n
di stance i s work. Work and al l forms i nto whi ch
i t can be changed ar e cl assi fi ed as ener gy.
Obvi ousl y then, energy i s requi red to gi ve an
object vel oci ty. The greater the energy used, the
greater the vel oci ty wi l l be.
Di sr egar di ng fr i cti on, for an object to be
brought to rest or for i ts moti on to be sl owed
down, a force opposed to i ts moti on must be
appl i ed to i t. Thi s force al so acts over some
di stance. I n thi s way energy i s gi ven up by the
object and del i vered i n some form to whatever
opposes i ts conti nuous moti on. The movi ng object
i s therefore a means of recei vi ng energy at one
pl ace (where i ts moti on i s i ncreased) and del i veri ng
i t to another poi nt (wher e i t i s stopped or
retarded). Whi l e i t i s i n moti on, i t i s sai d to
contai n thi s energy as energy of moti on or kinetic
ener gy.
Si nce energy can never be destroyed, i t fol l ows
that i f fri cti on i s di sregarded the energy del i vered
to stop the object wi l l exactl y equal the energy
that was requi red to i ncrease i ts speed. At al l ti mes
the amount of ki neti c energy possessed by an
object depends on i ts wei ght and the vel oci ty at
whi ch i t i s movi ng.
Figure 2-16.Physical factors governing fluid flow.
2-12
The mathemati cal rel ati onshi p for ki neti c
energy i s stated i n the rul e: Ki neti c energy i n
foot-pounds i s equal to the force i n pounds whi ch
created i t, mul ti pl i ed by the di stance through
whi ch i t was appl i ed, or to the wei ght of the
movi ng object i n pounds, mul ti pl i ed by the square
of i ts vel oci ty i n feet per second, and di vi ded by
64.s
The r el ati onshi p between i ner ti a for ces,
vel oci ty, and ki neti c energy can be i l l ustrated by
anal yzi ng what happens when a gun fi res a
projecti l e agai nst the armor of an enemy shi p. (See
fi g. 2-17.) The expl osi ve force of the powder i n
the breach pushes the projecti l e out of the gun,
gi vi ng i t a hi gh vel oci ty. Because of i ts i nerti a,
the projecti l e offers opposi ti on to thi s sudden
vel oci ty and a reacti on i s set up that pushes the
gun backward (ki ck or recoi l ). The force of the
expl osi on acts on the projecti l e throughout i ts
movement i n the gun. Thi s i s force acti ng through
a di stance produci ng work. Thi s work appears as
ki neti c energy i n the speedi ng projecti l e. The
resi stance of the ai r produces fri cti on, whi ch uses
some of the energy and sl ows down the projecti l e.
Eventual l y, however, the projecti l e hi ts i ts target
and, because of the i nerti a, tri es to conti nue
movi ng. The target, bei ng rel ati vel y stati onary,
tends to remai n stati onary because of i ts i nerti a.
The resul t i s that a tremendous force i s set up that
ei ther l eads to the penetrati on of the armor or
the shatteri ng of the projecti l e. The projecti l e
i s si mpl y a means of transferri ng energy, i n
thi s i nstance for destructi ve purpose, from the
gun to the enemy shi p. Thi s energy i s transmi tted
i n the for m of ener gy of moti on or ki neti c
ener gy.
A si mi l ar acti on takes pl ace i n a fl ui d power
system i n whi ch the fl ui d takes the pl ace of the
projecti l e. For exampl e, the pump i n a hydraul i c
Figure 2-17.Relationship of inertia, velocity, and kinetic
energy.
system i mpar ts ener gy to the fl ui d, whi ch
overcomes the i nerti a of the fl ui d at rest and
causes i t to fl ow through the l i nes. The fl ui d fl ows
agai nst some type of actuator that i s at rest. The
fl ui d tends to conti nue fl owi ng, overcomes the
i nerti a of the actuator, and moves the actuator
to do work. Fri cti on uses up a porti on of the
energy as the fl ui d fl ows through the l i nes and
components.
RELATIONSHIP OF FORCE,
PRESSURE, AND HEAD
I n deal i ng wi th fl ui ds, forces are usual l y
consi dered i n rel ati on to the areas over whi ch they
are appl i ed. As previ ousl y di scussed, a force
acti ng over a uni t area i s a pressure, and pressure
can al ternatel y be stated i n pounds per square i nch
or i n terms of head, whi ch i s the verti cal hei ght
of the col umn of fl ui d whose wei ght woul d
produce that pressure.
I n most of the appl i cati ons of fl ui d power i n
the Navy, appl i ed forces greatl y outwei gh al l other
forces, and the fl ui d i s enti rel y confi ned. Under
these ci rcumstances i t i s customary to thi nk of the
forces i nvol ved i n terms of pressures. Si nce the
term head i s encountered frequentl y i n the study
of fl ui d power, i t i s necessary to understand what
i t means and how i t i s rel ated to pressure and
for ce.
Al l fi ve of the factors that control the acti ons
of fl ui ds can, of course, be expressed ei ther as
force, or i n terms of equi val ent pressures or head.
I n each si tuati on, the di fferent factors are referred
to i n the same terms, si nce they can be added and
subtracted to study thei r rel ati onshi p to each
other.
At thi s poi nt you need to revi ew some terms
i n general use. Gravi ty head, when i t i s i mportant
enough to be consi dered, i s someti mes referred
to as head. The effect of atmospheri c pressure i s
referred to as atmospheri c pressure. (Atmospheri c
pressure i s frequentl y and i mproperl y referred to
as sucti on.) I nerti a effect, because i t i s al ways
di rectl y rel ated to vel oci ty, i s usual l y cal l ed
vel oci ty head; and fri cti on, because i t represents
a l oss of pressure or head, i s usual l y referred to
as fri cti on head.
STATIC AND DYNAMIC FACTORS
Gr avi ty, appl i ed for ces, and atmospher i c
pressure are stati c factors that appl y equal l y to
2-13
fl ui ds at rest or i n moti on, whi l e i nerti a and
fri cti on are dynami c factors that appl y onl y to
fl ui ds i n moti on. The mathemati cal sum of
gravi ty, appl i ed force, and atmospheri c pressure
i s the stati c pressure obtai ned at any one poi nt
i n a fl ui d at any gi ven ti me. Stati c pressure exi sts
i n addi ti on to any dynami c factors that may al so
be present at the same ti me.
Remember, Pascal s l aw states that a pressure
set up i n a fl ui d acts equal l y i n al l di recti ons and
at ri ght angl es to the contai ni ng surfaces. Thi s
covers the si tuati on onl y for fl ui ds at rest or
practi cal l y at rest. I t i s true onl y for the factors
maki ng up stati c head. Obvi ousl y, when vel oci ty
becomes a factor i t must have a di recti on, and
as previ ousl y expl ai ned, the force rel ated to the
vel oci ty must al so have a di r ecti on, so that
Pascal s l aw al one does not appl y to the dynami c
factors of fl ui d power.
The dynami c factors of i nerti a and fri cti on are
rel ated to the stati c factors. Vel oci ty head and
fri cti on head are obtai ned at the expense of stati c
head. However, a porti on of the vel oci ty head can
al ways be reconverted to stati c head. Force, whi ch
can be produced by pressure or head when deal i ng
wi th fl ui ds, i s necessary to start a body movi ng
i f i t i s at rest, and i s present i n some form when
the moti on of the body i s arrested; therefore,
whenever a fl ui d i s gi ven vel oci ty, some part of
i ts ori gi nal stati c head i s used to i mpart thi s
vel oci ty, whi ch then exi sts as vel oci ty head.
BERNOULLIS PRINCIPLE
Consi der the system i l l ustrated i n fi gure 2-18.
Chamber A i s under pressure and i s connected by
a tube to chamber B, whi ch i s al so under pressure.
The pressure i n chamber A i s stati c pressure of
100 psi . The pressure at some poi nt (X) al ong the
connecti ng tube consi sts of a vel oci ty pressure of
Figure 2-18.Relation of static and dynamic factors
Bernoullis principle.
10 psi exerted i n a di recti on paral l el to the l i ne
of fl ow, pl us the unused stati c pressure of 90 psi ,
whi ch sti l l obeys Pascal s l aw and operates equal l y
i n al l di recti ons. As the fl ui d enters chamber B
i t i s sl owed down, and i ts vel oci ty i s changed back
to pressure. The force requi red to absorb i ts
i nerti a equal s the force requi red to start the fl ui d
movi ng ori gi nal l y, so that the stati c pressure i n
chamber B i s equal to that i n chamber A.
Thi s si tuati on (fi g. 2-18) di sregards fri cti on;
therefore, i t woul d not be encountered i n actual
pr acti ce. For ce or head i s al so r equi r ed to
overcome fri cti on but, unl i ke i nerti a effect, thi s
force cannot be recovered agai n, al though the
energy represented sti l l exi sts somewhere as heat.
Therefore, i n an actual system the pressure i n
chamber B woul d be l ess than i n chamber A by
the amount of pr essur e used i n over comi ng
fri cti on al ong the way.
At al l poi nts i n a system the stati c pressure i s
al ways the ori gi nal stati c pressure, l ess any vel oci ty
head at the poi nt i n questi on and l ess the fri cti on
head consumed i n reachi ng that poi nt. Si nce both
the vel oci ty head and the fri cti on head represent
energy that came from the ori gi nal stati c head,
and si nce energy cannot be destroyed, the sum of
the stati c head, the vel oci ty head, and the fri cti on
head at any poi nt i n the system must add up to
the or i gi nal stati c head. Thi s i s known as
Ber noul l i 's pr i nci pl e, whi ch states: For the
horizontal flow of fluid through a tube, the sum
of the pressure and the kinetic energy per unit
volume of the fluid is constant. Thi s pr i nci pl e
governs the rel ati ons of the stati c and dynami c
factors concerni ng fl ui ds, whi l e Pascal s l aw states
the manner i n whi ch the stati c factors behave
when taken by themsel ves.
MINIMIZING FRICTION
Fl ui d power equi pment i s desi gned to reduce
fri cti on to the l owest possi bl e l evel . Vol ume and
vel oci ty of fl ow are made the subject of careful
study. The proper fl ui d for the system i s chosen.
Cl ean, smooth pi pe of the best di mensi ons for the
parti cul ar condi ti ons i s used, and i t i s i nstal l ed
al ong as di rect a route as possi bl e. Sharp bends
and sudden changes i n cross-secti onal areas are
avoi ded. Val ves, gauges, and other components
are desi gned to i nterrupt fl ow as l i ttl e as possi bl e.
Careful thought i s gi ven to the si ze and shape of
the openi ngs. The systems are desi gned so they
2-14
can be kept cl ean i nsi de and vari ati ons from
normal operati on can easi l y be detected and
r emedi ed.
OPERATION OF HYDRAULIC
COMPONENTS
To tr ansmi t and contr ol power thr ough
pr essur i zed fl ui ds, an ar r angement of i nter -
connected components i s r equi r ed. Such an
arrangement i s commonl y referred to as a system.
The number and arrangement of the components
vary from system to system, dependi ng on the
parti cul ar appl i cati on. I n many appl i cati ons, one
mai n system suppl i es power to several subsystems,
whi ch are someti mes referred to as ci rcui ts. The
compl ete system may be a smal l compact uni t;
more often, however, the components are l ocated
at wi del y separated poi nts for conveni ent control
and operati on of the system.
The basi c components of a fl ui d power system
are essenti al l y the same, regardl ess of whether the
system uses a hydraul i c or a pneumati c medi um.
There are fi ve basi c components used i n a system.
These basi c components are as fol l ows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Reservoi r or recei ver
Pump or compressor
Li nes (pi pe, tubi ng, or fl exi bl e hose)
Di recti onal control val ve
Actuati ng devi ce
Several appl i cati ons of fl ui d power requi re
onl y a si mpl e system; that i s, a system whi ch uses
onl y a few components i n addi ti on to the fi ve
basi c components. A few of these appl i cati ons are
presented i n the fol l owi ng paragraphs. We wi l l
expl ai n the operati on of these systems bri efl y at
thi s ti me so you wi l l know the purpose of each
component and can better under stand how
hydraul i cs i s used i n the operati on of these
systems. More compl ex fl ui d power systems are
descri bed i n chapter 12.
HYDRAULIC J ACK
The hydraul i c jack i s perhaps one of the
si mpl est for ms of a fl ui d power system. By
movi ng the handl e of a smal l devi ce, an i ndi vi dual
can l i ft a l oad wei ghi ng several tons. A smal l
i ni ti al force exerted on the handl e i s transmi tted
by a fl ui d to a much l arger area. To understand
thi s better, study fi gure 2-19. The smal l i nput
pi ston has an area of 5 square i nches and i s
di rectl y connected to a l arge cyl i nder wi th an
output pi ston havi ng an area of 250 square i nches.
The top of thi s pi ston forms a l i ft pl atform.
I f a force of 25 pounds i s appl i ed to the i nput
pi ston, i t produces a pressure of 5 psi i n the fl ui d,
that i s, of cour se, i f a suffi ci ent amount of
resi stant force i s acti ng agai nst the top of the
output pi ston. Di sregardi ng fri cti on l oss, thi s
pressure acti ng on the 250 square i nch area of the
output pi ston wi l l support a resi stance force of
1,250 pounds. I n other words, thi s pressure coul d
overcome a force of sl i ghtl y under 1,250 pounds.
An i nput force of 25 pounds has been transformed
i nto a worki ng force of more than hal f a ton;
however, for thi s to be true, the di stance travel ed
by the i nput pi ston must be 50 ti mes greater than
the di stance travel ed by the output pi ston. Thus,
for every i nch that the i nput pi ston moves, the
output pi ston wi l l move onl y one-fi fti eth of an
i n c h .
Thi s woul d be i deal i f the output pi ston needed
to move onl y a short di stance. However, i n most
i nstances, the output pi ston woul d have to be
capabl e of movi ng a greater di stance to serve a
practi cal appl i cati on. The devi ce shown i n fi gure
2-19 i s not capabl e of movi ng the output pi ston
farther than that shown; therefore, some other
means must be used to rai se the output pi ston to
a greater hei ght.
Figure 2-19.Hydraulic jack.
2-15
The output pi ston can be rai sed hi gher and
mai ntai ned at thi s hei ght i f addi ti onal components
are i nstal l ed as shown i n fi gure 2-20. I n thi s
i l l ustrati on the jack i s desi gned so that i t can be
rai sed, l owered, or hel d at a constant hei ght.
These resul ts are attai ned by i ntroduci ng a number
of val ves and al so a reserve suppl y of fl ui d to be
used i n the system.
Noti ce that thi s system contai ns the fi ve basi c
componentsthe reservoi r; cyl i nder 1, whi ch
serves as a pump; val ve 3, whi ch serves as a
di recti onal control val ve; cyl i nder 2, whi ch serves
as the actuati ng devi ce; and l i nes to transmi t the
fl ui d to and from the di fferent components. I n
addi ti on, thi s system contai ns two val ves, 1 and
2, whose functi ons are expl ai ned i n the fol l owi ng
di scussi on.
As the i nput pi ston i s rai sed (fi g. 2-20, vi ew
A), val ve 1 i s cl osed by the back pressure from
the wei ght of the output pi ston. At the same ti me,
val ve 2 i s opened by the head of the fl ui d i n the
reservoi r. Thi s forces fl ui d i nto cyl i nder 1. When
the i nput pi ston i s l owered (fi g. 2-20, vi ew B), a
pressure i s devel oped i n cyl i nder 1. When thi s
pressure exceeds the head i n the reservoi r, i t cl oses
val ve 2. When i t exceeds the back pressure from
the output pi ston, i t opens val ve 1, forci ng fl ui d
i nto the pi pel i ne. The pressure from cyl i nder 1 i s
Figure 2-20.Hydraulic jack; (A) up stroke; (B) downstroke.
thus transmi tted i nto cyl i nder 2, where i t acts to
rai se the output pi ston wi th i ts attached l i ft
pl atform. When the i nput pi ston i s agai n rai sed,
the pressure i n cyl i nder 1 drops bel ow that i n
cyl i nder 2, causi ng val ve 1 to cl ose. Thi s prevents
the return of fl ui d and hol ds the output pi ston
wi th i ts attached l i ft pl atform at i ts new l evel .
Duri ng thi s stroke, val ve 2 opens agai n al l owi ng
a new suppl y of fl ui d i nto cyl i nder 1 for the next
power (downward) stroke of the i nput pi ston.
Thus, by repeated strokes of the i nput pi ston, the
l i ft pl atform can be progressi vel y rai sed. To l ower
the l i ft pl atform, val ve 3 i s opened, and the fl ui d
from cyl i nder 2 i s returned to the reservoi r.
HYDRAULIC BRAKES
The hydr aul i c br ake system used i n the
automobi l e i s a mul ti pl e pi ston system. A mul ti pl e
pi ston system al l ows forces to be transmi tted to
two or more pi stons i n the manner i ndi cated i n
fi gure 2-21. Note that the pressure set up by the
force appl i ed to the i nput pi ston (1) i s transmi tted
undi mi ni shed to both output pi stons (2 and 3),
and that the resul tant force on each pi ston i s
proporti onal to i ts area. The mul ti pl i cati on of
forces from the i nput pi ston to each output pi ston
i s the same as that expl ai ned earl i er.
The hydraul i c brake system from the master
cyl i nder s to the wheel cyl i nder s on most
Figure 2-21.Multiple piston system.
2-16
automobi l es operates i n a way si mi l ar to the
system i l l ustrated i n fi gure 2-22.
When the br ake pedal i s depr essed, the
pressure on the brake pedal moves the pi ston
wi thi n the master cyl i nder, forci ng the brake fl ui d
from the master cyl i nder through the tubi ng and
fl exi bl e hose to the wheel cyl i nders. The wheel
cyl i nders contai n two opposed output pi stons,
each of whi ch i s attached to a brake shoe fi tted
i nsi de the brake drum. Each output pi ston pushes
the attached brake shoe agai nst the wal l of the
brake drum, thus retardi ng the rotati on of the
wheel . When pressure on the pedal i s rel eased, the
spri ngs on the brake shoes return the wheel
cyl i nder pi stons to thei r rel eased posi ti ons. Thi s
acti on for ces the di spl aced br ake fl ui d back
through the fl exi bl e hose and tubi ng to the master
cyl i nder.
The force appl i ed to the brake pedal produces
a pr opor ti onal for ce on each of the output
pi stons, whi ch i n turn appl y the brake shoes
fr i cti onal l y to the tur ni ng wheel s to r etar d
rotati on.
As previ ousl y menti oned, the hydraul i c brake
system on most automobi l es operates i n a si mi l ar
way, as shown i n fi gure 2-22. I t i s beyond the
scope of thi s manual to di scuss the vari ous brake
systems.
Figure 2-22.An automobile brake system.
2-17
CHAPTER 3
HYDRAULIC FLUIDS
Duri ng the desi gn of equi pment that requi res
fl ui d power , many factor s ar e consi der ed i n
sel ecti ng the type of system to be usedhydraul i c,
pneumati c, or a combi nati on of the two. Some
of the factors are requi red speed and accuracy of
operati on, surroundi ng atmospheri c condi ti ons,
economi c condi ti ons, avai l abi l i ty of repl acement
fl ui d, requi red pressure l evel , operati ng tempera-
ture range, contami nati on possi bi l i ti es, cost of
transmi ssi on l i nes, l i mi tati ons of the equi pment,
l ubri ci ty, safety to the operators, and expected
servi ce l i fe of the equi pment.
After the type of system has been sel ected,
many of these same factors must be consi dered
i n sel ecti ng the fl ui d for the system. Thi s chapter
i s devoted to hydraul i c fl ui ds. I ncl uded i n i t are
secti ons on the properti es and characteri sti cs
desi red of hydraul i c fl ui ds; types of hydraul i c
fl ui ds; hazards and safety precauti ons for worki ng
wi th, handl i ng, and di sposi ng of hydr aul i c
l i qui ds; types and control of contami nati on; and
sampl i ng.
PROPERTIES
I f fl ui di ty (the physi cal property of a substance
that enabl es i t to fl ow) and i ncompressi bi l i ty were
the onl y properti es requi red, any l i qui d not too
thi ck mi ght be used i n a hydr aul i c system.
However, a sati sfactory l i qui d for a parti cul ar
system must possess a number of other properti es.
The most i mportant properti es and some charac-
teri sti cs are di scussed i n the fol l owi ng paragraphs.
VISCOSITY
Vi scosi ty i s one of the most i mpor tant
properti es of hydraul i c fl ui ds. I t i s a measure of
a fl ui ds resi stance to fl ow. A l i qui d, such as
gasol i ne, whi ch fl ows easi l y has a l ow vi scosi ty;
and a l i qui d, such as tar, whi ch fl ows sl owl y has
a hi gh vi scosi ty. The vi scosi ty of a l i qui d i s
affected by changes i n temperature and pressure.
As the temperature of a l i qui d i ncreases, i ts
vi scosi ty decreases. That i s, a l i qui d fl ows more
easi l y when i t i s hot than when i t i s col d. The
vi scosi ty of a l i qui d i ncreases as the pressure on
the l i qui d i ncreases.
A sati sfactory l i qui d for a hydraul i c system
must be thi ck enough to gi ve a good seal at
pumps, motors, val ves, and so on. These com-
ponents depend on cl ose fi ts for creati ng and
mai ntai ni ng pr essur e. Any i nter nal l eakage
through these cl earances resul ts i n l oss of pressure,
i nstantaneous contr ol , and pump effi ci ency.
Leakage l osses are greater wi th thi nner l i qui ds
(l ow vi scosi ty). A l i qui d that i s too thi n wi l l al so
al l ow rapi d weari ng of movi ng parts, or of parts
that operate under heavy l oads. On the other
hand, i f the l i qui d i s too thi ck (vi scosi ty too hi gh),
the i nternal fri cti on of the l i qui d wi l l cause an
i ncrease i n the l i qui ds fl ow resi stance through
cl ear ances of cl osel y fi tted par ts, l i nes, and
i nternal passages. Thi s resul ts i n pressure drops
thr oughout the system, sl uggi sh oper ati on
of the equi pment, and an i ncrease i n power
consumpti on.
Measurement of Viscosity
Vi scosi ty i s normal l y determi ned by measuri ng
the ti me requi red for a fi xed vol ume of a fl ui d
(at a gi ven temper atur e) to fl ow thr ough a
cal i brated ori fi ce or capi l l ary tube. The i nstru-
ments used to measure the vi scosi ty of a l i qui d
are known as vi scometers or vi scosi meters.
Several types of vi scosi meters are i n use today.
The Saybol t vi scometer, shown i n fi gure 3-1,
measures the ti me requi red, i n seconds, for 60
mi l l i l i ters of the tested fl ui d at 100F to pass
through a standard ori fi ce. The ti me measured i s
3-1
Figure 3-1.Saybolt viscometer.
used to express the fl ui ds vi scosi ty, i n Saybol t
uni versal seconds or Saybol t furol seconds.
The gl ass capi l l ary vi scometers, shown i n
fi gure 3-2, are exampl es of the second type of
vi scometer used. These vi scometers are used to
measure ki nemati c vi scosi ty. Li ke the Saybol t
vi scometer, the gl ass capi l l ary measures the ti me
i n seconds requi red for the tested fl ui d to fl ow
through the capi l l ary. Thi s ti me i s mul ti pl i ed by
the temperature constant of the vi scometer i n use
to provi de the vi scosi ty, expressed i n centi strokes.
The fol l owi ng for mul as may be used to
convert centi strokes (cSt uni ts) to approxi mate
Saybol t uni versal seconds (SUS uni ts).
For SUS val ues between 32 and 100:
For SUS val ues greater than 100:
Al though the vi scometers di scussed above are
used i n l aboratori es, there are other vi scometers
i n the suppl y system that are avai l abl e for l ocal
use. These vi scometers can be used to test the
vi scosi ty of hydraul i c fl ui ds ei ther pri or to thei r
bei ng added to a system or peri odi cal l y after they
have been i n an operati ng system for a whi l e.
Figure 3-2.Various styles of glass capillary viscometers.
3-2
Addi ti onal i nformati on on the vari ous types
of vi scometers and thei r operati on can be found
i n the Physical Measurements Training Manual,
NAVAI R 17-35QAL-2.
Viscosity Index
The vi scosi ty i ndex (V.I .) of an oi l i s a number
that i ndi cates the effect of temperature changes
on the vi scosi ty of the oi l . A l ow V.I . si gni fi es
a rel ati vel y l arge change of vi scosi ty wi th changes
of temperature. I n other words, the oi l becomes
extremel y thi n at hi gh temperatures and extremel y
thi ck at l ow temperatures. On the other hand, a
hi gh V.I . si gni fi es r el ati vel y l i ttl e change i n
vi scosi ty over a wi de temperature range.
An i deal oi l for most pur poses i s one
that mai ntai ns a constant vi scosi ty throughout
temperature changes. The i mportance of the V.I .
can be shown easi l y by consi deri ng automoti ve
l ubr i cants. An oi l havi ng a hi gh V.I . r esi sts
excessi ve thi ckeni ng when the engi ne i s col d and,
consequentl y, promotes rapi d starti ng and prompt
ci rcul ati on; i t resi sts excessi ve thi nni ng when the
motor i s hot and thus provi des ful l l ubri cati on and
prevents excessi ve oi l consumpti on.
Another exampl e of the i mportance of the V.I .
i s the need for a hi gh V.I . hydraul i c oi l for mi l i tary
ai rcraft, si nce hydraul i c control systems may be
exposed to temperatures rangi ng from bel ow
65F at hi gh al ti tudes to over 100F on the
ground. For the proper operati on of the hydraul i c
control system, the hydraul i c fl ui d must have a
suffi ci entl y hi gh V.I . to perform i ts functi ons at
the extremes of the expected temperature range.
Li qui ds wi th a hi gh vi scosi ty have a greater
resi stance to heat than l ow vi scosi ty l i qui ds whi ch
have been deri ved from the same source. The
average hydraul i c l i qui d has a rel ati vel y l ow
vi scosi ty. Fortunatel y, there i s a wi de choi ce of
l i qui ds avai l abl e for use i n the vi scosi ty range
requi red of hydraul i c l i qui ds.
The V.I . of an oi l may be determi ned i f i ts
vi scosi ty at any two temperatures i s known.
Tabl es, based on a l arge number of tests, are
i ssued by the Amer i can Soci ety for Testi ng
and Mater i al s (ASTM). These tabl es per mi t
cal cul ati on of the V.I . from known vi scosi ti es.
LUBRICATING POWER
I f moti on takes pl ace between surfaces i n
contact, fri cti on tends to oppose the moti on.
When pressure forces the l i qui d of a hydraul i c
system between the surfaces of movi ng parts, the
l i qui d spreads out i nto a thi n fi l m whi ch enabl es
the parts to move more freel y. Di fferent l i qui ds,
i ncl udi ng oi l s, vary greatl y not onl y i n thei r
l ubri cati ng abi l i ty but al so i n fi l m strength. Fi l m
strength i s the capabi l i ty of a l i qui d to resi st bei ng
wi ped or squeezed out from between the surfaces
when spread out i n an extremel y thi n l ayer. A
l i qui d wi l l no l onger l ubri cate i f the fi l m breaks
down, si nce the moti on of part agai nst part wi pes
the metal cl ean of l i qui d.
Lubri cati ng power vari es wi th temperature
changes; therefore, the cl i mati c and worki ng
condi ti ons must enter i nto the determi nati on of
the l ubr i cati ng qual i ti es of a l i qui d. Unl i ke
vi scosi ty, whi ch i s a physi cal pr oper ty, the
l ubri cati ng power and fi l m strength of a l i qui d
i s di r ectl y r el ated to i ts chemi cal natur e.
Lubri cati ng qual i ti es and fi l m strength can be
i mproved by the addi ti on of certai n chemi cal
agents.
CHEMICAL STABILITY
Chemi cal stabi l i ty i s another property whi ch
i s exceedi ngl y i mportant i n the sel ecti on of a
hydraul i c l i qui d. I t i s defi ned as the l i qui ds abi l i ty
to resi st oxi dati on and deteri orati on for l ong
peri ods. Al l l i qui ds tend to undergo unfavorabl e
changes under severe operati ng condi ti ons. Thi s
i s the case, for exampl e, when a system operates
for a consi der abl e per i od of ti me at hi gh
temper atur es.
Excessi ve temperatures, especi al l y extremel y
hi gh temperatures, have a great effect on the l i fe
of a l i qui d. The temperature of the l i qui d i n the
reservoi r of an operati ng hydraul i c system does
not al ways i ndi cate the operati ng condi ti ons
throughout the system. Local i zed hot spots occur
on beari ngs, gear teeth, or at other poi nts where
the l i qui d under pressure i s forced through smal l
ori fi ces. Conti nuous passage of the l i qui d through
these poi nts may produce l ocal temperatures hi gh
enough to carboni ze the l i qui d or turn i t i nto
sl udge, yet the l i qui d i n the reservoi r may not
i ndi cate an excessi vel y hi gh temperature.
Li qui ds may break down i f exposed to ai r,
water, sal t, or other i mpuri ti es, especi al l y i f they
are i n constant moti on or subjected to heat. Some
metal s, such as zi nc, l ead, brass, and copper, have
undesi r abl e chemi cal r eacti ons wi th cer tai n
l i qui ds.
These chemi cal reacti ons resul t i n the forma-
ti on of sl udge, gums, carbon, or other deposi ts
whi ch cl og openi ngs, cause val ves and pi stons to
sti ck or l eak, and gi ve poor l ubri cati on to movi ng
3-3
parts. Once a smal l amount of sl udge or other
deposi ts i s formed, the rate of formati on general l y
i ncreases more rapi dl y. As these deposi ts are
for med, cer tai n changes i n the physi cal and
chemi cal properti es of the l i qui d take pl ace. The
l i qui d usual l y becomes dar ker , the vi scosi ty
i ncreases and damagi ng aci ds are formed.
The extent to whi ch changes occur i n di fferent
l i qui ds depends on the type of l i qui d, type of
refi ni ng, and whether i t has been treated to
pr ovi de fur ther r esi stance to oxi dati on. The
stabi l i ty of l i qui ds can be i mpr oved by the
addi ti on of oxi dati on i nhi bi tor s. I nhi bi tor s
sel ected to i mprove stabi l i ty must be compati bl e
wi th the other requi red properti es of the l i qui d.
FREEDOM FROM ACIDITY
An i deal hydraul i c l i qui d shoul d be free from
aci ds whi ch cause corrosi on of the metal s i n the
system. Most l i qui ds cannot be expected to remai n
compl etel y noncorrosi ve under severe operati ng
condi ti ons. The degree of aci di ty of a l i qui d, when
new, may be sati sfactory; but after use, the l i qui d
may tend to become corrosi ve as i t begi ns to
deter i or ate.
Many systems are i dl e for l ong peri ods after
operati ng at hi gh temperatures. Thi s permi ts
moi sture to condense i n the system, resul ti ng i n
rust formati on.
Certai n corrosi on- and rust-preventi ve addi -
ti ves are added to hydraul i c l i qui ds. Some of these
addi ti ves are effecti ve onl y for a l i mi ted peri od.
Therefore, the best procedure i s to use the l i qui d
speci fi ed for the system for the ti me speci fi ed by
the system manufacturer and to protect the l i qui d
and the system as much as possi bl e fr om
contami nati on by forei gn matter, from abnormal
temperatures, and from mi suse.
FLASHPOINT
Fl ashpoi nt i s the temperature at whi ch a l i qui d
gi ves off vapor i n suffi ci ent quanti ty to i gni te
momentari l y or fl ash when a fl ame i s appl i ed. A
hi gh fl ashpoi nt i s desi rabl e for hydraul i c l i qui ds
because i t provi des good resi stance to combusti on
and a l ow degr ee of evapor ati on at nor mal
temperatures. Requi red fl ashpoi nt mi ni mums
vary from 300F for the l i ghtest oi l s to 510F for
the heavi est oi l s.
FIRE POINT
Fi re poi nt i s the temperature at whi ch a
substance gi ves off vapor i n suffi ci ent quanti ty
to i gni te and conti nue to burn when exposed to
a spark or fl ame. Li ke fl ashpoi nt, a hi gh fi re poi nt
i s requi red of desi rabl e hydraul i c l i qui ds.
MINIMUM TOXICITY
Toxi ci ty i s defi ned as the qual i ty, state, or
degree of bei ng toxi c or poi sonous. Some l i qui ds
contai n chemi cal s that are a seri ous toxi c hazard.
These toxi c or poi sonous chemi cal s may enter the
body through i nhal ati on, by absorpti on through
the ski n, or through the eyes or the mouth. The
resul t i s si ckness and, i n some cases, death.
Manufactur er s of hydr aul i c l i qui ds str i ve to
produce sui tabl e l i qui ds that contai n no toxi c
chemi cal s and, as a resul t, most hydraul i c l i qui ds
are free of harmful chemi cal s. Some fi re-resi stant
l i qui ds are toxi c, and sui tabl e protecti on and care
i n handl i ng must be provi ded.
DENSITY AND COMPRESSIBILITY
A fl ui d wi th a speci fi c gravi ty of l ess than 1.0
i s desi red when wei ght i s cri ti cal , al though wi th
proper system desi gn, a fl ui d wi th a speci fi c
gravi ty greater than one can be tol erated. Where
avoi dance of detecti on by mi l i tary uni ts i s desi red,
a fl ui d whi ch si nks rather than ri ses to the surface
of the water i s desi rabl e. Fl ui ds havi ng a speci fi c
gravi ty greater than 1.0 are desi red, as l eaki ng
fl ui d wi l l si nk, al l owi ng the vessel wi th the l eak
to remai n undetected.
Recal l from chapter 2 that under extreme
pressure a fl ui d may be compressed up to 7
per cent of i ts or i gi nal vol ume. Hi ghl y com-
pressi bl e fl ui ds produce sl uggi sh system operati on.
Thi s does not present a seri ous probl em i n smal l ,
l ow-speed operati ons, but i t must be consi dered
i n the operati ng i nstructi ons.
FOAMING TENDENCIES
Foam i s an emul si on of gas bubbl es i n the
fl ui d. Foam i n a hydraul i c system resul ts from
compressed gases i n the hydraul i c fl ui d. A fl ui d
under hi gh pressure can contai n a l arge vol ume
of ai r bubbl es. When thi s fl ui d i s depressuri zed,
as when i t reaches the reservoi r, the gas bubbl es
i n the fl ui d expand and pr oduce foam. Any
amount of foami ng may cause pump cavi tati on
and produce poor system response and spongy
3-4
control . Therefore, defoami ng agents are often
added to fl ui ds to prevent foami ng. Mi ni mi zi ng
ai r i n fl ui d systems i s di scussed l ater i n thi s
chapter.
CLEANLINESS
Cl eanl i ness i n hydraul i c systems has recei ved
consi derabl e attenti on recentl y. Some hydraul i c
systems, such as aerospace hydraul i c systems, are
extr emel y sensi ti ve to contami nati on. Fl ui d
cl eanl i ness i s of pri mary i mportance because
contami nants can cause component mal functi on,
pr event pr oper val ve seati ng, cause wear i n
components, and may i ncrease the response ti me
of servo val ves. Fl ui d contami nants are di scussed
l ater i n thi s chapter.
The i nsi de of a hydraul i c system can onl y be
kept as cl ean as the fl ui d added to i t. I ni ti al fl ui d
cl eanl i ness can be achi eved by observi ng stri ngent
cl eanl i ness requi rements (di scussed l ater i n thi s
chapter) or by fi l teri ng al l fl ui d added to the
system.
TYPES OF HYDRAULIC FLUIDS
There have been many l i qui ds tested for use
i n hydraul i c systems. Currentl y, l i qui ds bei ng used
i ncl ude mi ner al oi l , water , phosphate ester ,
water -based ethyl ene gl ycol compounds, and
si l i cone fl ui ds. The three most common types of
hydraul i c l i qui ds are petrol eum-based, syntheti c
fi re-resi stant, and water-based fi re-resi stant.
PETROLEUM-BASED FLUIDS
The most common hydraul i c fl ui ds used i n
shi pboard systems are the petrol eum-based oi l s.
These fl ui ds contai n addi ti ves to protect the fl ui d
from oxi dati on (anti oxi dant), to protect system
metal s from corrosi on (anti corrosi on), to reduce
tendency of the fl ui d to foam (foam suppressant),
and to i mprove vi scosi ty.
Petrol eum-based fl ui ds are used i n surface
shi ps el ectr ohydr aul i c steer i ng and deck
machi ner y systems, submar i nes hydr aul i c
systems, and ai rcraft automati c pi l ots, shock
absorbers, brakes, control mechani sms, and other
hydraul i c systems usi ng seal materi al s compati bl e
wi th petrol eum-based fl ui ds.
SYNTHETIC FIRE-RESISTANT FLUIDS
Petr ol eum-based oi l s contai n most of the
desi red properti es of a hydraul i c l i qui d. However,
they are fl ammabl e under normal condi ti ons and
can become expl osi ve when subjected to hi gh
pressures and a source of fl ame or hi gh tempera-
tures. Nonfl ammabl e syntheti c l i qui ds have been
devel oped for use i n hydraul i c systems where fi re
hazards exi st.
Phosphate Ester Fire-Resistant Fluid
Phosphate ester fi r e-r esi stant fl ui d for
shi pboard use i s covered by speci fi cati on MI L-
H-19457. There are certai n trade names cl osel y
associ ated wi th these fl ui ds. However, the onl y
acceptabl e fl ui ds conformi ng to MI L-H-19457 are
the ones l i sted on the current Qual i fi ed Products
Li st (QPL) 19457. These fl ui ds wi l l be del i vered
i n contai ners marked MI L-H-19457C or a l ater
speci fi cati on r evi si on. Phosphate ester i n
contai ners marked by a brand name wi thout a
speci fi cati on i denti fi cati on must not be used i n
shi pboard systems, as they may contai n toxi c
chemi cal s.
These fl ui ds wi l l burn i f suffi ci ent heat and
fl ame ar e appl i ed, but they do not suppor t
combusti on. Drawbacks of phosphate ester fl ui ds
are that they wi l l attack and l oosen commonl y
used pai nts and adhesi ves, deteri orate many types
of i nsul ati ons used i n el ectr i cal cabl es, and
deter i or ate many gasket and seal mater i al s.
Therefore, gaskets and seal s for systems i n whi ch
phosphate ester fl ui ds are used are manufactured
of speci fi c materi al s. Naval Ships Technical
Manual, chapter 262, speci fi es pai nts to be used
on exteri or surfaces of hydraul i c systems and
components i n whi ch phosphate ester fl ui d i s used
and on shi p structure and decks i n the i mmedi ate
vi ci ni ty of thi s equi pment. Naval Ships Technical
Manual, chapter 078, speci fi es gasket and seal
materi al s used. NAVAI R 01-1A-17 al so contai ns
a l i st of materi al s resi stant to phosphate ester
fl ui ds.
Trade names for phosphate ester fl ui ds, whi ch
do not conform to MI L-H-19457 i ncl ude Pydraul ,
Skydrol , and Fyre Safe.
PHOSPHATE ESTER FLUID SAFETY.
As a mai ntenance person, operator, supervi sor,
or crew member of a shi p, squadron, or naval
shor e i nstal l ati on, you must under stand the
hazards associ ated wi th hydraul i c fl ui ds to whi ch
you may be exposed.
3-5
Phosphate ester fl ui d conformi ng to speci fi -
cati on MI L-H-19457 i s used i n ai rcraft el evators,
bal l ast val ve operati ng systems, and repl eni sh-
ment-at-sea systems. Thi s type of fl ui d contai ns
a contr ol l ed amount of neur otoxi c mater i al .
Because of the neurotoxi c effects that can resul t
from i ngesti on, ski n absorpti on, or i nhal ati on of
these fl ui ds, be sur e to use the fol l owi ng
precauti ons:
1. Avoi d contact wi th the fl ui ds by weari ng
protecti ve cl othi ng.
2. Use chemi cal goggl es or face shi el ds to
protect your eyes.
3. I f you are expected to work i n an
atmosphere contai ni ng a fi ne mi st or spray,
wear a conti nuous-fl ow ai rl i ne respi rator.
4. Thoroughl y cl ean ski n areas contami nated
by thi s fl ui d wi th soap and water.
5. I f you get any fl ui d i n your eyes, fl ush them
wi th runni ng water for at l east 15 mi nutes
and seek medi cal attenti on.
I f you come i n contact wi th MI L-H-19457
fl ui d, report the contact when you seek medi cal
ai d and whenever you have a routi ne medi cal
exami nati on.
Naval Ships Technical Manual, chapter 262,
contai ns a l i st of protecti ve cl othi ng, al ong wi th
nati onal stock numbers (NSN), for use wi th fl ui ds
conformi ng to MI L-H-19457. I t al so contai ns
procedures for repai r work and for l ow-l evel
l eakage and massi ve spi l l s cl eanup.
PHOSPHATE ESTER FLUID DISPOSAL.
Waste MI L-H-19457 fl ui ds and refuse (rags and
other materi al s) must not be dumped at sea. Fl ui d
shoul d be pl aced i n bung-type drums. Rags and
other materi al s shoul d be pl aced i n open top
drums for shore di sposal . These drums shoul d be
marked wi th a warni ng l abel stati ng thei r content,
safety precauti ons, and di sposal i nstructi ons.
Detai l ed i nstructi ons for phosphate ester fl ui ds
di sposal can be found i n Naval Ships Technical
Manual, chapter 262, and OPNAVI NST 5090.1.
Silicone Synthetic Fire-Resistant Fluids
Si l i cone syntheti c fi re-resi stant fl ui ds are
frequentl y used for hydraul i c systems whi ch
requi re fi re resi stance, but whi ch have onl y
margi nal requi rements for other chemi cal or
physi cal properti es common to hydraul i c fl ui ds.
Si l i cone fl ui ds do not have the detr i mental
characteri sti cs of phosphate ester fl ui ds, nor
do they provi de the corrosi on protecti on and
l ubri cati on of phosphate ester fl ui ds, but they are
excel l ent for fi r e pr otecti on. Si l i cone fl ui d
conformi ng to MI L-S-81087 i s used i n the mi ssi l e
hol ddown and l ockout system aboard submari nes.
Lightweight Synthetic Fire-Resistant Fluids
I n appl i cati ons wher e wei ght i s cr i ti cal ,
l i ghtwei ght syntheti c fl ui d i s used i n hydraul i c
systems. MI L-H-83282 i s a syntheti c, fi re-resi stant
hydraul i c fl ui d used i n mi l i tary ai rcraft and
hydrofoi l s where the requi rement to mi ni mi ze
wei ght di ctates the use of a l ow-vi scosi ty fl ui d.
I t i s al so the most commonl y used fl ui d i n avi ati on
support equi pment. NAVAI R 01-1A-17 contai ns
addi ti onal i nformati on on fl ui ds conformi ng to
speci fi cati on MI L-H-83282.
WATER-BASED FIRE-RESISTANT
FLUIDS
The most wi del y used water-based hydraul i c
fl ui ds may be cl assi fi ed as water-gl ycol mi xtures
and water-syntheti c base mi xtures. The water-
gl ycol mi xture contai ns addi ti ves to protect i t from
oxi dati on, corrosi on, and bi ol ogi cal growth and
to enhance i ts l oad-carryi ng capaci ty.
Fi re resi stance of the water mi xture fl ui ds
depends on the vapori zati on and smotheri ng
effect of steam generated from the water. The
water i n water-based fl ui ds i s constantl y bei ng
dri ven off whi l e the system i s operati ng. There-
fore, frequent checks to mai ntai n the correct rati o
of water are i mportant.
The water -based fl ui d used i n catapul t
r etr acti ng engi nes, jet bl ast defl ector s, and
weapons el evators and handl i ng systems conforms
to MI L-H-22072.
The safety precauti ons outl i ned for phosphate
ester fl ui d and the di sposal of phosphate ester
fl ui d al so appl y to water-based fl ui d conformi ng
to MI L-H-22072.
CONTAMINATION
Hydr aul i c fl ui d contami nati on may be
descri bed as any forei gn materi al or substance
whose presence i n the fl ui d i s capabl e of adversel y
affecti ng system performance or rel i abi l i ty. I t may
assume many di fferent forms, i ncl udi ng l i qui ds,
gases, and sol i d matter of vari ous composi ti on,
si zes, and shapes. Sol i d matter i s the type most
often found i n hydraul i c systems and i s general l y
3-6
referred to as parti cul ate contami nati on. Con-
tami nati on i s al ways present to some degree, even
i n new, unused fl ui d, but must be kept bel ow a
l evel that wi l l adversel y affect system operati on.
Hydr aul i c contami nati on contr ol consi sts of
requi rements, techni ques, and practi ces necessary
to mi ni mi ze and control fl ui d contami nati on.
CLASSIFICATION
There are many types of contami nants whi ch
are harmful to hydraul i c systems and l i qui ds.
These contami nants may be di vi ded i nto two
di fferent cl assesparti cul ate and fl ui d.
Particulate Contamination
Thi s cl ass of contami nants i ncl udes organi c,
metal l i c sol i d, and i norgani c sol i d contami nants.
These contami nants are di scussed i n the fol l owi ng
paragraphs.
ORGANIC CONTAMINATION. Organi c
sol i ds or semi sol i ds found i n hydraul i c systems
are produced by wear, oxi dati on, or pol ymeri za-
ti on. Mi nute parti cl es of O-ri ngs, seal s, gaskets,
and hoses are present, due to wear or chemi cal
reacti ons. Syntheti c products, such as neoprene,
si l i cones, and hypal on, though r esi stant to
chemi cal reacti on wi th hydraul i c fl ui ds, produce
smal l wear parti cl es. Oxi dati on of hydraul i c fl ui ds
i ncreases wi th pressure and temperature, al though
anti oxi dants are bl ended i nto hydraul i c fl ui ds to
mi ni mi ze such oxi dati on. The abi l i ty of a
hydr aul i c fl ui d to r esi st oxi dati on or pol y-
meri zati on i n servi ce i s defi ned as i ts oxi dati on
stabi l i ty. Oxi dati on products appear as organi c
aci ds, asphal ti cs, gums, and varni shes. These
products combi ne wi th parti cl es i n the hydraul i c
fl ui d to form sl udge. Some oxi dati on products are
oi l sol ubl e and cause the hydr aul i c fl ui d to
i ncrease i n vi scosi ty; other oxi dati on products are
not oi l sol ubl e and form sedi ment.
METALLIC SOLID CONTAMINATION.
Metal l i c contami nants are al most al ways present
i n a hydraul i c system and wi l l range i n si ze from
mi croscopi c parti cl es to parti cl es readi l y vi si bl e
to the naked eye. These parti cl es are the resul t of
weari ng and scori ng of bare metal parts and
pl ati ng materi al s, such as si l ver and chromi um.
Al though practi cal l y al l metal s commonl y used
for parts fabri cati on and pl ati ng may be found
i n hydraul i c fl ui ds, the major metal l i c materi al s
found are ferrous, al umi num, and chromi um
parti cl es. Because of thei r conti nuous hi gh-speed
i nternal movement, hydraul i c pumps usual l y
contr i bute most of the metal l i c par ti cul ate
contami nati on present i n hydraul i c systems. Metal
parti cl es are al so produced by other hydraul i c
system components, such as val ves and actuators,
due to body wear and the chi ppi ng and weari ng
away of smal l pi eces of metal pl ati ng materi al s.
I NORGANI C SOLI D CONTAMI NA-
TION. Thi s contami nant group i ncl udes dust,
pai nt parti cl es, di rt, and si l i cates. Gl ass parti cl es
from gl ass bead peeni ng and bl asti ng may al so
be found as contami nants. Gl ass parti cl es are very
undesi rabl e contami nants due to thei r abrasi ve
effect on syntheti c rubber seal s and the very fi ne
surfaces of cri ti cal movi ng parts. Atmospheri c
dust, di rt, pai nt parti cl es, and other materi al s are
often drawn i nto hydraul i c systems from external
sources. For exampl e, the wet pi ston shaft of a
hydr aul i c actuator may dr aw some of these
forei gn materi al s i nto the cyl i nder past the wi per
and dynami c seal s, and the contami nant materi al s
ar e then di sper sed i n the hydr aul i c fl ui d.
Contami nants may al so enter the hydraul i c fl ui d
duri ng mai ntenance when tubi ng, hoses, fi tti ngs,
and components are di sconnected or repl aced. I t
i s therefore i mportant that al l exposed fl ui d ports
be seal ed wi th approved protecti ve cl osures to
mi ni mi ze such contami nati on.
Fluid Contamination
Ai r, water, sol vent, and other forei gn fl ui ds
are i n the cl ass of fl ui d contami nants.
AIR CONTAMINATION. Hydraul i c fl ui ds
are adversel y affected by di ssol ved, entrai ned, or
free ai r. Ai r may be i ntroduced through i mproper
mai ntenance or as a resul t of system desi gn. Any
mai ntenance operati on that i nvol ves breaki ng i nto
the hydraul i c system, such as di sconnecti ng or
removi ng a l i ne or component wi l l i nvari abl y
resul t i n some ai r bei ng i ntroduced i nto the
system. Thi s sour ce of ai r can and must be
mi ni mi zed by prebi l l i ng repl acement components
wi th new fi l tered fl ui d pri or to thei r i nstal l ati on.
Fai l i ng to prefi l l a fi l ter el ement bowl wi th fl ui d
i s a good exampl e of how ai r can be i ntroduced
i nto the system. Al though prebi l l i ng wi l l mi ni mi ze
i ntroducti on of ai r, i t i s sti l l i mportant to vent the
system where venti ng i s possi bl e.
Most hydraul i c systems have bui l t-i n sources
of ai r. Leaky seal s i n gas-pressuri zed accumul ators
and reservoi rs can feed gas i nto a system faster
3-7
than i t can be removed, even wi th the best of
mai ntenance. Another l esser known but major
source of ai r i s ai r that i s sucked i nto the system
past actuator pi ston rod seal s. Thi s usual l y occurs
when the pi ston rod i s stroked by some external
means whi l e the actuator i tsel f i s not pressuri zed.
WATER CONTAMINATION. Water i s a
ser i ous contami nant of hydr aul i c systems.
Hydr aul i c fl ui ds ar e adver sel y affected by
di ssol ved, emul si fi ed, or fr ee water . Water
contami nati on may resul t i n the formati on of i ce,
whi ch i mpedes the operati on of val ves, actuators,
and other movi ng parts. Water can al so cause the
formati on of oxi dati on products and corrosi on
of metal l i c surfaces.
SOLVENT CONTAMINATION. Sol vent
contami nati on i s a speci al form of forei gn fl ui d
contami nati on i n whi ch the ori gi nal contami -
nati ng substance i s a chl ori nated sol vent. Chl ori -
nated sol vents or thei r r esi dues may, when
i ntroduced i nto a hydraul i c system, react wi th any
water present to form hi ghl y corrosi ve aci ds.
Chl ori nated sol vents, when al l owed to com-
bi ne wi th mi nute amounts of water often found
i n operati ng hydraul i c systems, change chemi cal l y
i nto hydrochl ori c aci ds. These aci ds then attack
i nter nal metal l i c sur faces i n the system,
parti cul arl y those that are ferrous, and produce
a severe rust-l i ke corrosi on. NAVAI R 01-1A-17
and NSTM, chapter 556, contai n tabl es of
sol vents for use i n hydraul i c mai ntenance.
FOREIGN-FLUIDS CONTAMINATION.
Hydraul i c systems can be seri ousl y contami nated
by forei gn fl ui ds other than water and chl ori nated
sol vents. Thi s type of contami nati on i s general l y
a resul t of l ube oi l , engi ne fuel , or i ncorrect
hydraul i c fl ui d bei ng i ntroduced i nadvertentl y i nto
the system duri ng servi ci ng. The effects of such
contami nati on depend on the contami nant, the
amount i n the system, and how l ong i t has been
present.
NOTE: I t i s extremel y i mportant that the
di fferent types of hydraul i c fl ui ds are not mi xed
i n one system. I f di fferent type hydraul i c fl ui ds
are mi xed, the characteri sti cs of the fl ui d requi red
for a speci fi c pur pose ar e l ost. Mi xi ng the
di fferent types of fl ui ds usual l y wi l l resul t i n a
heavy, gummy deposi t that wi l l cl og passages and
requi re a major cl eani ng. I n addi ti on, seal s and
packi ng i nstal l ed for use wi th one fl ui d usual l y
are not compati bl e wi th other fl ui ds and damage
to the seal s wi l l resul t.
ORIGIN OF CONTAMINATION
Recal l that contami nants are produced from
wear and chemi cal r eacti ons, i ntr oduced by
i mproper mai ntenance, and i nadvertentl y i ntro-
duced duri ng servi ci ng. These methods of con-
tami nant i ntroducti on fal l i nto one of the four
major areas of contami nant ori gi n.
1. Parti cl es ori gi nal l y contai ned i n the system.
These parti cl es ori gi nate duri ng the fabri cati on
and storage of system components. Wel d spatter
and sl ag may remai n i n wel ded system com-
ponents, especi al l y i n r eser voi r s and pi pe
assembl i es. The presence i s mi ni mi zed by proper
desi gn. For exampl e, seam-wel ded overl appi ng
joi nts are preferred, and arc wel di ng of open
secti ons i s usual l y avoi ded. Hi dden passages i n
val ve bodi es, i naccessi bl e to sand bl asti ng or other
methods of cl eani ng, are the mai n source of
i ntroducti on of core sand. Even the most careful l y
desi gned and cl eaned casti ng wi l l al most i nvari -
abl y free some sand parti cl es under the acti on of
hydraul i c pressure. Rubber hose assembl i es al ways
contai n some l oose par ti cl es. Most of these
parti cl es can be removed by fl ushi ng the hose
befor e i nstal l ati on; however , some par ti cl es
wi thstand cl eani ng and are freed l ater by the
acti on of hydraul i c pressure.
Parti cl es of l i nt from cl eani ng rags can
cause abrasi ve damage i n hydraul i c systems,
especi al l y to cl osel y fi tted movi ng par ts. I n
addi ti on, l i nt i n a hydraul i c system packs easi l y
i nto cl earances between packi ng and contacti ng
sur faces, l eadi ng to component l eakage and
decreased effi ci ency. Li nt al so hel ps cl og fi l ters
pr ematur el y. The use of the pr oper wi pi ng
materi al s wi l l reduce or el i mi nate l i nt contami na-
ti on. The wi pi ng materi al s to be used for a gi ven
appl i cati on wi l l be determi ned by
a.
b.
c.
substances bei ng wi ped or absorbed,
the amount of absorbency requi red,
and/or
the requi red degree of cl eanl i ness.
These wi pi ng mater i al s ar e categor i zed for
contami nati on control by the degree of l i nt or
debri s that they may deposi t duri ng use. For
i nter nal hydr aul i c r epai r s, thi s factor i tsel f
wi l l determi ne the choi ce of wi pi ng materi al .
3-8
NAVAI R 01-1A-17 and NSTM, chapter 556,
provi des i nformati on on l ow-l i nt wi pi ng cl oths.
Rust or corrosi on i ni ti al l y present i n a
hydr aul i c system can usual l y be tr aced to
i mproper storage of materi al s and component
parts. Parti cl es can range i n si ze from l arge fl akes
to abrasi ves of mi croscopi c di mensi ons. Proper
preservati on of stored parts i s hel pful i n el i mi -
nati ng corrosi on.
2. Parti cl es i ntroduced from outsi de sources.
Parti cl es can be i ntroduced i nto hydraul i c systems
at poi nts where ei ther the l i qui d or certai n worki ng
parts of the system (for exampl e, pi ston rods) are
at l east i n temporary contact wi th the atmosphere.
The most common contami nant i ntr oducti on
areas are at the refi l l and breather openi ngs,
cyl i nder rod packi ngs, and open l i nes where
components are removed for repai r or repl ace-
ment. Contami nati on ari si ng from carel essness
duri ng servi ci ng operati ons i s mi ni mi zed by the
use of fi l ters i n the system fi l l l i nes and fi nger
str ai ner s i n the fi l l er adapter of hydr aul i c
reservoi rs. Hydr aul i c cyl i nder pi ston r ods
i ncorporate wi per ri ngs and dust seal s to prevent
the dust that settl es on the pi ston rod duri ng i ts
outward stroke from enteri ng the system when the
pi ston rod retracts. Caps and pl ugs are avai l abl e
and shoul d be used to seal off the open l i nes when
a comp on en t i s r emov ed f or r ep a i r or
repl acement.
3. Parti cl es created wi thi n the system duri ng
operati on. Contami nants created duri ng system
operati on are of two general typesmechani cal
and chemi cal . Parti cl es of a mechani cal nature are
formed by weari ng of parts i n fri cti onal contact,
such as pumps, cyl i nders, and packi ng gl and
components. These wear parti cl es can vary from
l arge chunks of packi ngs down to steel shavi ngs
that are too smal l to be trapped by fi l ters.
The major source of chemi cal contami -
nants i n hydraul i c l i qui d i s oxi dati on. These
contami nants are formed under hi gh pressure and
temperatures and are promoted by the chemi cal
acti on of water and ai r and of metal s l i ke copper
and i ron oxi des. Li qui d-oxi dati on products appear
i ni ti al l y as organi c aci ds, asphal ti nes, gums,
and varni shessometi mes combi ned wi th dust
parti cl es as sl udge. Li qui d-sol ubl e oxi dati on
products tend to i ncrease l i qui d vi scosi ty, whi l e
i nsol ubl e types separate and form sedi ments,
especi al l y on col der el ements such as heat
exchanger coi l s.
Li qui ds contai ni ng anti oxi dants have l i ttl e
tendency to form gums and sl udge under normal
operati ng condi ti ons. However, as the tempera-
ture i ncreases, resi stance to oxi dati on di mi ni shes.
Hydraul i c l i qui ds that have been subjected to
excessi vel y hi gh temperatures (above 250F for
most l i qui ds) wi l l break down, l eavi ng mi nute
parti cl es of asphal ti nes suspended i n the l i qui ds.
The l i qui d changes to brown i n col or and i s
referred to as decomposed l i qui d. Thi s expl ai ns
the i mportance of keepi ng the hydraul i c l i qui d
temperature bel ow speci fi c l evel s.
The second contami nant-produci ng chemi -
cal acti on i n hydraul i c l i qui ds i s one that permi ts
these l i qui ds to react wi th certai n types of rubber.
Thi s reacti on causes structural changes i n the
rubber, turni ng i t bri ttl e, and fi nal l y causi ng i ts
compl ete di si ntegrati on. For thi s reason, the
compati bi l i ty of system l i qui d wi th seal s and hose
materi al i s a very i mportant factor.
4. Parti cl es i ntroduced by forei gn l i qui ds. One
of the most common forei gn-fl ui d contami nants
i s water, especi al l y i n hydraul i c systems that
requi re petrol eum-based l i qui ds. Water, whi ch
enters even the most careful l y desi gned system by
condensati on of atmospheri c moi sture, normal l y
settl es to the bottom of the r eser voi r . Oi l
movement i n the reservoi r di sperses the water i nto
fi ne dr opl ets, and agi tati on of the l i qui d i n
the pump and i n hi gh-speed passages forms an
oi l -water-ai r emul si on. Thi s emul si on normal l y
separates duri ng the rest peri od i n the system
r eser voi r ; but when fi ne dust and cor r osi on
parti cl es are present, the emul si on i s chemi cal l y
changed by hi gh pr essur es i nto sl udge. The
damagi ng acti on of sl udge expl ai ns the need for
effecti ve fi l trati on, as wel l as the need for water
separati on qual i ti es i n hydraul i c l i qui ds.
CONTAMINATION CONTROL
Mai ntai ni ng hydraul i c fl ui d wi thi n al l owabl e
contami nati on l i mi ts for both water and parti cu-
l ate matter i s cruci al to the care and protecti on
of hydraul i c equi pment.
Fi l ters (di scussed i n chapter 9) wi l l provi de
adequate control of the parti cul ar contami nati on
pr obl em dur i ng al l nor mal hydr aul i c system
operati ons i f the fi l trati on system i s i nstal l ed
properl y and fi l ter mai ntenance i s performed
properl y. Fi l ter mai ntenance i ncl udes changi ng
el ements at proper i nterval s. Control of the si ze
and amount of contami nati on enteri ng the system
fr om any other sour ce i s the r esponsi bi l i ty
3-9
of the personnel who servi ce and mai ntai n the
equi pment. Duri ng i nstal l ati on, mai ntenance, and
repai r of hydraul i c equi pment, the retenti on of
cl eanl i ness of the system i s of par amount
i mpor tance for subsequent sati sfactor y per -
for mance.
The fol l owi ng mai ntenance and ser vi ci ng
procedures shoul d be adhered to at al l ti mes to
provi de proper contami nati on control :
1. Al l tool s and the work area (workbenches
and test equi pment) shoul d be kept i n a cl ean,
di rt-free condi ti on.
2. A sui tabl e contai ner shoul d al ways be
provi ded to recei ve the hydraul i c l i qui d that i s
spi l l ed duri ng component removal or di sassembl y.
NOTE: The reuse of drai ned hydraul i c
l i qui d i s prohi bi ted i n most hydraul i c systems. I n
some l arge-capaci ty systems the reuse of fl ui d i s
permi tted. When l i qui d i s drai ned from these
systems for reuse, i t must be stored i n a cl ean and
sui tabl e contai ner. The l i qui d must be strai ned
and/or fi l tered when i t i s returned to the system
r eser voi r .
3. Befor e hydr aul i c l i nes or fi tti ngs ar e
di sconnected, the affected area shoul d be cl eaned
wi th an approved dry-cl eani ng sol vent.
4. Al l hydraul i c l i nes and fi tti ngs shoul d be
capped or pl ugged i mmedi atel y after di scon-
necti on.
5. Befor e any hydr aul i c components ar e
assembl ed, thei r parts shoul d be washed wi th an
approved dry-cl eani ng sol vent.
6. After the par ts have been cl eaned i n
dry-cl eani ng sol vent, they shoul d be dr i ed
thor oughl y wi th cl ean, l ow-l i nt cl oths and
l ubri cated wi th the recommended preservati ve or
hydraul i c l i qui d before assembl y.
NOTE: Onl y cl ean, l ow l i nt type I or I I
cl oths as appropri ate shoul d be used to wi pe or
dry component parts.
7. Al l packi ngs and gaskets shoul d be repl aced
duri ng the assembl y procedures.
8. Al l parts shoul d be connected wi th care to
avoi d stri ppi ng metal sl i vers from threaded areas.
Al l fi tti ngs and l i nes shoul d be i nstal l ed and
tor qued accor di ng to appl i cabl e techni cal
i nstr ucti ons.
9. Al l hydraul i c servi ci ng equi pment shoul d
be kept cl ean and i n good operati ng condi ti on.
Some hydraul i c fl ui d speci fi cati ons, such as
MI L-H-6083, MI L-H-46170, and MI L-H-83282,
contai n parti cl e contami nati on l i mi ts that are so
l ow that the products are packaged under cl ean
room condi ti ons. Very sl i ght amounts of di rt,
rust, and metal parti cl es wi l l cause them to
fai l the speci fi cati on l i mi t for contami nati on.
Si nce these fl ui ds are usual l y al l packaged i n
hermeti cal l y seal ed contai ners, the act of openi ng
a contai ner may al l ow more contami nants i nto the
fl ui d than the speci fi cati on al l ows. Therefore,
extreme care shoul d be taken i n the handl i ng of
these fl ui ds. I n openi ng the contai ner for use,
observati on, or tests, i t i s extremel y i mportant that
the can be opened and handl ed i n a cl ean
envi ronment. The area of the contai ner to be
opened shoul d be fl ushed wi th fi l tered sol vent
(petrol eum ether or i sopropyl al cohol ), and the
devi ce used for openi ng the contai ner shoul d be
thoroughl y ri nsed wi th fi l tered sol vent. After the
contai ner i s opened, a smal l amount of the
materi al shoul d be poured from the contai ner and
di sposed of pr i or to pour i ng the sampl e for
anal ysi s. Once a contai ner i s opened, i f the
contents are not total l y used, the unused porti on
shoul d be di scarded. Si nce the l evel of con-
tami nati on of a system contai ni ng these fl ui ds
must be kept l ow, mai ntenance on the systems
components must be per for med i n a cl ean
envi ronment commonl y known as a control l ed
envi ronment work center. Speci fi c i nformati on
about the control l ed envi ronment work center can
be found i n the Aviation Hydraulics Manual,
NAVAI R 01-1A-17.
HYDRAULIC FLUID SAMPLING
The condi ti on of a hydraul i c system, as wel l
as i ts probabl e future performance, can best be
determi ned by anal yzi ng the operati ng fl ui d. Of
parti cul ar i nterest are any changes i n the physi cal
and chemi cal properti es of the fl ui d and excessi ve
parti cul ate or water contami nati on, ei ther of
whi ch i ndi cates i mpendi ng troubl e.
Excessi ve parti cul ate contami nati on of the
fl ui d i ndi cates that the fi l ters are not keepi ng the
system cl ean. Thi s can resul t from i mproper fi l ter
mai ntenance, i nadequate fi l ters, or excessi ve
ongoi ng corrosi on and wear.
Oper ati ng equi pment shoul d be sampl ed
accordi ng to i nstructi ons gi ven i n the operati ng
3-10
and mai ntenance manual for the par ti cul ar
equi pment or as di rected by the MRCs.
1. Al l sampl es shoul d be taken from ci rcu-
l ati ng systems, or i mmedi atel y upon shutdown,
whi l e the hydraul i c fl ui d i s wi thi n 5C (9F) of
normal system operati ng temperature. Systems
not up to temperature may provi de nonrepre-
sentati ve sampl es of system di r t and water
content, and such sampl es shoul d ei ther be
avoi ded or so i ndi cated on the anal ysi s report. The
fi rst oi l comi ng from the sampl i ng poi nt shoul d
be di scarded, si nce i t can be very di rty and does
not represent the system. As a general rul e, a
vol ume of oi l equi val ent to one to two ti mes the
vol ume of oi l contai ned i n the sampl i ng l i ne and
val ve shoul d be drai ned before the sampl e i s
taken.
2. I deal l y, the sampl e shoul d be taken from
a val ve i nstal l ed speci fi cal l y for sampl i ng. When
sampl i ng val ves are not i nstal l ed, the taki ng of
sampl es from l ocati ons where sedi ment or water
can col l ect, such as dead ends of pi pi ng, tank
drai ns, and l ow poi nts of l arge pi pes and fi l ter
bowl s, shoul d be avoi ded i f possi bl e. I f sampl es
are taken from pi pe drai ns, suffi ci ent fl ui d shoul d
be drai ned before the sampl e i s taken to ensure
that the sampl e actual l y represents the system.
Sampl es are not to be taken from the tops of
reservoi rs or other l ocati ons where the contami -
nati on l evel s are normal l y l ow.
3. Unl ess otherwi se speci fi ed, a mi ni mum of
one sampl e shoul d be taken for each system
l ocated whol l y wi thi n one compar tment. For
shi ps systems extendi ng i nto two or mor e
compartments, a second sampl e i s requi red. An
excepti on to thi s r equi r ement i s submar i ne
external hydraul i c systems, whi ch requi re onl y one
sampl e. Ori gi nal sampl e poi nts shoul d be l abel ed
and the same sampl e poi nts used for successi ve
sampl i ng. I f possi bl e, the fol l owi ng sampl i ng
l ocati ons shoul d be sel ected:
a. A l ocati on that provi des a sampl e
representati ve of fl ui d bei ng suppl i ed
to system components
b. A return l i ne as cl ose to the suppl y tank
as practi cal but upstream of any return
l i ne fi l ter
c. For systems requi ri ng a second sampl e,
a l ocati on as far from the pump as
practi cal
Operati on of the sampl i ng poi nt shoul d not
i ntroduce any si gni fi cant amount of external
contami nants i nto the col l ected fl ui d. Addi ti onal
i nformati on on hydraul i c fl ui d sampl i ng can be
found i n NAVAI R 01-1A-17.
Most fl ui d sampl es are submi tted to shore
l aboratori es for anal ysi s. NAVAI R 17-15-50-1
and NSTM, chapter 556, contai n detai l s on
col l ecti ng, l abel i ng, and shi ppi ng sampl es.
NAVAI R 01-1A-17 contai ns procedures for
uni t l evel , both aboard shi p and ashore, testi ng
of avi ati on hydraul i c fl ui ds for water, parti cul ate,
and chl ori nated sol vent contami nati on.
3-11
CHAPTER 4
PUMPS
Pumps are used for some essenti al servi ces i n
the Navy. Pumps suppl y water to the boi l ers, draw
condensati on from the condensers, suppl y sea
water to the fi remai n, ci rcul ate cool i ng water for
cool ers and condensers, pump out bi l ges, transfer
fuel , suppl y water to the di sti l l i ng pl ants, and
serve many other purposes. Al though the pumps
di scussed i n thi s chapter are used pri mari l y i n
hydraul i c systems, the pri nci pl es of operati on
appl y as wel l to the pumps used i n other systems.
PURPOSE
The purpose of a hydraul i c pump i s to suppl y
a fl ow of fl ui d to a hydraul i c system. The pump
does not create system pressure, si nce pressure can
be created onl y by a resi stance to the fl ow. As the
pump provi des fl ow, i t transmi ts a force to the
fl ui d. As the fl ui d fl ow encounters resi stance, thi s
force i s changed i nto a pressure. Resi stance to
fl ow i s the resul t of a restri cti on or obstructi on
i n the path of the fl ow. Thi s restri cti on i s normal l y
the work accompl i shed by the hydraul i c system,
but can al so be restri cti ons of l i nes, fi tti ngs, and
val ves wi thi n the system. Thus, the pressure i s
control l ed by the l oad i mposed on the system or
the acti on of a pressure-regul ati ng devi ce.
OPERATION
A pump must have a conti nuous suppl y of
fl ui d avai l abl e to the i nl et port to suppl y fl ui d to
the system. As the pump forces fl ui d through the
outl et port, a parti al vacuum or l ow-pressure area
i s created at the i nl et port. When the pressure at
the i nl et port of the pump i s l ower than the l ocal
atmospheri c pressure, atmospheri c pressure acti ng
on the fl ui d i n the reservoi r forces the fl ui d i nto
the pumps i nl et. I f the pump i s l ocated at
a l evel l ower than the reservoi r, the force of
gravi ty suppl ements atmospheri c pressure on the
reservoi r. Ai rcraft and mi ssi l es that operate at
hi gh al ti tudes are equi pped wi th pressuri zed
hydr aul i c r eser voi r s to compensate for l ow
atmospher i c pr essur e encounter ed at hi gh
al ti tudes.
PERFORMANCE
Pumps are normal l y rated by thei r vol umetri c
output and pressure. Vol umetri c output i s the
amount of fl ui d a pump can del i ver to i ts outl et
port i n a certai n peri od of ti me at a gi ven speed.
Vol umetri c output i s usual l y expressed i n gal l ons
per mi nute (gpm). Si nce changes i n pump speed
affect vol umetri c output, some pumps are rated
by thei r di spl acement. Pump di spl acement i s the
amount of fl ui d the pump can del i ver per cycl e.
Si nce most pumps use a rotary dri ve, di spl acement
i s usual l y expressed i n terms of cubi c i nches per
revol uti on.
As we stated previ ousl y, a pump does not
create pressure. However, the pressure devel oped
by the restri cti ons i n the system i s a factor that
affects the vol umetri c output of the pump. As the
system pressure i ncreases, the vol umetri c output
decreases. Thi s drop i n vol umetri c output i s the
resul t of an i ncrease i n the amount of i nternal
l eakage from the outl et si de to the i nl et si de of
the pump. Thi s l eakage i s referred to as pump
sl i ppage and i s a factor that must be consi dered
i n al l pumps. Thi s expl ai ns why most pumps are
rated i n terms of vol umetri c output at a gi ven
pressure.
CLASSIFICATION OF PUMPS
Many di fferent methods are used to cl assi fy
pumps. Terms such as nonpositive displacement,
posi ti ve di spl acement, fi xed di spl acement,
variable displacement, fixed delivery, variable
delivery, constant volume, and others are used to
descri be pumps. The fi rst two of these terms
descri be the fundamental di vi si on of pumps; that
4-1
i s, al l pumps are ei ther nonposi ti ve di spl acement
or posi ti ve di spl acement.
Basi cal l y, pumps that di scharge l i qui d i n a
conti nuous fl ow are referred to as nonposi ti ve
di spl acement, and those that di scharge vol umes
separated by a peri od of no di scharge are referred
to as posi ti ve di spl acement.
Al though the nonposi ti ve-di spl acement pump
normal l y produces a conti nuous fl ow, i t does not
provi de a posi ti ve seal agai nst sl i ppage; therefore,
the output of the pump vari es as system pressure
var i es. I n other wor ds, the vol ume of fl ui d
del i vered for each cycl e depends on the resi stance
to the fl ow. Thi s type of pump produces a force
on the fl ui d that i s constant for each parti cul ar
speed of the pump. Resi stance i n the di scharge
l i ne produces a force i n a di recti on opposi te the
di recti on of the force produced by the pump.
When these forces are equal , the fl ui d i s i n a state
of equi l i bri um and does not fl ow.
I f the outl et of a nonposi ti ve-di spl acement
pump i s compl etel y cl osed, the di scharge pressure
wi l l i ncrease to the maxi mum for that parti cul ar
pump at a speci fi c speed. Nothi ng more wi l l
happen except that the pump wi l l churn the fl ui d
and produce heat.
I n contrast to the nonposi ti ve-di spl acement
pump, the posi ti ve-di spl acement pump provi des
a posi ti ve i nternal seal agai nst sl i ppage. Therefore,
thi s type of pump del i vers a defi ni te vol ume of
fl ui d for each cycl e of pump operati on, regardl ess
of the resi stance offered, provi ded the capaci ty
of the power uni t dr i vi ng the pump i s not
exceeded. I f the outl et of a posi ti ve-di spl acement
pump were compl etel y cl osed, the pressure woul d
i nstantaneousl y i ncrease to the poi nt at whi ch the
uni t dri vi ng the pump woul d stal l or somethi ng
woul d break.
Posi ti ve-di spl acement pumps ar e fur ther
cl assi fi ed as fi xed di spl acement or var i abl e
di spl acement. The fi xed-di spl acement pump
del i vers the same amount of fl ui d on each cycl e.
The output vol ume can be changed onl y by
changi ng the speed of the pump. When a pump
of thi s type i s used i n a hydraul i c system, a
pressure regul ator (unl oadi ng val ve) must be
i ncorporated i n the system. A pressure regul ator
or unl oadi ng val ve i s used i n a hydraul i c system
to control the amount of pressure i n the system
and to unl oad or rel i eve the pump when the
desi red pressure i s reached. Thi s acti on of a
pressure regul ator keeps the pump from worki ng
agai nst a l oad when the hydraul i c system i s at
maxi mum pressure and not functi oni ng. Duri ng
thi s ti me the pressure regul ator bypasses the fl ui d
from the pump back to the reservoi r. (See chapter
6 for mor e detai l ed i nfor mati on concer ni ng
pressure regul ators.) The pump conti nues to
del i ver a fi xed vol ume of fl ui d duri ng each cycl e.
Such terms as fixed delivery, constant delivery,
and constant volume are al l used to i denti fy the
fi xed-di spl acement pump.
The var i abl e-di spl acement pump i s con-
structed so that the di spl acement per cycl e can be
vari ed. The di spl acement i s vari ed through the use
of an i nternal control l i ng devi ce. Some of these
control l i ng devi ces are descri bed l ater i n thi s
chapter.
Pumps may al so be cl assi fi ed accordi ng to the
speci fi c desi gn used to create the fl ow of fl ui d.
Practi cal l y al l hydraul i c pumps fal l wi thi n three
desi gn cl assi fi cati ons-centr i fugal , r otar y, and
reci procati ng. The use of centri fugal pumps i n
hydraul i cs i s l i mi ted and wi l l not be di scussed i n
thi s text.
ROTARY PUMPS
Al l rotary pumps have rotati ng parts whi ch
trap the fl ui d at the i nl et (sucti on) port and force
i t through the di scharge port i nto the system.
Gears, screws, l obes, and vanes are commonl y
used to move the fl ui d. Rotary pumps are posi ti ve
di spl acement of the fi xed di spl acement type.
Rotary pumps are desi gned wi th very smal l
cl earances between rotati ng parts and stati onary
parts to mi ni mi ze sl i ppage from the di scharge
si de back to the sucti on si de. They are desi gned
to oper ate at r el ati vel y moder ate speeds.
Operati ng at hi gh speeds causes erosi on and
excessi ve wear whi ch r esul ts i n i ncr eased
cl earances.
There are numerous types of rotary pumps
and vari ous methods of cl assi fi cati on. They may
be cl assi fi ed by the shaft posi ti onei ther
verti cal l y or hori zontal l y mounted; the type of
dri veel ectri c motor, gasol i ne engi ne, and so
forth; thei r manufacturers name; or thei r servi ce
appl i cati on. However, cl assi fi cati on of rotary
pumps i s general l y made accordi ng to the type of
rotati ng el ement. A few of the most common
types of r otar y pumps ar e di scussed i n the
fol l owi ng paragraphs.
GEAR PUMPS
Gear pumps are cl assi fi ed as ei ther external
or i nternal gear pumps. I n external gear pumps
the teeth of both gears project outward from thei r
4-2
centers (fi g, 4-1). External pumps may use spur
gears, herri ngbone gears, or hel i cal gears to move
the fl ui d. I n an i nternal gear pump, the teeth of
one gear project outward, but the teeth of the
other gear project i nward toward the center of the
pump (fi g. 4-2, vi ew A). I nternal gear pumps may
be ei ther centered or off-centered.
Spur Gear Pump
The spur gear pump (fi g. 4-1) consi sts of two
meshed gears whi ch revol ve i n a housi ng. The
dri ve gear i n the i l l ustrati on i s turned by a dri ve
shaft whi ch i s attached to the power source. The
cl earances between the gear teeth as they mesh and
between the teeth and the pump housi ng are very
smal l .
The i nl et port i s connected to the fl ui d suppl y
l i ne, and the outl et port i s connected to the
pressure l i ne. I n fi gure 4-1 the dri ve gear i s turni ng
i n a countercl ockwi se di recti on, and the dri ven
(i dl e) gear i s turni ng i n a cl ockwi se di recti on. As
Figure 4-2.Off-centered internal gear pump.
the teeth pass the i nl et port, l i qui d i s trapped
between the teeth and the housi ng. Thi s l i qui d i s
carri ed around the housi ng to the outl et port. As
the teeth mesh agai n, the l i qui d between the teeth
i s pushed i nto the outl et por t. Thi s acti on
produces a posi ti ve fl ow of l i qui d i nto the system.
A shearpi n or shear secti on i s i ncorporated i n the
dri ve shaft. Thi s i s to protect the power source
Figure 4-1.Gear-type rotary pump.
4-3
or reducti on gears i f the pump fai l s because of
i s pumped i n the same manner as i n the spur gear
excessi ve l oad or jammi ng of parts.
pump. However, i n the herri ngbone pump, each
set of teeth begi ns i ts fl ui d di scharge phase before
the pr evi ous set of teeth has compl eted i ts
Herringbone Gear Pump
di scharge phase. Thi s over l appi ng and the
rel ati vel y l arger space at the center of the gears
The herri ngbone gear pump (fi g. 4-3) i s a
tend to mi ni mi ze pul sati ons and gi ve a steadi er
modi fi cati on of the spur gear pump. The l i qui d
fl ow than the spur gear pump.
Figure 4-3.Herringbone gear pump.
4-4
He lic al Ge ar Pump
The helical gear pump (fig. 4-4) is still
another modification of the spur gear pump.
Because of the helical gear design, the
overlapping of successive discharges from
spaces between the teeth is even greater than it
is in the herringbone gear pump; therefore, the
discharge flow is smoother. Since the discharge
flow is smooth in the helical pump, the gears
can be designed with a small number of large
teeththus allowing increased capacity without
sacrificing smoothness of flow.
The pumping gears of this type of pump are
driven by a set of timing and driving gears that
help maintain the required close clearances
without actual metallic contact of the pumping
gears. (Metallic contact between the teeth of the
pumping gears would provide a tighter seal
against slippage; however, it would cause rapid
wear of the teeth, because foreign matter in the
liquid would be present on the contact
surfaces.)
Roller bearings at both ends of the gear shafts
maintain proper alignment and minimize the
friction loss in the transmission of power. Suitable
packings are used to prevent leakage around the
shaft.
Off-c e nt e re d Int e rnal Ge ar Pump
This pump is illustrated in figure 4-2, view B.
The drive gear is attached directly to the drive shaft
of the pump and is placed off-center in relation to
the internal gear. The two gears mesh on one side
of the pump, between the suction (inlet) and
discharge ports. On the opposite side of the
chamber, a crescent-shaped form fitted to a close
tolerance fills the space between the two gears.
The rotation of the center gear by the drive
shaft causes the outside gear to rotate, since the
two are meshed. Everything in the chamber rotates
except the crescent. This causes liquid to be
trapped in the gear spaces as they pass the
crescent. The liquid is carried from the suction port
to the discharge port where it is forced out of the
pump by the meshing of the gears. The size of the
crescent that separates the internal and external
gears determines the volume delivery of the pump.
A small crescent allows more volume of liquid per
revolution than a larger crescent.
Figure 4 -4 . He lic al ge ar pump.
4 -5
Centered Internal Gear Pump
Another desi gn of i nter nal gear pump i s
i l l ustrated i n fi gures 4-5 and 4-6. Thi s pump
consi sts of a pai r of gear-shaped el ements, one
wi thi n the other, l ocated i n the pump chamber.
The i nner gear i s connected to the dri ve shaft of
the power source.
The operati on of thi s type of i nternal gear
pump i s i l l ustrated i n fi gure 4-6. To si mpl i fy the
expl anati on, the teeth of the i nner gear and the
spaces between the teeth of the outer gear are
numbered. Note that the i nner gear has one l ess
tooth than the outer gear. The tooth form of each
gear i s rel ated to that of the other i n such a way
that each tooth of the i nner gear i s al ways i n
sl i di ng contact wi th the surface of the outer gear.
Each tooth of the i nner gear meshes wi th the outer
gear at just one poi nt duri ng each revol uti on. I n
the i l l ustrati on, thi s poi nt i s at the X. I n vi ew A,
tooth 1 of the i nner gear i s meshed wi th space 1
of the outer gear. As the gears conti nue to rotate
i n a cl ockwi se di recti on and the teeth approach
poi nt X, tooth 6 of the i nner gear wi l l mesh wi th
space 7 of the outer gear, tooth 5 wi th space 6,
and so on. Duri ng thi s revol uti on, tooth 1 wi l l
mesh wi th space 2; and duri ng the fol l owi ng
revol uti on, tooth 1 wi l l mesh wi th space 3. As a
resul t, the outer gear wi l l rotate at just si x-sevenths
the speed of the i nner gear.
At one si de of the poi nt of mesh, pockets of
i ncreasi ng si ze are formed as the gears rotate,
whi l e on the other si de the pockets decrease i n si ze.
I n fi gure 4-6, the pockets on the ri ght-hand si de
of the drawi ngs are i ncreasi ng i n si ze toward the
bottom of the i l l ustrati on, whi l e those on the
l eft-hand si de are decreasi ng i n si ze toward the
top of the i l l ustr ati on. The i ntak e si de of
the pump woul d therefore be on the ri ght and the
di scharge si de on the l eft. I n fi gure 4-5, si nce the
ri ght-hand si de of the drawi ng was turned over
to show the ports, the i ntake and di scharge appear
Figure 4-5.Centered internal gear pump.
Figure 4-6.Principles of operation of the internal gear
pump.
reversed. Actual l y, A i n one drawi ng covers A i n
the other.
LOBE PUMP
The l obe
operati on as
pump uses the same pri nci pl e of
the external gear pump descri bed
4-6
Figure 4-7.Lobe pump.
previ ousl y. The l obes are consi derabl y l arger than
gear teeth, but there are onl y two or three l obes
on each rotor. A three-l obe pump i s i l l ustrated
i n fi gure 4-7. The two el ements are rotated, one
di rectl y dri ven by the source of power, and the
other through ti mi ng gears. As the el ements
rotate, l i qui d i s trapped between two l obes of each
rotor and the wal l s of the pump chamber and
car r i ed ar ound fr om the sucti on si de to the
di scharge si de of the pump. As l i qui d l eaves the
sucti on chamber, the pressure i n the sucti on
chamber i s l owered, and addi ti onal l i qui d i s forced
i nto the chamber from the reservoi r.
The l obes ar e constr ucted so ther e i s a
conti nuous seal at the poi nts where they meet at
the center of the pump. The l obes of the pump
i l l ustrated i n fi gure 4-7 are fi tted wi th smal l vanes
at the outer edge to i mprove the seal of the pump.
Al though these vanes are mechani cal l y hel d i n
thei r sl ots, they are, to some extent, free to move
outward. Centri fugal force keeps the vanes snug
agai nst the chamber and the other r otati ng
members.
SCREW PUMP
Screw pumps for power transmi ssi on systems
are general l y used onl y on submari nes. Al though
l ow i n effi ci ency and expensi ve, the screw pump
i s sui tabl e for hi gh pressures (3000 psi ), and
del i ver s fl ui d wi th l i ttl e noi se or pr essur e
pul sati on.
Screw pumps are avai l abl e i n several di fferent
desi gns; however, they al l operate i n a si mi l ar
manner. I n a fi xed-di spl acement rotary-type screw
pump (fi g. 4-8, vi ew A), fl ui d i s propel l ed axi al l y
Figure 4-8.Screw pumps.
4-7
i n a constant, uni form fl ow through the acti on
of just three movi ng parts-a power rotor and two
i dl er rotors. The power rotor i s the onl y dri ven
el ement, extendi ng outsi de the pump casi ng for
power connecti ons to an el ectri cal motor. The
i dl er rotors are turned by the power rotor through
the acti on of the meshi ng threads. The fl ui d
pumped between the meshi ng hel i cal threads of
the i dl er and power rotors provi des a protecti ve
fi l m to prevent metal -to-metal contact. The i dl er
rotors perform no work; therefore, they do not
need to be connected by gears to transmi t power.
The encl osures formed by the meshi ng of the
rotors i nsi de the cl ose cl earance housi ng contai n
the fl ui d bei ng pumped. As the rotors turn, these
encl osures move axi al l y, provi di ng a conti nuous
fl ow. Effecti ve per for mance i s based on the
fol l owi ng factors:
1. The rol l i ng acti on obtai ned wi th the thread
desi gn of the rotors i s responsi bl e for the very
qui et pump operati on. The symmetri cal pressure
l oadi ng around the power rotor el i mi nates the
need for radi al beari ngs because there are no
radi al l oads. The cartri dge-type bal l beari ng i n the
pump posi ti ons the power rotor for proper seal
operati on. The axi al l oads on the rotors created
by di scharge pressure are hydraul i cal l y bal anced.
2. The key to screw pump performance i s the
operati on of the i dl er rotors i n thei r housi ng
bores. The i dl er rotors generate a hydrodynami c
fi l m to support themsel ves i n thei r bores l i ke
journal beari ngs. Si nce thi s fi l m i s sel f-generated,
i t depends on three operati ng characteri sti cs of
the pumpspeed, di scharge pressure, and fl ui d
vi scosi ty. The strength of the fi l m i s i ncreased by
i ncreasi ng the operati ng speed, by decreasi ng
pressure, or by i ncreasi ng the fl ui d vi scosi ty. Thi s
i s why screw pump performance capabi l i ti es are
based on pump speed, di scharge pressure, and
fl ui d vi scosi ty.
The suppl y l i ne i s connected at the center of
the pump housi ng i n some pumps (fi g. 4-8, vi ew
B). Fl ui d enters i nto the pumps sucti on port,
whi ch opens i nto chambers at the ends of the
screw assembl y. As the screws turn, the fl ui d fl ows
between the threads at each end of the assembl y.
The threads carry the fl ui d al ong wi thi n the
housi ng toward the center of the pump to the
di scharge port.
VANE PUMP
Vane-type hydraul i c pumps general l y have
ci rcul arl y or el l i pti cal l y shaped i nteri or and fl at
end pl ates. (Fi gure 4-9 i l l ustrates a vane pump
wi th a ci rcul ar i nteri or.) A sl otted rotor i s fi xed
to a shaft that enters the housi ng cavi ty through
one of the end pl ates. A number of smal l
rectangul ar pl ates or vanes are set i nto the sl ots
of the rotor. As the rotor turns, centri fugal force
causes the outer edge of each vane to sl i de al ong
the surface of the housi ng cavi ty as the vanes sl i de
i n and out of the rotor sl ots. The numerous
cavi ti es, formed by the vanes, the end pl ates, the
housi ng, and the rotor, enl arge and shri nk as the
rotor and vane assembl y rotates. An i nl et port i s
i nstal l ed i n the housi ng so fl ui d may fl ow i nto the
cavi ti es as they enl arge. An outl et port i s provi ded
to al l ow the fl ui d to fl ow out of the cavi ti es as
they become smal l .
The pump shown i n fi gure 4-9 i s referred to
as an unbal anced pump because al l of the
pumpi ng acti on takes pl ace on one si de of the
rotor. Thi s causes a si de l oad on the rotor. Some
vane pumps are constructed wi th an el l i pti cal l y
shaped housi ng that forms two separate pumpi ng
areas on opposi te si des of the rotor. Thi s cancel s
out the si de l oads; such pumps are referred to as
bal anced vane.
Usual l y vane pumps are fi xed di spl acement
and pump onl y i n one di r ecti on. Ther e ar e,
however , some desi gns of vane pumps that
provi de vari abl e fl ow. Vane pumps are general l y
restri cted to servi ce where pressure demand does
not exceed 2000 psi . Wear rates, vi brati on, and
noi se l evel s i ncrease rapi dl y i n vane pumps as
pressure demands exceed 2000 psi .
RECIPROCATING PUMPS
The term reciprocating i s defi ned as back-and-
forth moti on. I n the reci procati ng pump i t i s thi s
Figure 4-9.Vane pump.
4-8
back -and-for th moti on of pi stons i nsi de of
cyl i nders that provi des the fl ow of fl ui d. Reci pro-
cati ng pumps, l i ke rotary pumps, operate on
the posi ti ve pr i nci pl ethat i s, each str oke
del i ver s a defi ni te vol ume of l i qui d to the
system.
The master cyl i nder of the automobi l e brake
system, whi ch i s descri bed and i l l ustrated i n
chapter 2, i s an exampl e of a si mpl e reci procati ng
pump. Several types of power-operated hydraul i c
pumps, such as the radi al pi ston and axi al pi ston,
are al so cl assi fi ed as reci procati ng pumps. These
pumps are someti mes cl assi fi ed as rotary pumps,
because a rotary moti on i s i mparted to the pumps
by the source of power. However, the actual
pumpi ng i s performed by sets of pi stons reci pro-
cati ng i nsi de sets of cyl i nders.
HAND PUMPS
There are two types of manual l y operated
r eci pr ocati ng pumpsthe si ngl e-acti on and
the doubl e-acti on. The si ngl e-acti on pump
provi des fl ow duri ng every other stroke, whi l e the
doubl e-acti on provi des fl ow duri ng each stroke.
Si ngl e-acti on pumps ar e fr equentl y used i n
hydraul i c jacks.
A doubl e-acti on hand pump i s i l l ustrated i n
fi gure 4-10. Thi s type of pump i s used i n some
ai rcraft hydraul i c systems as a source of hydraul i c
power for emer genci es, for testi ng cer tai n
subsystems dur i ng pr eventi ve mai ntenance
i nspecti ons, and for determi ni ng the causes of
mal functi ons i n these subsystems.
Thi s pump (fi g. 4-10) consi sts of a cyl i nder,
a pi ston contai ni ng a bui l t-i n check val ve (A), a
pi ston rod, an operati ng handl e, and a check val ve
(B) at the i nl et port. When the pi ston i s moved
Figure 4-10.Hydraulic hand pump.
to the l eft, the force of the l i qui d i n the outl et
chamber and spri ng tensi on cause val ve A to cl ose.
Thi s movement causes the pi ston to force the
l i qui d i n the outl et chamber through the outl et
por t and i nto the system. Thi s same pi ston
movement causes a l ow-pressure area i n the i nl et
chamber. The di fference i n pressure between the
i nl et chamber and the l i qui d (at atmospheri c
pressure) i n the reservi or acti ng on check val ve
B causes i ts spri ng to compress; thus, openi ng the
check val ve. Thi s al l ows l i qui d to enter the i nl et
chamber.
When the pi ston compl etes thi s stroke to the
l eft, the i nl et chamber i s ful l of l i qui d. Thi s
el i mi nates the pressure di fference between the i nl et
chamber and the r eser vi or , ther eby al l owi ng
spri ng tensi on to cl ose check val ve B.
When the pi ston i s moved to the ri ght, the
force of the confi ned l i qui d i n the i nl et chamber
acts on check val ve A. Thi s acti on compresses
the spr i ng and opens check val ve A whi ch
al l ows the l i qui d to fl ow fr om the i ntak e
chamber to the outl et chamber. Because of the
ar ea occupi ed by the pi ston r od, the outl et
chamber cannot contai n al l the l i qui d di scharged
from the i nl et chamber. Si nce l i qui ds do not
compress, the extra l i qui d i s forced out of the
outl et port i nto the system.
PISTON PUMPS
Pi ston pumps ar e made i n a var i ety of
types and confi gurati ons. A basi c di sti ncti on
i s made between axi al and radi al pumps. The
axi al pi ston pump has the cyl i nders paral l el
to each other and the dri ve shaft. The radi al
pi ston desi gn has the cyl i nder s extendi ng
r adi al l y outwar d fr om the dr i ve shaft l i ke
the spokes of a wheel . A fur ther di sti ncti on
i s made between pumps that provi de a fi xed
del i very and those abl e to vary the fl ow of the
fl ui d. Vari abl e del i very pumps can be further
di vi ded i nto those abl e to pump fl ui d from zero
to ful l del i very i n one di recti on of fl ow and those
abl e to pump from zero the ful l del i very i n ei ther
di recti on.
Al l pi ston pumps used i n Navy shi pboard
systems have the cyl i nders bored i n a cyl i nder
bl ock that i s mounted on bear i ngs wi thi n a
housi ng. Thi s cyl i nder bl ock assembl y rotates wi th
the pump dri ve shaft.
4-9
Radial Piston Pumps
Fi gure 4-11 i l l ustrates the operati on of the
radi al pi ston pump. The pump consi sts of a pi ntl e,
whi ch remai ns stati onary and acts as a val ve; a
Figure 4-11.Principles of operation of the radial piston
pump.
cyl i nder bl ock, whi ch revol ves around the pi ntl e
and contai ns the cyl i nders i n whi ch the pi stons
operate; a rotor, whi ch houses the reacti on ri ng
of hardened steel agai nst whi ch the pi ston heads
press; and a sl i de bl ock, whi ch i s used to control
the l ength of the pi ston strokes. The sl i de bl ock
does not revol ve but houses and supports the
rotor, whi ch does revol ve due to the fri cti on set
up by the sl i di ng acti on between the pi ston heads
and the r eacti on r i ng. The cyl i nder bl ock i s
attached to the dri ve shaft.
Referri ng to vi ew A of fi gure 4-11, assume that
space X i n one of the cyl i nders of the cyl i nder
bl ock contai ns l i qui d and that the respecti ve pi ston
of thi s cyl i nder i s at posi ti on 1. When the cyl i nder
bl ock and pi ston ar e r otated i n a cl ockwi se
di recti on, the pi ston i s forced i nto i ts cyl i nder as
i t approaches posi ti on 2. Thi s acti on reduces the
vol umetr i c si ze of the cyl i nder and for ces a
quanti ty of l i qui d out of the cyl i nder and i nto the
outl et port above the pi ntl e. Thi s pumpi ng acti on
i s due to the rotor bei ng off-center i n rel ati on to
the center of the cyl i nder bl ock.
I n fi gure 4-11 vi ew B, the pi ston has reached
posi ti on 2 and has forced the l i qui d out of the
open end of the cyl i nder through the outl et above
the pi ntl e and i nto the system. Whi l e the pi ston
moves from posi ti on 2 to posi ti on 3, the open end
of the cyl i nder passes over the sol i d part of the
pi ntl e; therefore, there i s no i ntake or di scharge
of l i qui d duri ng thi s ti me. As the pi ston and
cyl i nder move from posi ti on 3 to posi ti on 4,
centr i fugal for ce causes the pi ston to move
outward agai nst the reacti on ri ng of the rotor.
Duri ng thi s ti me the open end of the cyl i nder i s
open to the i ntake si de of the pi ntl e and, therefore,
fi l l s wi th l i qui d. As the pi ston moves fr om
posi ti on 4 to posi ti on 1, the open end of the
cyl i nder i s agai nst the sol i d si de of the pi ntl e and
no i ntake or di scharge of l i qui d takes pl ace. After
the pi ston has passed the pi ntl e and starts toward
posi ti on 2, another di scharge of l i qui d takes pl ace.
Al ternate i ntake and di scharge conti nues as the
rotor revol ves about i ts axi s-i ntake on one si de
of the pi ntl e and di scharge on the other, as the
pi ston sl i des i n and out.
Noti ce i n vi ews A and B of fi gure 4-11 that
the center poi nt of the rotor i s di fferent from the
center poi nt of the cyl i nder bl ock. The di fference
of these centers produces the pumpi ng acti on. I f
the rotor i s moved so that i ts center poi nt i s the
same as that of the cyl i nder bl ock, as shown i n
fi gure 4-11, vi ew C, there i s no pumpi ng acti on,
si nce the pi ston does not move back and forth i n
the cyl i nder as i t rotates wi th the cyl i nder bl ock.
4-10
The fl ow i n thi s pump can be reversed by
movi ng the sl i de bl ock, and therefore the rotor,
to the ri ght so the rel ati on of the centers of the
rotor and the cyl i nder bl ock i s reversed from the
posi ti on shown i n vi ews A and B of fi gure 4-11.
Vi ew D shows thi s arrangement. Li qui d enters the
cyl i nder as the pi ston travel s from posi ti on 1 to
posi ti on 2 and i s di scharged from the cyl i nder as
the pi ston travel s from posi ti on 3 to 4.
I n the i l l ustrati ons the rotor i s shown i n the
center, the extreme ri ght, or the extreme l eft i n
rel ati on to the cyl i nder bl ock. The amount of
adjustment i n di stance between the two centers
determi nes the l ength of the pi ston stroke, whi ch
control s the amount of l i qui d fl ow i n and out of
the cyl i nder. Thus, thi s adjustment determi nes the
di spl acement of the pump; that i s, the vol ume of
l i qui d the pump del i vers per revol uti on. Thi s
adjustment may be control l ed i n di fferent ways.
Manual control by a handwheel i s the si mpl est.
The pump i l l ustrated i n fi gure 4-11 i s control l ed
i n thi s way. For automati c control of del i very
to accommodate varyi ng vol ume requi rements
dur i ng the oper ati ng cycl e, a hydr aul i cal l y
control l ed cyl i nder may be used to posi ti on the
sl i de bl ock. A gear-motor control l ed by a push
button or a l i mi t swi tch i s someti mes used for thi s
purpose.
Fi gure 4-11 i s shown wi th four pi stons for the
sake of si mpl i ci ty. Radi al pumps are actual l y
desi gned wi th an odd number of pi stons (fi g.
4-12). Thi s i s to ensure that no more than one
cyl i nder i s compl etel y bl ocked by the pi ntl e at any
one ti me. I f there were an even number of pi stons
spaced evenl y around the cyl i nder bl ock (for
exampl e, ei ght), there woul d be occasi ons when
two of the cyl i nders woul d be bl ocked by the
pi ntl e, whi l e at other ti mes none woul d be
bl ocked. Thi s woul d cause three cyl i nders to di s-
charge at one ti me and four at one ti me, causi ng
pul sati ons i n fl ow. Wi th an odd number of pi stons
spaced evenl y around the cyl i nder bl ock, onl y one
cyl i nder i s compl etel y bl ocked by the pi ntl e at any
one ti me. Thi s reduces pul sati ons of fl ow.
Figure 4-12.Nine-piston radial piston pump.
4-11
Axial Piston Pumps
I n axi al pi ston pumps of the i n-l i ne type,
where the cyl i nders and the dri ve shaft are paral l el
(fi g. 4-13), the reci procati ng moti on i s created by
a cam pl ate, al so known as a wobbl e pl ate, ti l ti ng
pl ate, or swash pl ate. Thi s pl ate l i es i n a pl ane
that cuts across the center l i ne of the dri ve shaft
and cyl i nder barrel and does not rotate. I n a
fi xed-di spl acement pump, the cam pl ate wi l l be
ri gi dl y mounted i n a posi ti on so that i t i ntersects
the center l i ne of the cyl i nder barrel at an angl e
approxi matel y 25 degrees from perpendi cul ar.
Vari abl e-del i very axi al pi ston pumps are desi gned
so that the angl e that the cam pl ate makes wi th
a perpendi cul ar to the center l i ne of the cyl i nder
barrel may be vari ed from zero to 20 or 25 degrees
to one or both si des. One end of each pi ston rod
i s hel d i n contact wi th the cam pl ate as the cyl i nder
bl ock and pi ston assembl y rotates wi th the dri ve
shaft. Thi s causes the pi stons to reci procate wi thi n
the cyI i nders. The l ength of the pi ston stroke i s
proporti onal to the angl e that the cam pl ate i s set
from perpendi cul ar to the center l i ne of the
cyl i nder barrel .
A var i ati on of axi al pi ston pump i s the
bent-axi s type shown i n fi gure 4-14. Thi s type does
not have a ti l ti ng cam pl ate as the i n-l i ne pump
does. I nstead, the cyl i nder bl ock axi s i s vari ed
fr om the dr i ve shaft axi s. The ends of the
Figure 4-14.Bent-axis axial piston pump.
connecti ng rods are retai ned i n sockets on a di sc
that turns wi th the dri ve shaft. The cyl i nder bl ock
i s turned wi th the dri ve shaft by a uni versal joi nt
assembl y at the i ntersecti on of the dri ve shaft and
the cyl i nder bl ock shaft. I n order to vary the pump
di spl acement, the cyl i nder bl ock and val ve pl ate
are mounted i n a yoke and the enti re assembl y
i s swung i n an are around a pai r of mounti ng
pi ntl es attached to the pump housi ng.
The pumpi ng acti on of the axi al pi ston pump
i s made possi bl e by a uni versal joi nt or l i nk.
Figure 4-13.In-line axial piston pump.
4-12
Fi gure 4-15 i s a seri es of drawi ngs that i l l ustrates
how the uni versal joi nt i s used i n the operati on
of thi s pump.
Fi rst, a rocker arm i s i nstal l ed on a hori zontal
shaft. (See fi g. 4-15, vi ew A.) The arm i s joi ned
to the shaft by a pi n so that i t can be swung back
and forth, as i ndi cated i n vi ew B. Next, a ri ng i s
pl aced around the shaft and secured to the rocker
arm so the ri ng can turn from l eft to ri ght as
shown i n vi ew C. Thi s pr ovi des two r otar y
moti ons i n di fferent pl anes at the same ti me and
i n varyi ng proporti ons as may be desi red. The
rocker arm can swi ng back and forth i n one arc,
and the ri ng can si mul taneousl y move from l eft
Figure 4-15.Relationship of the universal joint in operation
of the axial piston pump.
to ri ght i n another arc, i n a pl ane at ri ght angl es
to the pl ane i n whi ch the rocker arm turns.
Next, a ti l ti ng pl ate i s added to the assembl y.
The ti l ti ng pl ate i s pl aced at a sl ant to the axi s
of the shaft, as depi cted i n fi gure 4-15, vi ew D.
The rocker arm i s then sl anted at the same angl e
as the ti l ti ng pl ate, so that i t l i es paral l el to the
ti l ti ng pl ate. The ri ng i s al so paral l el to, and i n
contact wi th, the ti l ti ng pl ate. The posi ti on of the
ri ng i n rel ati on to the rocker arm i s unchanged
from that shown i n fi gure 4-15, vi ew C.
Fi gure 4-15, vi ew E, shows the assembl y after
the shaft, sti l l i n a hori zontal posi ti on, has been
rotated a quarter turn. The rocker arm i s sti l l i n
the same posi ti on as the ti l ti ng pl ate and i s now
perpendi cul ar to the axi s of the shaft. The ri ng
has turned on the rocker pi ns, so that i t has
changed i ts posi ti on i n rel ati on to the rocker arm,
but i t remai ns paral l el to, and i n contact wi th, the
ti l ti ng pl ate.
Vi ew F of fi gure 4-15 shows the assembl y after
the shaft has been rotated another quarter turn.
The parts are now i n the same posi ti on as shown
i n vi ew D, but wi th the ends of the rocker arm
reversed. The ri ng sti l l bears agai nst the ti l ti ng
pl ate.
As the shaft conti nues to rotate, the rocker
arm and the ri ng turn about thei r pi vots, wi th each
changi ng i ts rel ati on to the other and wi th the ri ng
al ways beari ng on the pl ate.
Fi gure 4-15, vi ew G, shows a wheel added to
the assembl y. The wheel i s pl aced upri ght and
fi xed to the shaft, so that i t rotates wi th the shaft.
I n addi ti on, two r ods, A and B, ar e l oosel y
connected to the ti l ti ng ri ng and extend through
two hol es standi ng opposi te each other i n the fi xed
wheel . As the shaft i s rotated, the fi xed wheel
turns perpendi cul ar to the shaft at al l ti mes. The
ti l ti ng ri ng rotates wi th the shaft and al ways
remai ns ti l ted, si nce i t remai ns i n contact wi th the
ti l ti ng pl ate. Referri ng to vi ew G, the di stance
al ong rod A, from the ti l ti ng ri ng to the fi xed
wheel , i s greater than the di stance al ong rod B.
As the assembl y i s rotated, however, the di stance
al ong rod A decreases as i ts poi nt of attachment
to the ti l ti ng ri ng moves cl oser to the fi xed wheel ,
whi l e the di stance al ong rod B i ncreases. These
changes conti nue unti l after a hal f revol uti on, at
whi ch ti me the i ni ti al posi ti ons of the rods have
been reversed. After another hal f revol uti on, the
two rods wi l l agai n be i n thei r ori gi nal posi ti ons.
As the assembl y rotates, the rods move i n and
out through the hol es i n the fi xed wheel . Thi s i s
the way the axi al pi ston pump works. To get a
pumpi ng acti on, pl ace pi stons at the ends of the
4-13
rods, beyond the fi xed wheel , and i nsert them i nto
cyl i nders. The rods must be connected to the
pi stons and to the wheel by bal l and socket joi nts.
As the assembl y rotates, each pi ston moves back
and forth i n i ts cyl i nder. Sucti on and di scharge
l i nes can be arranged so that l i qui d enters the
cyl i nders whi l e the spaces between the pi ston
heads and the bases of the cyl i nders are i ncreasi ng,
and l eaves the cyl i nders duri ng the other hal f of
each revol uti on when the pi stons are movi ng i n
the opposi te di recti on.
The mai n parts of the pump are the dri ve
shaft, pi stons, cyl i nder bl ock, and val ve and swash
pl ates. There are two ports i n the val ve pl ate.
These ports connect di rectl y to openi ngs i n the
face of the cyl i nder bl ock. Fl ui d i s drawn i nto one
por t and for ced out the other por t by the
reci procati ng acti on of the pi stons.
IN-LINE VARIABLE-DISPLACEMENT
AXIAL PISTON PUMP. When the dri ve shaft
i s rotated, i t rotates the pi stons and the cyl i nder
bl ock wi th i t. The swash pl ate pl aced at an angl e
causes the pi stons to move back and forth i n the
cyl i nder bl ock whi l e the shaft, pi ston, cyl i nder
bl ock, and swash pl ate rotate together. (The shaft,
pi ston, cyl i nder bl ock, and swash pl ate together
i s someti mes referred to as the rotati ng group or
assembl y.) As the pi stons r eci pr ocate i n the
cyl i nder bl ock, fl ui d enters one port and i s forced
out the other.
Fi gure 4-13 shows pi ston A at the bottom of
i ts stroke. When pi ston A has rotated to the
posi ti on hel d by pi ston B, i t wi l l have moved
upward i n i ts cyl i nder, forci ng fl ui d through the
outl et port duri ng the enti re di stance. Duri ng the
remai nder of the rotati on back to i t ori gi nal
posi ti on, the pi ston travel s downward i n the
cyl i nder. Thi s acti on creates a l ow-pressure area
i n the cyl i nder. The di fference i n pressure between
the cyl i nder i nl et and the reservoi r causes fl ui d
to fl ow i nto the i nl et port to the cyl i nder. Si nce
each one of the pi stons per for ms the same
operati on i n successi on, fl ui d i s constantl y bei ng
taken i nto the cyl i nder bores through the i nl et port
and di schar ged fr om the cyl i nder bor es i nto
the system. Thi s acti on pr ovi des a steady,
nonpul sati ng fl ow of fl ui d.
The ti l t or angl e of the swash pl ate determi nes
the di stance the pi stons move back and forth i n
thei r cyl i nders; thereby, control l i ng the pump
output.
When the swash pl ate i s at a ri ght angl e to the
shaft, and the pump i s rotati ng, the pi stons do
not reci procate; therefore, no pumpi ng acti on
takes pl ace. When the swash pl ate i s ti l ted away
from a ri ght angl e, the pi stons reci procate and
fl ui d i s pumped.
Si nce the di spl acement of thi s type of pump
i s vari ed by changi ng the angl e of the ti l ti ng box,
some means must be used to control the changes
of thi s angl e. Vari ous methods are used to control
thi s movementmanual , el ectri c, pneumati c, or
hydraul i c.
STRATOPOWER PUMP. Another type of
axi al pi ston pump, someti mes referred to as an
i n-l i ne pump, i s commonl y r efer r ed to as a
Str atopower pump. Thi s pump i s avai l abl e
i n ei ther the fi xed-di spl acement type or the
vari abl e-di spl acement type.
Two major functi ons are performed by the
i nternal parts of the fi xed-di spl acement Strato-
power pump. These functi ons are mechani cal
dri ve and fl ui d di spl acement.
The mechani cal dri ve mechani sm i s shown i n
fi gure 4-16. I n thi s type of pump, the pi stons and
bl ock do not rotate. Pi ston moti on i s caused by
rotati ng the dri ve cam di spl aci ng each pi ston the
ful l hei ght of the dri ve cam duri ng each revol uti on
of the shaft. The ends of the pi stons are attached
to a wobbl e pl ate supported by a freed center pi vot
and are hel d i nconstant contact wi th the cam face.
As the hi gh si de of the r otati ng dr i ve cam
depr esses one si de of the wobbl e pl ate, the other
si de of the wobbl e pl ate i s wi thdr awn an equal
amount, movi ng the pi stons wi th i t. The two creep
pl ates are provi ded to decrease wear on the
revol vi ng cam.
A schemati c di agram of the di spl acement of
fl ui d i s shown i n fi gure 4-17. Fl ui d i s di spl aced
by axi al moti on of the pi stons. As each pi ston
advances i n i ts respecti ve cyl i nder bl ock bore,
pressure opens the check val ve and a quanti ty of
fl ui d i s forced past i t. Combi ned back pressure
and check val ve spri ng tensi on cl ose the check
Figure 4-16.Mechanical driveStratopower pump.
4-14
Figure 4-17.Fluid displacementStratopower pump.
val ve when the pi ston advances to i ts foremost
posi ti on. The l ow-pressure area occurri ng i n the
cyl i nder duri ng the pi ston return causes fl ui d to
fl ow from the reservoi r i nto the cyl i nder.
The i nter nal featur es of the var i abl e-
di spl acement Stratopower pump are i l l ustrated i n
fi gure 4-18. Thi s pump operates si mi l arl y to the
fi xed-di spl acement Stratopower pump; however,
thi s pump provi des the addi ti onal functi on of
automati cal l y varyi ng the vol ume output.
Thi s functi on i s control l ed by the pressure i n
the hydraul i c system. For exampl e, l et us take a
pump rated at 3000 psi , and provi di ng fl ow to a
3000 psi system. As system pressure approaches,
say 2850 psi , the pump begi ns to unl oad (del i ver
l ess fl ow to the system) and i s ful l y unl oaded (zero
fl ow) at 3000 psi .
Th e pr es s u r e r egu l ati on an d fl ow ar e
control l ed by i nternal bypasses that automati cal l y
adjust fl ui d del i very to system demands.
The bypass system i s pr ovi ded to suppl y
sel f-l ubri cati on, parti cul arl y when the pump i s i n
nonfl ow operati on. The ri ng of bypass hol es i n
the pi stons are al i gned wi th the bypass passage
each ti me a pi ston reaches the very end of i ts
forward travel . Thi s pumps a smal l quanti ty of
fl ui d out of the bypass passage back to the suppl y
reservoi r and provi des a constant changi ng of
fl ui d i n the pump. The bypass i s desi gned to pump
agai nst a consi derabl e back pressure for use wi th
pressuri zed reservoi rs.
Figure 4-18.Internal features of Stratopower variable-displacement pump.
4-15
CHAPTER 5
FLUID LINES AND FITTINGS
The control and appl i cati on of fl ui d power
woul d be i mpossi bl e wi thout sui tabl e means of
transferri ng the fl ui d between the reservoi r, the
power source, and the poi nts of appl i cati on. Fl ui d
l i nes are used to transfer the fl ui d, and fi tti ngs
are used to connect the l i nes to the power source
and the poi nts of appl i cati on.
Thi s chapter i s devoted to fl ui d l i nes and
fi tti ngs. After studyi ng thi s chapter, you shoul d
have the knowl edge to i denti fy the
monl y used l i nes and fi tti ngs, and
expl ai n the procedure for fabri cati ng,
l abel i ng the l i nes.
TYPES OF LINES
The three types of l i nes used i n
systems ar e pi pe (r i gi d), tubi ng
and hose (fl exi bl e). A number of
consi dered when the type of l i ne i s
most com-
be abl e to
testi ng, and
fl ui d power
(semi ri gi d),
factors are
sel ected for
a parti cul ar fl ui d system. These factors i ncl ude
the type of fl ui d, the requi red system pressure,
and the l ocati on of the system. For exampl e,
heavy pi pe mi ght be used for a l arge stati onary
fl ui d power system, but comparati vel y l i ghtwei ght
tubi ng must be used i n ai r cr aft and mi ssi l e
systems because wei ght and space are cri ti cal
factors. Fl exi bl e hose i s requi red i n i nstal l ati ons
where uni ts must be free to move rel ati ve to each
other.
PIPES AND TUBING
There are three i mportant di mensi ons of any
tubul ar productoutsi de di ameter (OD), i nsi de
di ameter (I D), and wal l thi ckness. Si zes of pi pe
are l i sted by the nomi nal (or approxi mate) I D and
the wal l thi ckness. Si zes of tubi ng are l i sted by
the actual OD and the wal l thi ckness.
SELECTION OF PIPES AND TUBING
The materi al , I D, and wal l thi ckness are
the three pri mary consi derati ons i n the sel ec-
ti on of l i nes for a par ti cul ar fl ui d power
system.
The I D of a l i ne i s i mpor tant, si nce i t
determi nes how much fl ui d can pass through the
l i ne i n a gi ven ti me per i od (r ate of fl ow)
wi thout l oss of power due to excessi ve fri cti on
and heat. The vel oci ty of a gi ven fl ow i s l ess
through a l arge openi ng than through a smal l
openi ng. I f the I D of the l i ne i s too smal l for the
amount of fl ow, excessi ve turbul ence and fri cti on
heat cause unnecessary power l oss and overheated
fl ui d.
Sizing of Pipes and Tubing
Pi pes are avai l abl e i n three di fferent wei ghts:
standard (STD), or Schedul e 40; extra strong
(XS), or Schedul e 80; and doubl e extra strong
(XXS). The schedul e numbers range from 10
to 160 and cover 10 di sti nct sets of wal l
thi ckness. (See tabl e 5-1.) Schedul e 160 wal l
thi ckness i s sl i ghtl y thi nner than the doubl e extra
strong.
As menti oned earl i er, the si ze of pi pes i s
determi ned by the nomi nal (approxi mate) I D. For
exampl e, the I D for a 1/4-i nch Schedul e 40 pi pe
i s 0.364 i nch, and the I D for a 1/2-i nch Schedul e
40 pi pe i s 0.622 i nch.
I t i s i mportant to note that the I Ds of al l pi pes
of the same nomi nal si ze are not equal . Thi s i s
because the OD remai ns constant and the wal l
thi ckness i ncr eases as the schedul e number
i ncreases. For exampl e, a nomi nal si ze 1-i nch
Schedul e 40 pi pe has a 1.049 I D. The same si ze
Schedul e 80 pi pe has a 0.957 I D, whi l e Schedul e
5-1
Table 5-1.Wall Thickness Schedule Designations for Pipe
160 pi pe has a 0.815 I D. I n each case the OD i s
1.315 (tabl e 5-1) and the wal l thi cknesses are
0.133 0.179
and 0.250 respecti vel y. Note
that the di ffer ence between the OD and I D
i ncl udes two wal l thi cknesses and must be di vi ded
by 2 to obtai n the wal l thi ckness.
Tubi ng di ffers from pi pe i n i ts si ze cl assi -
fi cati on. Tubi ng i s desi gnated by i ts actual OD.
(See tabl e 5-2.) Thus, 5/8-i nch tubi ng has an OD
of 5/8 i nch. As i ndi cated i n the tabl e, tubi ng i s
avai l abl e i n a vari ety of wal l thi cknesses. The
di ameter of tubi ng i s often measur ed and
i ndi cated i n 16ths. Thus, No. 6 tubi ng i s 6/16 or
3/8 i nch, No. 8 tubi ng i s 8/16 or 1/2 i nch, and
so forth.
The wal l thi ckness, materi al used, and I D
determi ne the bursti ng pressure of a l i ne or fi tti ng.
The greater the wal l thi ckness i n rel ati on to the
I D and the stronger the metal , the hi gher the
bursti ng pressure. However, the greater the I D for
a gi ven wal l thi ckness, the l ower the bursti ng
pressure, because force i s the product of area and
pressure.
Materials
The pi pe and tubi ng used i n fl ui d power
systems are commonl y made from steel , copper,
brass, al umi num, and stai nl ess steel . Each of these
metal s has i ts own di sti nct advantages or
di sadvantages i n certai n appl i cati ons.
Steel pi pe and tubi ng are rel ati vel y i nexpensi ve
and are used i n many hydraul i c and pneumati c
systems. Steel i s used because of i ts strength,
sui tabi l i ty for bendi ng and fl angi ng, and
adaptabi l i ty to hi gh pressures and temperatures.
I ts chi ef di sadvantage i s i ts comparati vel y l ow
resi stance to corrosi on.
Copper pi pe and tubi ng are someti mes used
for fl ui d power l i nes. Copper has hi gh resi stance
to corrosi on and i s easi l y drawn or bent. However,
i t i s unsati sfactory for hi gh temperatures and has
a tendency to harden and break due to stress and
vi brati on.
Al umi num has many of the characteri sti cs and
qual i ti es requi red for fl ui d power l i nes. I t has hi gh
resi stance to corrosi on and i s easi l y drawn or bent.
I n addi ti on, i t has the outstandi ng characteri sti c
of l i ght wei ght. Si nce wei ght el i mi nati on i s a vi tal
factor i n the desi gn of ai rcraft, al umi num al l oy
tubi ng i s used i n the majori ty of ai rcraft fl ui d
power systems.
Stai nl ess-steel tubi ng i s used i n certai n areas
of many ai rcraft fl ui d power systems. As a general
rul e, exposed l i nes and l i nes subject to abrasi on
or i ntense heat are made of stai nl ess steel .
An i mpr oper l y pi ped system can l ead to
seri ous power l oss and possi bl e harmful fl ui d
5-2
Table 5-2.Tubing Size Designation
contami nati on. Therefore i n mai ntenance and PREPARATION OF PIPES
repai r of fl ui d power system l i nes, the basi c desi gn AND TUBING
requi rements must be kept i n mi nd. Two pri mary
requi rements are as fol l ows:
1. The l i nes must have the correct I D to
provi de the requi red vol ume and vel oci ty of fl ow
wi th the l east amount of turbul ence duri ng al l
demands on the system.
2. The l i nes must be made of the proper
materi al and have the wal l thi ckness to provi de
suffi ci ent strength to both contai n the fl ui d at the
requi red pressure and wi thstand the surges of
pressure that may devel op i n the system.
Fl ui d power systems are desi gned as compactl y
as possi bl e, to keep the connecti ng l i nes short.
Every secti on of l i ne shoul d be anchored securel y
i n one or more pl aces so that nei ther the wei ght
of the l i ne nor the effects of vi brati on are carri ed
on the joi nts. The ai m i s to mi ni mi ze stress
throughout the system.
Li nes shoul d normal l y be kept as short and
free of bends as possi bl e. However, tubi ng shoul d
not be assembl ed i n a strai ght l i ne, because a bend
tends to el i mi nate strai n by absorbi ng vi brati on
and al so compensates for thermal expansi on and
5-3
contr acti on. Bends ar e pr efer r ed to el bows,
because bends cause l ess of a power l oss. A few
of the correct and i ncorrect methods of i nstal l i ng
tubi ng are i l l ustrated i n fi gure 5-1.
Bends are descri bed by thei r radi us measure-
ments. The i deal bend radi us i s 2 1/2 to 3 ti mes
the I D, as shown i n fi gure 5-2. For exampl e, i f
the I D of a l i ne i s 2 i nches, the radi us of the bend
shoul d be between 5 and 6 i nches.
Whi l e fri cti on i ncreases markedl y for sharper
curves than thi s, i t al so tends to i ncrease up to
a certai n poi nt for gentl er curves. The i ncreases
i n fri cti on i n a bend wi th a radi us of more than
3 pi pe di ameters resul t from i ncreased turbul ence
near the outsi de edges of the fl ow. Parti cl es of
fl ui d must travel a l onger di stance i n maki ng the
change i n di recti on. When the radi us of the bend
i s l ess than 2 1/2 pi pe di ameters, the i ncreased
pressure l oss i s due to the abrupt change i n the
di recti on of fl ow, especi al l y for parti cl es near the
i nsi de edge of the fl ow.
Duri ng your career i n the Navy, you may be
r equi r ed to fabr i cate new tubi ng to r epl ace
damaged or fai l ed l i nes. Fabri cati on of tubi ng
consi sts of four basi c oper ati ons: cutti ng,
deburri ng, bendi ng, and joi nt preparati on.
Tube Cutting and Deburring
The objecti ve of cutti ng tubi ng i s to produce
a square end that i s free from burrs. Tubi ng may
be cut usi ng a standard tube cutter (fi g. 5-3), a
chi pl ess cutter (fi g. 5-4), or a fi ne-toothed
hacksaw i f a tube cutter i s not avai l abl e.
When you use the standard tube cutter, pl ace
the tube i n the cutter wi th the cutti ng wheel at the
poi nt where the cut i s to be made. Appl y l i ght
pressure on the tube by ti ghteni ng the adjusti ng
Figure 5-2.Ideal bend radius.
knob. Too much pressure appl i ed to the cutti ng
wheel at oneti me may deform the tubi ng or cause
excessi ve burrs. Rotate the cutter toward i ts open
si de (fi g. 5-3). As you rotate the cutter, adjust the
ti ghteni ng knob after each compl ete turn to
mai ntai n l i ght pressure on the cutti ng wheel .
When you use the chi pl ess cutter, take the
fol l owi ng steps:
1. Sel ect the chi pl ess cutter accordi ng to
tubi ng si ze.
2. Rotate the cutter head to accept the tubi ng
i n the cutti ng posi ti on. Check that the cutter
ratchet i s operati ng freel y and that the cutter wheel
i s cl ear of the cutter head openi ng (fi g. 5-4).
3. Center the tubi ng on two rol l ers and the
cutti ng bl ade.
4. Use the hex key provi ded wi th the
turn the dri ve screw i n unti l the cutter
touches the tube.
Figure 5-1.Correct and incorrect methods of installing tubing.
5-4
ki t to
wheel
Figure 5-3.Tube cutting.
5. Ti ghten the dri ve screw 1/8 to 1/4 turn. Do
not overti ghten the dri ve screw. Overti ghteni ng
can damage soft tubi ng or cause excessi ve wear
or breakage of the cutter wheel i n hard tubi ng.
6. Swi ng the ratchet handl e back and forth
through the avai l abl e cl earance unti l there i s a
noti ceabl e ease of rotati on. Avoi d putti ng si de
force on the cutter handl e. Si de force wi l l cause
the cutter wheel to break.
7. Ti ghten the dri ve screw an addi ti onal 1/8
to 1/4 turn and swi ng the ratchet handl e back and
forth, reti ghteni ng the dri ve screw as needed unti l
the cut i s compl eted. The compl eted cut shoul d
be 1/2 degree square to the tube centerl i ne.
Figure 5-4.Chipless cutter.
After the tubi ng i s cut, remove al l burrs and
sharp edges from i nsi de and outsi de of the tube
(fi g. 5-5) wi th deburri ng tool s. Cl ean out the
tubi ng. Make sure no forei gn parti cl es remai n.
A conveni ent method for cutti ng tubi ng wi th
a hacksaw i s to pl ace the tube i n a fl ari ng bl ock
and cl amp the bl ock i n a vi ce. After cutti ng the
tubi ng wi th a hacksaw, remove al l saw marks by
fi l i ng.
Tube Bending
The objecti ve i n tube bendi ng i s to obtai n a
smooth bend wi thout fl atteni ng the tube. Tube
bendi ng i s usual l y done wi th ei ther a hand tube
bender or a mechani cal l y operated bender.
Figure 5-5.Properly burred tubing.
5-5
Figure 5-6.Bending tubing with hand-operated tube bender.
HAND TUBE BENDER. The hand tube
tubi ng. The radi us bl ock i s marked i n degrees of
bender shown i n fi gure 5-6 consi sts of a handl e,
bend rangi ng from 0 to 180 degrees. The sl i de bar
a radi us bl ock, a cl i p, and a sl i de bar. The handl e
has a mark whi ch i s l i ned up wi th the zero mark
and sl i de bar are used as l evers to provi de the
on the radi us bl ock. The tube i s i nserted i n the
mechani cal advantage necessary to bend the
tube bender, and after the marks are l i ned up, the
5-6
Figure 5-7.Mechanically operated tube bender.
sl i de bar i s moved around unti l the mark on the
sl i de bar reaches the desi red degree of bend on
the r adi us bl ock. See fi gur e 5-6 for the si x
pr ocedur al steps i n
tube bendi ng wi th the
hand-operated tube bender.
MECHANICAL TUBE BENDER. The
tube bender shown i n fi gure 5-7 i s i ssued as a ki t.
The ki t contai ns the equi pment necessary for
bendi ng tubi ng fr om 1/4 i nch to 3/4 i nch i n
di ameter .
Thi s tube bender i s desi gned for use wi th
ai r cr aft gr ade, hi gh-str engths stai nl ess-steel
tubi ng, as wel l as al l other metal tubi ng. I t i s
desi gned to be fastened to a bench or tri pod. The
base i s formed to provi de a secure gri p i n a vi se.
Thi s type of tube bender uses a hand crank
and gears. The formi ng di e i s keyed to the dri ve
gear and i s secured by a screw.
The for mi ng di e on the mechani cal tube
bender i s cal i brated i n degrees, si mi l arl y to the
radi us bl ock of the hand bender. A l ength of
repl acement tubi ng may be bent to a speci fi ed
number of degrees or i t may be bent to dupl i cate
a bend ei ther i n a damaged tube or i n a pattern.
Dupl i cati ng a bend of a damaged tube or of a
pattern i s done by l ayi ng the sampl e or pattern
on top of the tube bei ng bent and sl owl y bendi ng
the new tube to the requi red bend.
Tube Flaring
Tube fl ari ng i s a method of formi ng the end
of a tube i nto a funnel shape so i t can be hel d by
a threaded fi tti ng. When a fl ared tube i s prepared,
a fl are nut i s sl i pped onto the tube and the end
of the tube i s fl ared. Duri ng tube i nstal l ati on, the
fl are i s seated to a fi tti ng wi th the i nsi de of the
fl are agai nst the cone-shaped end of the fi tti ng,
and the fl are nut i s screwed onto the fi tti ng,
pul l i ng the i nsi de of the fl are agai nst the seati ng
surface of the fi tti ng.
Ei ther of two fl ari ng tool s (fi g. 5-8) may be
used. One gi ves a si ngl e fl are and the other gi ves
a doubl e fl are. The fl ari ng tool consi sts of a spl i t
di e bl ock that has hol es for vari ous si zes of tubi ng,
Figure 5-8.Flaring tools.
5-7
a cl amp to l ock the end of the tubi ng i nsi de the
di e bl ock, and a yoke wi th a compressor screw
and cone that sl i ps over the di e bl ock and forms
the 45-degree fl are on the end of the tube. The
screw has a T-handl e. A doubl e fl ari ng tube has
adaptors that turn i n the edge of the tube before
a regul ar 45-degree doubl e fl are i s made.
To use the si ngl e fl ari ng tool , fi rst check to
see that the end of the tubi ng has been cut off
squarel y and has had the burrs removed from
both i nsi de and outsi de. Sl i p the fl are nut onto
the tube before you make the fl are. Then, open
the di e bl ock. I nsert the end of the tubi ng i nto
the hol e correspondi ng to the OD of the tubi ng
so that the end protrudes sl i ghtl y above the top
face of the di e bl ocks. The amount by whi ch the
tubi ng extends above the bl ocks determi nes the
fi ni shed di ameter of the fl are. The fl are must be
l arge enough to seat properl y agai nst the fi tti ng,
but smal l enough that the threads of the fl are nut
wi l l sl i de over i t. Cl ose the di e bl ock and secure
the tool wi th the wi ng nut. Use the handl e of the
yoke to ti ghten the wi ng nut. Then pl ace the yoke
over the end of the tubi ng and ti ghten the handl e
to force the cone i nto the end of the tubi ng. The
compl eted fl are shoul d be sl i ghtl y vi si bl e above
the face of the di e bl ocks.
FLEXIBLE HOSE
Shock-resi stant, fl exi bl e hose assembl i es are
requi red to absorb the movements of mounted
equi pment under both normal operati ng condi -
ti ons and extr eme condi ti ons. They ar e al so
used for thei r noi se-attenuati ng properti es and
to connect movi ng parts of certai n equi pment.
The two basi c hose types are syntheti c rubber
and pol ytetr afl uor oethyl ene (PTFE), such as
Du Ponts Tefl on
fl uorocarbon resi n.
Figure 5-9.Synthetic rubber hoses.
pressure ranges: l ow, medi um, and hi gh. The
outer cover i s desi gned to wi thstand external abuse
and contai ns i denti fi cati on marki ngs.
Syntheti c rubber hoses wi th rubber covers are
i denti fi ed wi th the mi l i tary speci fi cati on number,
the si ze by dash number, the quarter and year of
cure or manufacture, and the manufacturers code
i denti fi cati on number or federal suppl y code
number pri nted al ong thei r l ayl i ne (fi g. 5-10, vi ew
A). The l ayl i ne i s a l egi bl e marki ng paral l el to the
l ongi tudi nal axi s of a hose used i n determi ni ng
the strai ghtness or l ay of the hose.
Syntheti c rubber hoses wi th wi re brai d cover
are i denti fi ed by bands (fi g. 5-10, vi ew B) wrapped
around the hose ends and at i nterval s al ong the
l ength of the hose.
Sizing
Rubber hoses are desi gned for speci fi c fl ui d,
temperature, and pr essur e r anges and ar e
provi ded i n vari ous speci fi cati ons. Rubber hoses
(fi g. 5-9) consi st of a mi ni mum three l ayers; a
seaml ess syntheti c rubber tube rei nforced wi th one
or more l ayers of brai ded or spi ral ed cotton, wi re,
or syntheti c fi ber; and an outer cover. The i nner
tube i s desi gned to wi thstand the attack of the
fl ui d that passes through i t. The brai ded or
spi ral ed l ayers determi ne the strength of the hose.
The greater the number of these l ayers, the greater
i s the pressure rati ng. Hoses are provi ded i n three
5-8
The si ze of a fl exi bl e hose i s i denti fi ed by the
dash (-) number, whi ch i s the I D of the hose
expressed i n 16ths of an i nch. For exampl e, the
I D of a -64 hose i s 4 i nches. For a few hose styl es
thi s i s the nomi nal and not the true I D.
Cure Date
Syntheti c rubber hoses wi l l deteri orate from
agi ng. A cure date i s used to ensure that they do
not deteri orate beyond materi al and performance
speci fi cati ons. The cure date i s the quarter and
year the hose was manufactured. For exampl e,
Techni cal Di recti ve for Pi pi ng Devi ces and
Flexible Hose Assemblies, NAVSEA S6430-AE-
TED-010. vol ume 1. provi de detai l ed i nstructi ons
on di scardi ng and downgradi ng of rubber hoses
exceedi ng thei r shel f l i fe.
PFTE
1Q89 or
the fi rst
Figure 5-10.Hose identification.
1/89 means the hose was made duri ng
quarter (1 Jan to 31 Mar) of 1989.
The cure date l i mi ts the l ength of ti me a rubber
hose can be stored, i n bul k or as an assembl y,
pri or to bei ng pl aced i nto servi ce. The storage or
shel f l i fe for rubber hose i s 4 years. For the hose
manufactured i n 1Q89, the storage or shel f l i fe
wi l l end on the 31st of March 1993. At thi s poi nt,
the hose i s no l onger consi dered usabl e and shoul d
be di scarded or downgraded. The Aviation Hose
and Tube Manual, NAVAI R 01-1A-20, and the
5-9
PFTE hose i s a fl exi bl e hose desi gned to meet
the requi rements of hi gher operati ng pressures and
temperatures i n present fl ui d power systems. Thi s
type of hose i s made from a chemi cal resi n, whi ch
i s processed and extruded i nto a tube shaped to
a desi red si ze. I t i s rei nforced wi th one or more
l ayers of brai ded stai nl ess-steel wi re or wi th an
even number of spi ral wrap l ayers wi th an outer
wi re brai d l ayer.
PTFE hose i s unaffected by al l fl ui ds presentl y
used i n fl ui d power systems. I t i s i nert to aci ds,
both concentrated and di l uted. Certai n PFTE
hose may be used i n systems where operati ng
temper atur es r ange fr om 100F to +500F.
PTFE i s nonfl ammabl e; however , wher e the
possi bi l i ty of open fl ame exi sts, a speci al asbestos
fi re sl eeve shoul d be used.
PFTE hose wi l l not absorb moi sture. Thi s,
together wi th i ts chemi cal i nertness and anti -
adhesi ve characteri sti cs, makes i t i deal for mi ssi l e
fl ui d power systems where noncontami nati on and
cl eanl i ness are essenti al .
I n l i eu of l ayl i ne marki ng, PTFE hoses are
i denti fi ed by metal or pl i abl e pl asti c bands at thei r
ends and at i nterval s al ong thei r l ength. Fi gure
5-10, vi ew C, shows a hose l abel for a PTFE hose.
Usual l y the onl y condi ti on that wi l l shorten the
l i fe of PTFE hose i s excessi ve temperature. For
thi s reason there i s no manufacture date l i sted on
the i denti fi cati on tag.
APPLICATION
As menti oned earl i er, fl exi bl e hose i s avai l abl e
i n three pressure ranges: l ow, medi um, and hi gh.
When repl aci ng hoses, i t i s i mportant to ensure
that the repl acement hose i s a dupl i cate of the one
r emoved i n l ength, OD, mater i al , type and
contour, and associ ated marki ngs. I n sel ecti ng
hose, several precauti ons must be observed. The
sel ected hose must
1.
2.
be compati bl e wi th the system fl ui d,
have a rated pressure greater than the desi gn
pressure of the system,
3. be desi gned to gi ve adequate performance and
servi ce for i nfrequent transi ent pressure peaks
up to 150 percent of the worki ng pressure of
the hose, and
4. have a safety factor wi th a burst pressure at
a mi ni mum of 4 ti mes the rated worki ng
pressure.
There are temperature restri cti ons appl i ed to
the use of hoses. Rubber hose must not be used
where the operati ng temperature exceeds 200F.
PTFE hoses i n hi gh-pressure ai r systems must not
be used where the temperature exceeds 350F.
PTFE hoses i n water and steam drai n appl i cati ons
must not be used where the operati ng temperature
exceeds 380F.
FABRICATION AND TESTING
The fabri cati on of fl exi bl e hose assembl i es i s
covered i n appl i cabl e trai ni ng manual s, techni cal
publ i cati ons, and NAVAI R 01-1A-20. After a
hose assembl y has been compl etel y fabri cated i t
must be cl eaned, vi sual l y i nspected for forei gn
materi al s, and proof tested.
A hose assembl y i s pr oof tested by the
appl i cati on of a nondestructi ve pressure for a
mi ni mum of 1 mi nute but not l onger than 5
mi nutes to ensure that i t wi l l wi thstand normal
worki ng pressures. The test pressure, known as
normal proof pressure, i s twi ce the rated worki ng
pressure. Whi l e the test pressure i s bei ng appl i ed,
the hose must not burst, l eak, or show si gns
of fi tti ng separ ati on. NAVAI R 01-1A-20 and
NAVSEA S6430-AE-TED-010, vol ume 1, provi de
detai l ed i nstructi ons on cl eani ng of hoses, cl eani ng
and test medi a, proof pressure and proof testi ng.
After proof testi ng i s compl eted, the hose must
be fl ushed and dr i ed and the ends capped or
pl ugged to keep di rt and other contami nants out
of the hose.
IDENTIFICATION
The fi nal step after fabri cati on and sati sfac-
tory testi ng of a hose assembl y i s the attachment
of i denti fi cati on tags as shown i n fi gure 5-11 (for
shi ps) and i n fi gure 5-12 (for ai rcraft). The tag
shown i n fi gure 5-12, vi ew B, i s used i n areas
where a tag maybe drawn i nto an engi ne i ntake.
Hose assembl i es to be i nstal l ed i n ai rcraft fuel and
oi l tanks are marked wi th an approved el ectri c
engraver on the socket-wrench fl ats wi th the
requi red i nformati on.
Figure 5-11.Hose assembly identification tags (ships).
5-10
Figure 5-12.Hose assembly
INSTALLATION
Fl exi bl e hose must
identification tags (aircraft).
not be twi sted duri ng
i nstal l ati on, si nce thi s reduces the l i fe of the hose
consi derabl y and may cause the fi tti ngs to l oosen
as wel l . You can determi ne whether or not a hose
i s twi sted by l ooki ng at the l ayl i ne that runs al ong
the l ength of the hose. I f the l ayl i ne does not spi ral
around the hose, the hose i s not twi sted. I f the
l ayl i ne does spi ral around the hose, the hose i s
twi sted (fi g. 5-13, vi ew B) and must be untwi sted.
Fl exi bl e hose shoul d be protected from chafi ng
by usi ng a chafe-resi stant coveri ng wherever
necessar y.
The mi ni mum bend radi us for fl exi bl e hose
vari es accordi ng to the si ze and constructi on of
the hose and the pr essur e under whi ch the
system operates. Current appl i cabl e techni cal
publ i cati ons contai n tabl es and graphs showi ng
mi ni mum bend radi i for the di fferent types of
i nstal l ati ons. Bends that are too sharp wi l l reduce
the bursti ng pressure of fl exi bl e hose consi derabl y
bel ow i ts rated val ue.
Fl exi bl e hose shoul d be i nstal l ed so that i t wi l l
be subjected to a mi ni mum of fl exi ng duri ng
operati on. Support cl amps are not necessary wi th
short i nstal l ati ons; but for hose of consi derabl e
l ength (48 i nches for exampl e), cl amps shoul d be
pl aced not more than 24 i nches apart. Cl oser
5-11
Figure 5-13.Correct and incorrect installation of flexible
hose.
supports are desi rabl e and i n some cases may be
requi red.
A fl exi bl e hose must never be stretched ti ghtl y
between two fi tti ngs. About 5 to 8 percent of the
total l ength must be al l owed as sl ack to provi de
freedom of movement under pressure. When
under pressure, fl exi bl e hose contracts i n l ength
and expands i n di ameter. Exampl es of correct and
i ncor r ect i nstal l ati ons of fl exi bl e hose ar e
i l l ustrated i n fi gure 5-13.
PFTE hose shoul d be handl ed careful l y duri ng
removal and i nstal l ati on. Some PFTE hose i s pre-
formed duri ng fabri cati on. Thi s type of hose tends
to form i tsel f to the i nstal l ed posi ti on i n the sys-
tem. To ensure i ts sati sfactory functi on and reduce
the l i kel i hood of fai l ure, anyone who works wi th
PFTE hose shoul d observe the fol l owi ng rul es:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Do not exceed recommended bend l i mi ts.
Do not exceed twi sti ng l i mi ts.
Do not strai ghten a bent hose that has
taken a permanent set.
Do not hang, l i ft, or support objects from
PFTE hose.
Once fl exi bl e hose assembl i es are i nstal l ed,
there are no servi ci ng or mai ntenance requi re-
ments other than peri odi c i nspecti ons. These
i nspecti ons are conducted accordi ng to mai nte-
nance i nstructi on manual s (MI Ms), mai ntenance
r equi r ement car ds (MRCs), and depot-l evel
speci fi cati ons.
TYPES OF FITTINGS
AND CONNECTORS
Some type of connector or fi tti ng must be
provi ded to attach the l i nes to the components of
the system and to connect secti ons of l i ne to
each other. There are many di fferent types of
connectors and fi tti ngs provi ded for thi s purpose.
The type of connector or fi tti ng requi red for a
speci fi c system depends on several factors. One
determi ni ng factor, of course, i s the type of fl ui d
l i ne (pi pe, tubi ng, or fl exi bl e hose) used i n
the system. Other determi ni ng factors are the
type of fl ui d medi um and the maxi mum operati ng
pressure of the system. Some of the most common
types of fi tti ngs and connectors are descri bed i n
the fol l owi ng paragraphs.
THREADED CONNECTORS
There are several di fferent types of threaded
connectors. I n the type di scussed i n thi s secti on,
both the connector and the end of the fl ui d l i ne
(pi pe) are threaded. These connectors are used i n
some l ow-pressure fl ui d power systems and are
usual l y made of steel , copper, or brass, and are
avai l abl e i n a vari ety of desi gns.
Threaded connectors are made wi th standard
pi pe threads cut on the i nsi de surface. The end
of the pi pe i s threaded wi th outsi de threads.
Standard pi pe threads are tapered sl i ghtl y to
ensure ti ght connecti ons. The amount of taper i s
approxi matel y 3/4 i nch i n di ameter per foot of
thread.
Metal i s removed when a pi pe i s threaded,
thi nni ng the pi pe and exposi ng new and rough
surfaces. Corrosi on agents work more qui ckl y at
such poi nts than el sewhere. I f pi pes are assembl ed
wi th no protecti ve compound on the threads,
corrosi on sets i n at once and the two secti ons
sti ck together so that the threads sei ze when
di sassembl y i s attempted. The resul t i s damaged
threads and pi pes.
To prevent sei zi ng, a sui tabl e pi pe thread
compound i s someti mes appl i ed to the threads.
The two end thr eads must be kept fr ee of
5-12
compound so that i t wi l l not contami nate the
fl ui d. Pi pe compound, when i mproperl y appl i ed,
may get i nsi de the l i nes and components and
damage pumps and control equi pment.
Another materi al used on pi pe threads i s
seal ant tape. Thi s tape, whi ch i s made of PTFE,
pr ovi des an effecti ve means of seal i ng pi pe
connecti ons and el i mi nates the necessi ty of
torqui ng connecti ons to excessi vel y hi gh val ues
i n order to prevent pressure l eaks. I t al so provi des
for ease of mai ntenance whenever i t i s necessary
to di sconnect pi pe joi nts. The tape i s appl i ed over
the mal e threads, l eavi ng the fi rst thread exposed.
After the tape i s pressed fi rml y agai nst the
threads, the joi nt i s connected.
FLANGE CONNECTORS
Bol ted fl ange connector s (fi g. 5-14) ar e
sui tabl e for most pressures now i n use. The
fl anges are attached to the pi pi ng by wel di ng,
brazi ng, tapered threads (for some l ow-pressure
systems), or rol l i ng and bendi ng i nto recesses.
Those i l l ustrated are the most common types of
fl ange joi nts used. The same types of standard
fi tti ng shapes (tee, cross, el bow, and so forth) are
manufactured for fl ange joi nts. Sui tabl e gasket
materi al must be used between the fl anges.
WELDED CONNECTORS
The subassembl i es of some fl ui d power
systems are connected by wel ded joi nts, especi al l y
i n hi gh-pressure systems whi ch use pi pe for fl ui d
l i nes. The wel di ng i s done accordi ng to standard
Figure 5-14.Four types of bolted flange connectors.
speci fi cati ons whi ch defi ne the materi al s and
techni ques.
BRAZED CONNECTORS
Si l ver-brazed connectors are commonl y used
for joi ni ng nonferrous (copper, brass, and soon)
pi pi ng i n the pressure and temperature range
where thei r use i s practi cal . Use of thi s type of
connector i s l i mi ted to i nstal l ati ons i n whi ch the
pi pi ng temperature wi l l not exceed 425F and the
pressure i n col d l i nes wi l l not-exceed 3,000 psi .
The al l oy i s mel ted by heati ng the joi nt wi th an
oxyacetyl ene torch. Thi s causes the al l oy i nsert
to mel t and fi l l the few thousandths of an i nch
annul ar space between the pi pe and the fi tti ng.
A fi tti ng of thi s type whi ch has been removed
from a pi pi ng system can be rebrazed i nto a
system, as i n most cases suffi ci ent al l oy remai ns
i n the i nsert groove for a second joi nt. New al l oy
i nserts may be obtai ned for fi tti ngs whi ch do not
have suffi ci ent al l oy remai ni ng i n the i nsert for
maki ng a new joi nt.
FLARED CONNECTORS
Fl ared connectors are commonl y used i n fl ui d
power systems contai ni ng l i nes made of tubi ng.
These connectors provi de safe, strong, dependabl e
connecti ons wi thout the need for thr eadi ng,
wel di ng, or sol deri ng the tubi ng. The connector
consi sts of a fi tti ng, a sl eeve, and a nut (fi g. 5-15).
The fi tti ngs are made of steel , al umi num al l oy,
or bronze. The fi tti ng used i n a connecti on shoul d
be made of the same materi al as that of the sl eeve,
the nut, and the tubi ng. For exampl e, use steel
connectors wi th steel tubi ng and al umi num al l oy
Figure 5-15.Flared-tube fitting.
connectors wi th al umi num al l oy tubi ng. Fi tti ngs
are made i n uni on, 45-degree and 90-degree
el bow, tee, and vari ous other shapes (fi g. 5-16).
Tees, crosses, and el bows are sel f-expl anatory.
Uni versal and bul khead fi tti ngs can be mounted
sol i dl y wi th one outl et of the fi tti ng extendi ng
through a bul khead and the other outl et(s) posi -
ti oned at any angl e. Uni versal means the fi tti ng
can assume the angl e requi red for the speci fi c
i nstal l ati on. Bul khead means the fi tti ng i s l ong
enough to pass thr ough a bul khead and i s
desi gned so i t can be secur ed sol i dl y to the
bul khead.
For connecti ng to tubi ng, the ends of the
fi tti ngs are threaded wi th strai ght machi ne threads
to correspond wi th the femal e threads of the nut.
I n some cases, however, one end of the fi tti ng may
be thr eaded wi th taper ed pi pe thr eads to fi t
Figure 5-16.Flared-tube fittings.
5-13
thr eaded por ts i n pumps, val ves, and other
components. Several of these thread combi nati ons
are shown i n fi gure 5-16.
Tubi ng used wi th fl are connectors must be
fl ared pri or to assembl y. The nut fi ts over the
sl eeve and when ti ghtened, i t draws the sl eeve and
tubi ng fl are ti ghtl y agai nst the mal e fi tti ng to form
a seal .
The mal e fi tti ng has a cone-shaped surface
wi th the same angl e as the i nsi de of the fl are. The
sl eeve supports the tube so vi brati on does not
concentrate at the edge of the fl are, and di stri butes
the sheari ng acti on over a wi der area for added
strength. Tube fl ari ng i s covered i n Tools and
Their Uses, NAVEDTRA 10085 (ser i es), and
other appl i cabl e trai ni ng manual s.
Correct and i ncorrect methods of i nstal l i ng
fl ared-tube connectors are i l l ustrated i n fi gure
5-17. Tubi ng nuts shoul d be ti ghtened wi th a
torque wrench to the val ue speci fi ed i n appl i cabl e
techni cal publ i cati ons.
I f an al umi num al l oy fl ared connector l eaks
after bei ng ti ghtened to the requi red torque, i t
must not be ti ghtened further. Overti ghteni ng may
severel y damage or compl etel y cut off the tubi ng
fl are or may resul t i n damage to the sl eeve or nut.
The l eaki ng connecti on must be di sassembl ed and
the faul t corrected.
I f a steel tube connecti on l eaks, i t may be
ti ghtened 1/6 turn beyond the speci fi ed torque i n
an attempt to stop the l eakage; then i f i t sti l l l eaks,
i t must be di sassembl ed and repai red.
Under ti ghteni ng of connecti ons may be
seri ous, as thi s can al l ow the tubi ng to l eak at the
connector bemuse of i nsuffi ci ent gri p on the fl are
by the sl eeve. The use of a torque wrench wi l l
prevent underti ghteni ng.
CAUTION
A nut shoul d never be ti ghtened when
there i s pressure i n the l i ne, as thi s wi l l tend
to damage the connecti on wi thout addi ng
any appreci abl e torque to the connecti on.
Figure 5-17.Correct and incorrect methods of installing flared fittings.
5-14
FLARELESS-TUBE CONNECTORS
Thi s type of connector el i mi nates al l tube
fl ari ng, yet provi des a safe, strong, and depend-
abl e tube connecti on. Thi s connector consi sts
of a fi tti ng, a sl eeve or fer r ul e, and a nut.
(See fi g. 5-18.)
NOTE
Al though the use of fl ar el ess tube
connectors i s wi despread, NAVSEA pol i cy
i s to reduce or el i mi nate use of fl arel ess
fi tti ngs i n newl y desi gned shi ps; the extent
to whi ch fl arel ess fi tti ngs are approved for
use i n a parti cul ar shi p i s refl ected i n
appl i cabl e shi p drawi ngs.
Fl arel ess-tube fi tti ngs are avai l abl e i n many
of the same shapes and thread combi nati ons as
fl ared-tube fi tti ngs. (See fi g. 5-16.) The fi tti ng has
a counterbore shoul der for the end of the tubi ng
to rest agai nst. The angl e of the counterbore
causes the cutti ng edge of the sl eeve or ferrul e to
cut i nto the outsi de surface of the tube when the
two are assembl ed.
The nut presses on the bevel of the sl eeve and
causes i t to cl amp ti ghtl y to the tube. Resi stance
to vi brati on i s concentrated at thi s poi nt rather
than at the sl eeve cut. When ful l y ti ghtened, the
sl eeve or ferrul e i s bowed sl i ghtl y at the mi dsecti on
and acts as a spri ng. Thi s spri ng acti on of the
sl eeve or ferrul e mai ntai ns a constant tensi on
between the body and the nut and thus prevents
the nut from l ooseni ng.
Pri or to the i nstal l ati on of a new fl arel ess-tube
connector, the end of the tubi ng must be square,
Figure 5-18.Flareless-tube connector.
concentri c, and free of burrs. For the connecti on
to be effecti ve, the cutti ng edge of the sl eeve or
ferrul e must bi te i nto the peri phery of the tube
(fi g. 5-19). Thi s i s ensured by presetti ng the sl eeve
or ferrul e on the tube.
Presetting
Presetti ng consi sts of deformi ng the ferrul e to
bi te i nto the tube OD and deformi ng the end of
the tube to form a shal l ow coni cal ri ng seati ng
surface. The tube and ferrul e assembl y shoul d be
preset i n a presetti ng tool that has an end secti on
i denti cal to a fi tti ng body but whi ch i s made of
speci al l y hardened steel . Thi s tool hardness i s
needed to ensure that al l deformati on at the tube
end seat goes i nto the tube.
Presetti ng i s done wi th a hydraul i c presetti ng
tool or a manual presetti ng tool , ei ther i n the shop
or aboard shi p. The tool vendors i nstructi ons
must be fol l owed for the hydraul i c presetti ng tool .
I f a presetti ng tool i s not avai l abl e, the fi tti ng
body i ntended for i nstal l ati on i s used i n the same
manner as the manual presetti ng tool . (I f an
al umi num fi tti ng i s used, i t shoul d not be reused
i n the system.) The manual tool i s used as fol l ows:
WARNING
Fai l ure to fol l ow these i nstructi ons may
resul t i n i mproperl y preset ferrul es wi th
i nsuffi ci ent bi te i nto the tube. I mproperl y
preset ferrul es have resul ted i n joi nts that
passed hydrostati c testi ng and operated for
weeks or years, then fai l ed catastrophi cal l y
under shock, vi brati on, or normal operat-
i ng l oads. Fl arel ess fi tti ng fai l ures have
Figure 5-19.Unused ferrules.
5-15
caused personnel i njury, damage to equi p-
ment, and unnecessary i nterrupti on of
propul si on power.
1. Cut the tubi ng square and l i ghtl y deburr
the i nsi de and outsi de corners. For corrosi on
resi sti ng steel (CRES) tubi ng, use a hacksaw rather
than a tubi ng cutter to avoi d work hardeni ng the
tube end. For CRES, and i f necessary for other
materi al s, dress the tube end smooth and square
wi th a fi l e. Tube ends wi th i rregul ar cutti ng marks
wi l l not pr oduce sati sfactor y seati ng sur face
i mpressi ons.
2. Test the hardness of the ferrul e by maki ng
a l i ght scratch on the tubi ng at l east 1/2 i nch back
from the tube end, usi ng a sharp corner on the
ferrul e. I f the ferrul e wi l l not scratch the tube,
no bi te wi l l be obtai ned. Thi s test maybe omi tted
for fl ush-type ferrul es where the bi te wi l l be
vi si bl e. Moderate hand pressure i s suffi ci ent for
produci ng the scratch.
3. Lubr i cate the nut thr eads, the fer r ul e
l eadi ng and trai l i ng edges, and the preset tool
threads wi th a thread l ubri cant compati bl e wi th
the system. Sl i de the nut onto the tubi ng so the
threads face the tube end. Note whether the
ferrul e i s a fl ush type or recessed type (fi g. 5-19),
and sl i de the ferrul e onto the tube so the cutti ng
edge i s toward the tube end (l arge end toward the
nut).
4. Bottom the end of the tubi ng i n the
presetti ng tool . Sl i de the ferrul e up i nto the
presetti ng tool , and confi rm that the nut can be
moved down the tube suffi ci entl y to expose at
l east 1/8 i nch of tubi ng past the ferrul e after the
pr esetti ng oper ati on (fi g. 5-20) to al l ow for
i nspecti on of the ferrul e.
5. Whi l e keepi ng the tube bottomed i n the
presetti ng tool , ti ghten the nut onto the fi tti ng
body unti l the ferrul e just gri ps the tube by
fri cti on. Thi s ri ng gri p poi nt may be i denti fi ed by
l i ghtl y turni ng the tube or the presetti ng tool and
sl owl y ti ghteni ng the nut unti l the tube cannot
be tur ned i n the pr esetti ng tool by hand.
Mark the nut and the presetti ng tool at thi s
posi ti on.
6. Ti ghten the nut accordi ng to the number
of turns gi ven i n tabl e 5-3, dependi ng on tube
si ze.
5-16
Figure 5-20.Tube and ferrule assembled for preset-
ting, showing nut position required for inspecting
ferrule.
Inspection
Di sassembl e and i nspect the fi tti ng as fol l ows
(mandatory):
1. Ensure that the end of the tubi ng has an
i mpressi on of the presetti ng tool seat surface
(ci rcul ar appeari ng ri ng) for 360 degrees. A parti al
ci rcl e, a vi si bl y off-center ci rcl e, or a ci rcl e broken
by the roughness of the tube end i s unsati sfactory.
2. Check for proper bi te:
a. For fl ush-type ferrul es, a rai sed ri dge
(fi g. 5-21) of tube metal must be vi si bl e compl etel y
around the tube at the l eadi ng edge of the ferrul e.
The best practi ce i s to obtai n a ri dge about 50
percent of the ferrul e edge thi ckness.
Table 5-3.Number of Turns
Figure 5-21.Ferrules installed on tube, preset and removed
for inspection.
b. For recessed-type ferrul es, the l eadi ng
edge must be snug agai nst the tube OD. Determi ne
thi s vi sual l y and by attempti ng to rock the ferrul e
on the tube.
3. Ensure that the nut end of the ferrul e (both
types) i s col l apsed around the tube to provi de
support agai nst bendi ng l oads and vi brati on.
4. The ferrul e (both types) must have l i ttl e or
no pl ay al ong the di recti on of the tube run. Check
thi s by tryi ng to move the ferrul e back and forth
by hand. The ferrul e wi l l often be free to rotate
on the tubi ng; thi s does not affect i ts functi on.
5. For fl ush-type ferrul es, check that the gap
between the rai sed metal ri dge and the cutti ng end
of the ferrul e stays the same whi l e the ferrul e i s
rotated. (Omi t thi s check for recessed-type ferrul es
or i f the fl ush-type ferrul e wi l l not rotate on the
tube).
6. Check that the mi ddl e porti on of the ferrul e
(both types) i s bowed or sprung i nto an arc. The
l eadi ng edge of the ferrul e may appear fl attened
i nto a cone shape; thi s i s acceptabl e as l ong as
there i s a bowed secti on near the mi ddl e of the
ferrul e. I f the whol e l eadi ng secti on of the ferrul e
i s fl attened i nto a cone wi th no bowed secti on,
the ferrul e (and possi bl y the fi tti ng body, i f used)
has been damaged by overti ghteni ng and wi l l not
seal rel i abl y.
Final Assembly
When you make a fi nal assembl y i n the
system, use the fol l owi ng i nstal l ati on procedure:
1. Lubri cate al l threads wi th a l i qui d that i s
compati bl e wi th the fl ui d to be used i n the system.
2. Pl ace the tube assembl y i n posi ti on and
check for al i gnment.
3. Ti ghten the nut by hand unti l you feel an
i ncrease i n resi stance to turni ng. Thi s i ndi cates
that the sl eeve or ferrul e pi l ot has contacted the
fi tti ng.
4. I f possi bl e, use a torque wrench to ti ghten
fl arel ess tubi ng nuts. Torque val ues for speci fi c
i nstal l ati ons are usual l y l i sted i n the appl i cabl e
techni cal publ i cati ons. I f i t i s not possi bl e to use
a torque wrench, use the fol l owi ng procedures for
ti ghteni ng the nuts:
After the nut i s handti ght, turn the nut 1/6
turn (one fl at on a hex nut) wi th a wrench. Use
a wrench on the connector to prevent i t from
turni ng whi l e ti ghteni ng the nut. After you i nstal l
the tube assembl y, have the system pressure tested.
Shoul d a connecti on l eak, you may ti ghten the
nut an addi ti onal 1/6 turn (maki ng a total of 1/3
turn). I f, after ti ghteni ng the nut a total of 1/3
turn, l eakage sti l l exi sts, remove the assembl y and
i nspect the components of the assembl y for scores,
cracks, presence of forei gn materi al , or damage
from overti ghteni ng.
NOTE: Overti ghteni ng a fl arel ess-tube nut
dri ves the cutti ng edge of the sl eeve or ferrul e
deepl y i nto the tube, causi ng the tube to be
weakened to the poi nt where normal vi brati on
coul d cause the tube to shear. After you compl ete
the i nspecti on (i f you do not fi nd any di s-
crepanci es), reassembl e the connecti on and repeat
the pressure test procedures.
CAUTION: Do not i n any case ti ghten the
nut beyond 1/3 turn (two fl ats on the hex nut);
thi s i s the maxi mum the fi tti ng may be ti ghtened
wi thout the possi bi l i ty of permanentl y damagi ng
the sl eeve or the tube.
CONNECTORS FOR
FLEXIBLE HOSE
As stated previ ousl y, the fabri cati on of fl exi bl e
hose assembl i es i s covered i n appl i cabl e trai ni ng
manual s, techni cal publ i cati ons, and NAVAI R
01-1A-20. There are vari ous types of end fi tti ngs
for both the pi pi ng connecti on si de and the hose
5-17
connecti on si de of hose fi tti ngs. Fi gure 5-22 shows
commonl y used fi tti ngs.
Piping Connection Side of Hose Fitting
The pi pi ng si de of an end fi tti ng comes wi th
several connecti ng vari ati ons: fl ange, JI C 37
fl are, O-ri ng uni on, and spl i t cl amp, to name a
few. Not al l vari eti es are avai l abl e for each hose.
Therefore, i nstal l ers must consul t the mi l i tary
s peci fi cati on an d man u factu r er s data to
determi ne the speci fi c end fi tti ngs avai l abl e.
Hose Connection Side of Hose Fitting
Hose fi tti ngs are attached to the hose by
several methods. Each method i s determi ned by
the fi tti ng manufacturer and takes i nto con-
si derati on such thi ngs as si ze, constructi on, wal l
thi ckness, and pressure rati ng. Hoses used for
fl exi bl e connecti ons use one of the fol l owi ng
methods for attachment of the fi tti ng to the
hose.
ONE-PIECE REUSABLE SOCKET. The
socket component of the fi tti ng i s fabri cated as
a si ngl e pi ece. One-pi ece reusabl e sockets are
screwed or rocked onto the hose OD, fol l owed
by i nserti on of the ni ppl e component.
SEGMENTED, BOLTED SOCKET. The
segmented, bol ted socket consi sts of two or more
segments whi ch are bol ted together on the hose
after i nserti on of the ni ppl e component.
Figure 5-22.End fittings and hose fittings.
5-18
SEGMENTED SOCKET, RI NG AND
BAND ATTACHED. The segmented, ri ng and
band attached socket consi sts of three or more
segments. As wi th the bol t-together segments, the
segments, ri ng and band are put on the hose after
i nserti on of the ni ppl e. A speci al tool i s requi red
to compress the segments.
SEGMENTED SOCKET, RING AND BOLT
ATTACHED. The segmented, ri ng and bol t
attached sock et consi sts of thr ee or mor e
segments. As wi th other segmented socket-type
fi tti ngs, the segments, ri ng, and nuts and bol ts
are put on the hose after i nserti on of the ni ppl e.
SOL I D SOCKET, PERMANENTL Y
ATTACHED. Thi s type of socket i s perma-
nentl y attached to the hose by cr i mpi ng or
swagi ng. I t i s not reusabl e and i s onl y found
on hose assembl i es where operati ng condi ti ons
precl ude the use of other fi tti ng types. Hose
assembl i es wi th thi s type of fi tti ng attachment are
purchased as compl ete hose assembl i es from the
manufacturer.
QUICK-DISCONNECT COUPLINGS
Sel f-seal i ng, qui ck-di sconnect coupl i ngs are
used at var i ous poi nts i n many fl ui d power
systems. These coupl i ngs are i nstal l ed at l ocati ons
where frequent uncoupl i ng of the l i nes i s requi red
for i nspecti on, test, and mai ntenance. Qui ck-
di sconnect coupl i ngs are al so commonl y used i n
pneumati c systems to connect secti ons of ai r hose
and to connect tool s to the ai r pressure l i nes. Thi s
provi des a conveni ent method of attachi ng and
detachi ng tool s and secti ons of l i nes wi thout l osi ng
pressure.
Qui ck-di sconnect coupl i ngs provi de a means
for qui ckl y di sconnecti ng a l i ne wi thout the l oss
of fl ui d fr om the system or the entr ance of
forei gn matter i nto the system. Several types of
qui ck-di sconnect coupl i ngs have been desi gned for
use i n fl ui d power systems. Fi gure 5-23 i l l ustrates
Figure 5-23.Quick-disconnect coupling for air lines.
a coupl i ng that i s used wi th portabl e pneumati c
tool s. The mal e secti on i s connected to the tool
or to the l i ne l eadi ng from the tool . The femal e
secti on, whi ch contai ns the shutoff val ve, i s
i nstal l ed i n the pneumati c l i ne l eadi ng from
the pressure source. These connectors can be
separated or connected by very l i ttl e effort on the
part of the operator.
The most common qui ck-di sconnect coupl i ng
for hydraul i c systems consi sts of two parts, hel d
together by a uni on nut. Each part contai ns a
val ve whi ch i s hel d open when the coupl i ng i s
connected, al l owi ng fl ui d to fl ow i n ei ther
di r ecti on thr ough the coupl i ng. When the
coupl i ng i s di sconnected, a spri ng i n each part
cl oses the val ve, preventi ng the l oss of fl ui d and
entrance of forei gn matter.
MANIFOLDS
Some fl ui d power systems are equi pped wi th
mani fol ds i n the pressure suppl y and/or return
l i nes. A mani fol d i s a fl ui d conductor that
provi des mul ti pl e connecti on ports. Mani fol ds
el i mi nate pi pi ng, reduce joi nts, whi ch are often
a source of l eakage, and conserve space. For
exampl e, mani fol ds may be used i n systems that
contai n several subsystems. One common l i ne
connects the pump to the mani fol d. There are
outl et por ts i n the mani fol d to pr ovi de con-
necti ons to each subsystem. A si mi l ar mani fol d
may be used i n the return system. Li nes from the
control val ves of the subsystem connect to the i nl et
ports of the mani fol d, where the fl ui d combi nes
i nto one outl et l i ne to the r eser voi r . Some
mani fol ds are equi pped wi th the check val ves,
rel i ef val ves, fi l ters, and so on, requi red for the
system. I n some cases, the control val ves are
mounted on the mani fol d i n such a manner that
the ports of the val ves are connected di rectl y to
the mani fol d.
Mani fol ds are usual l y one of three types
sandwi ch, cast, or dri l l ed. The sandwi ch type i s
constructed of three or more fl at pl ates. The
center pl ate (or pl ates) i s machi ned for passages,
and the requi red i nl et and outl et ports are dri l l ed
i nto the outer pl ates. The pl ates are then bonded
together to provi de a l eakproof assembl y. The cast
type of mani fol d i s desi gned wi th cast passages
and dri l l ed ports. The casti ng may be i ron, steel ,
bronze, or al umi num, dependi ng upon the type
of system and fl ui d medi um. I n the dri l l ed type
of mani fol d, al l ports and passages are dri l l ed i n
a bl ock of metal .
5-19
A si mpl e mani fol d i s i l l ustrated i n fi gure 5-24.
Thi s mani fol d contai ns one pressure i nl et port and
several pressure outl et ports that can be bl ocked
off wi th threaded pl ugs. Thi s type of mani fol d
can be adapted to systems contai ni ng vari ous
numbers of subsystems. A thermal rel i ef val ve
may be i ncorporated i n thi s mani fol d. I n thi s case,
the port l abel ed T i s connected to the return l i ne
to pr ovi de a passage for the r el i eved fl ui d to fl ow
to the reservoi r.
Fi gur e 5-25 shows a fl ow di agr am i n a
mani fol d whi ch provi des both pressure and return
passages. One common l i ne provi des pressuri zed
fl ui d to the mani fol d, whi ch di stri butes the fl ui d
to any one of fi ve outl et ports. The return si de
of the mani fol d i s si mi l ar i n desi gn. Thi s mani fol d
i s provi ded wi th a rel i ef val ve, whi ch i s connected
to the pressure and return passages. I n the event
of excessi ve pressure, the rel i ef val ve opens and
al l ows the fl ui d to fl ow from the pressure si de of
the mani fol d to the return si de.
Figure 5-25.Fluid manifoldflow diagram.
PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES
The fabri cati on, i nstal l ati on, and mai ntenance
of al l fl ui d l i nes and connectors are beyond the
scope of thi s trai ni ng manual . However, there are
some general precauti onary measures that appl y
to the mai ntenance of al l fl ui d l i nes.
Regardl ess of the type of l i nes or connectors
used to make up a fl ui d power system, make
certai n they are the correct si ze and strength and
perfectl y cl ean on the i nsi de. Al l l i nes must be
absol utel y cl ean and free from scal e and other
forei gn matter. I ron or steel pi pes, tubi ng, and
fi tti ngs can be cl eaned wi th a boi l er tube
wi re brush or wi th commerci al pi pe cl eani ng
apparatus. Rust and scal e can be removed from
short, strai ght pi eces by sandbl asti ng, provi ded
there i s no danger that sand parti cl es wi l l remai n
l odged i n bl i nd hol es or pockets after the pi ece
Figure 5-24.Fluid manifold.
5-20
i s fl ushed. I n the case of l ong pi eces or pi eces bent Open ends of pi pes, tubi ng, hose, and fi tti ngs
to compl ex shapes, rust and scal e can be removed shoul d be capped or pl ugged when they are to be
by pi ckl i ng (cl eani ng metal i n a chemi cal bath). stored for any consi derabl e peri od. Rags or waste
Parts must be degreased pri or to pi ckl i ng. The must not be used for thi s purpose, because they
manufactur er of the par ts shoul d pr ovi de deposi t harmful l i nt whi ch can cause severe
compl ete pi ckl i ng i nstructi ons. damage to the fl ui d power system.
5-21
CHAPTER 6
VALVES
I t i s al l but i mpossi bl e to desi gn a practi cal
fl ui d power system wi thout some means of
control l i ng the vol ume and pressure of the fl ui d
and di recti ng the fl ow of fl ui d to the operati ng
uni ts. Thi s i s accompl i shed by the i ncorporati on
of di fferent types of val ves. A val ve i s defi ned as
any devi ce by whi ch the fl ow of fl ui d may be
started, stopped, or regul ated by a movabl e part
that opens or obstr ucts passage. As appl i ed
i n fl ui d power systems, val ves ar e used for
contr ol l i ng the fl ow, the pr essur e, and the
di recti on of the fl ui d fl ow.
Val ves must be accurate i n the control of fl ui d
fl ow and pressure and the sequence of operati on.
Leakage between the val ve el ement and the val ve
seat i s r educed to a negl i gi bl e quanti ty by
preci si on-machi ned surfaces, resul ti ng i n careful l y
control l ed cl earances. Thi s i s one of the very
i mportant reasons for mi ni mi zi ng contami nati on
i n fl ui d power systems. Contami nati on causes
val ves to sti ck, pl ugs smal l ori fi ces, and causes
abrasi ons of the val ve seati ng surfaces, whi ch
resul ts i n l eakage between the val ve el ement and
val ve seat when the val ve i s i n the cl osed posi ti on.
Any of these can resul t i n i neffi ci ent operati on
or compl ete stoppage of the equi pment.
Val ves may be control l ed manual l y, el ectri -
cal l y, pneumati cal l y, mechani cal l y, hydraul i cal l y,
or by combi nati ons of two or mor e of these
methods. Factors that determi ne the method of
control i ncl ude the purpose of the val ve, the
desi gn and purpose of the system, the l ocati on of
the val ve wi thi n the system, and the avai l abi l i ty
of the source of power.
The di fferent types of val ves used i n fl ui d
power systems, thei r cl assi fi cati on, and thei r
appl i cati on are di scussed i n thi s chapter.
CLASSIFICATIONS
Val ves are cl assi fi ed accordi ng to thei r use:
fl ow control , pressure control , and di recti onal
control . Some val ves have mul ti pl e functi ons that
fal l i nto more than one cl assi fi cati on.
FLOW CONTROL VALVES
Fl ow control val ves are used to regul ate the
fl ow of fl ui ds i n fl ui d-power systems. Control of
fl ow i n fl ui d-power systems i s i mportant because
the rate of movement of fl ui d-powered machi nes
depends on the r ate of fl ow of the pr essur i zed
fl ui d. These val ves may be manual l y, hydrau-
l i cal l y, el ectri cal l y, or pneumati cal l y operated.
Some of the di fferent types of fl ow control
val ves are di scussed i n the fol l owi ng paragraphs.
BALL VALVES
Bal l val ves, as the name i mpl i es, are stop
val ves that use a bal l to stop or start a fl ow of
fl ui d. The bal l , shown i n fi gure 6-1, performs the
Figure 6-1.Typical ball valve.
6-1
same functi on as the di sk i n other val ves. As the
val ve handl e i s turned to open the val ve, the bal l
rotates to a poi nt where part or al l of the hol e
through the bal l i s i n l i ne wi th the val ve body i nl et
and outl et, al l owi ng fl ui d to fl ow through the
val ve. When the bal l i s rotated so the hol e i s
perpendi cul ar to the fl ow openi ngs of the val ve
body, the fl ow of fl ui d stops.
Most bal l val ves are the qui ck-acti ng type.
They requi re onl y a 90-degree turn to ei ther
compl etel y open or cl ose the val ve. However,
many are operated by pl anetary gears. Thi s type
of geari ng al l ows the use of a rel ati vel y smal l
handwheel and operati ng force to operate a fai rl y
l arge val ve. The geari ng does, however, i ncrease
the operati ng ti me for the val ve. Some bal l val ves
al so contai n a swi ng check l ocated wi thi n the bal l
to gi ve the val ve a check val ve feature. Fi gure 6-2
shows a bal l -stop, swi ng-check val ve wi th a
pl anetary gear operati on.
I n addi ti on to the bal l val ves shown i n fi gures
6-1 and 6-2, there are three-way bal l val ves that
are used to suppl y fl ui d from a si ngl e source to
one component or the other i n a two-component
system (fi g. 6-3).
Figure 6-2.Typical ball-stop, swing-check valve.
6-2
Figure 6-3.Three-way ball valve.
GATE VALVES
Gate val ves are used when a strai ght-l i ne fl ow
of fl ui d and mi ni mum fl ow restri cti on are needed.
Gate val ves are so-named because the part that
ei ther stops or al l ows fl ow through the val ve
acts somewhat l i ke a gate. The gate i s usual l y
wedge-shaped. When the val ve i s wi de open the
gate i s ful l y drawn up i nto the val ve bonnet. Thi s
l eaves an openi ng for fl ow through the val ve the
same si ze as the pi pe i n whi ch the val ve i s i nstal l ed
(fi g. 6-4). Therefore, there i s l i ttl e pressure drop
or fl ow restri cti on through the val ve.
Gate val ves are not sui tabl e for throttl i ng
purposes. The control of fl ow i s di ffi cul t because
of the val ves desi gn, and the fl ow of fl ui d
sl appi ng agai nst a par ti al l y open gate can
cause extensi ve damage to the val ve. Except as
speci fi cal l y authori zed, gate val ves shoul d not be
used for throttl i ng.
Gate val ves are cl assi fi ed as ei ther ri si ng-stem
or nonri si ng-stem val ves. The nonri si ng-stem
val ve i s shown i n fi gure 6-4. The stem i s threaded
i nto the gate. As the handwheel on the stem i s
rotated, the gate travel s up or down the stem on
the threads whi l e the stem remai ns verti cal l y
stati onary. Thi s type of val ve wi l l al most al ways
have a poi nter i ndi cator threaded onto the upper
end of the stem to i ndi cate the posi ti on of the gate.
Val ves wi th ri si ng stems (fi g. 6-5) are used
when i t i s i mportant to know by i mmedi ate
i nspecti on whether the val ve i s open or cl osed and
when the threads (stem and gate) exposed to the
fl ui d coul d become damaged by fl ui d contami -
nants. I n thi s val ve, the stem ri ses out of the val ve
when the val ve i s opened.
GLOBE VALVES
Gl obe val ves are probabl y the most common
val ves i n exi stence. The gl obe val ve gets i ts name
Figure 6-4.Operation of a gate valve.
6-3
Figure 6-5.Rising stem gate valve.
Figure 6-6.Types of globe valve bodies.
from the gl obul ar shape of the val ve body. Other
types of val ves may al so have gl obul ar-shaped
bodi es. Thus, i t i s the i nternal structure of the
val ve that i denti fi es the type of val ve.
The i nl et and outl et openi ngs for gl obe val ves
ar e ar r anged i n a way to sati sfy the fl ow
requi rements. Fi gure 6-6 shows strai ght-, angl e-,
and cross-fl ow val ves.
The movi ng parts of a gl obe val ve consi st of
the di sk, the val ve stem, and the handwheel . The
stem connects the handwheel and the di sk. I t i s
threaded and fi ts i nto the threads i n the val ve
bonnet.
The part of the gl obe val ve that control s fl ow
i s the di sk, whi ch i s attached to the val ve stem.
(Di sks are avai l abl e i n vari ous desi gns.) The val ve
i s cl osed by turni ng the val ve stem i n unti l the di sk
i s seated i nto the val ve seat. Thi s prevents fl ui d
from fl owi ng through the val ve (fi g. 6-7, vi ew A).
The edge of the di sk and the seat are very
accuratel y machi ned so that they forma ti ght seal
when the val ve i s cl osed. When the val ve i s open
(fi g. 6-7, vi ew B), the fl ui d fl ows through the space
between the edge of the di sk and the seat. Si nce
the fl ui d fl ows equal l y on al l si des of the center
of support when the val ve i s open, there i s no
unbal anced pressure on the di sk to cause uneven
wear. The rate at whi ch fl ui d fl ows through the
val ve i s regul ated by the posi ti on of the di sk i n
rel ati on to the seat. The val ve i s commonl y used
as a ful l y open or ful l y cl osed val ve, but i t may
be used as a throttl e val ve. However, si nce the
seati ng surface i s a rel ati vel y l arge area, i t i s not
sui tabl e as a throttl e val ve, where fi ne adjustments
are requi red i n control l i ng the rate of fl ow.
The gl obe val ve shoul d never be jammed i n
the open posi ti on. After a val ve i s ful l y opened,
the handwheel shoul d be turned toward the cl osed
posi ti on approxi matel y one-hal f turn. Unl ess thi s
i s done, the val ve i s l i kel y to sei ze i n the open
posi ti on, maki ng i t di ffi cul t, i f not i mpossi bl e, to
cl ose the val ve. Many val ves are damaged i n thi s
Figure 6-7.Operation of a globe valve.
6-4
manner. Another reason for not l eavi ng gl obe
val ves i n the ful l y open posi ti on i s that i t i s
someti mes di ffi cul t to determi ne i f the val ve i s
open or cl osed. I f the val ve i s jammed i n the open
posi ti on, the stem may be damaged or broken by
someone who thi nks the val ve i s cl osed, and
attempts to open i t.
I t i s i mportant that gl obe val ves be i nstal l ed
wi th the pressure agai nst the face of the di sk to
keep the system pressure away from the stem
packi ng when the val ve i s shut.
NEEDLE VALVES
Needl e val ves ar e si mi l ar i n desi gn and
operati on to the gl obe val ve. I nstead of a di sk,
a needl e val ve has a l ong tapered poi nt at the end
of the val ve stem. A cross-secti onal vi ew of a
needl e val ve i s i l l ustrated i n fi gure 6-8.
The l ong taper of the val ve el ement permi ts
a much smal l er seati ng surface area than that of
the gl obe val ve; therefore, the needl e val ve i s more
sui tabl e as a throttl e val ve. Needl e val ves are used
to contr ol fl ow i nto del i cate gauges, whi ch
mi ght be damaged by sudden surges of fl ui d under
pressure. Needl e val ves are al so used to control
the end of a work cycl e, where i t i s desi rabl e for
moti on to be brought sl owl y to a hal t, and at other
poi nts where preci se adjustments of fl ow are
necessary and where a smal l rate of fl ow i s
desi r ed.
Al though many of the needl e val ves used i n
fl ui d power systems are the manual l y operated
type (fi g. 6-8), modi fi cati ons of thi s type of val ve
are often used as vari abl e restri ctors. Thi s val ve i s
constructed wi thout a handwheel and i s adjusted
to provi de a speci fi c rate of fl ow. Thi s rate of fl ow
wi l l provi de a desi red ti me of operati on for a
parti cul ar subsystem. Si nce thi s type of val ve can
be adjusted to conform to the requi rements of a
parti cul ar system, i t can be used i n a vari ety of
systems. Fi gure 6-9 i l l ustrates a needl e val ve that
was modi fi ed as a vari abl e restri ctor.
HYDRAULIC AND PNEUMATIC
GLOBE VALVES
The val ve consi sts of a val ve body and a stem
cartri dge assembl y. The stem cartri dge assembl y
i ncl udes the bonnet, gl and nut, packi ng, packi ng
retai ner, handl e, stem, and seat. On smal l val ves
(1/8 and 1/4 i nch) the stem i s made i n one pi ece,
but on l arger si zes i t i s made of a stem, gui de,
and stem retai ner. The val ve di sk i s made of nyl on
and i s swaged i nto ei ther the stem, for 1/8- and
1/4-i nch val ves, or the gui de, for l arger val ves.
The bonnet screws i nto the val ve body wi th
l eft-hand threads and i s seal ed by an O-ri ng
(i ncl udi ng a back-up ri ng).
Figure 6-8.Cross-sectional view of a needle valve. Figure 6-9.Variable restrictor.
6-5
The val ve i s avai l abl e wi th ei ther a ri si ng stem
or a non-ri si ng stem. The ri si ng stem val ve uses
the same port body desi gn as does the non-ri si ng
stem val ve. The stem i s threaded i nto the gl and
nut and screws outward as the val ve i s opened.
Thi s val ve does not i ncorporate provi si ons for
ti ghteni ng the stem packi ng nor repl aci ng the
packi ng whi l e the val ve i s i n servi ce; therefore,
compl ete val ve di sassembl y i s r equi r ed for
mai ntenance. Fi gure 6-10 i l l ustrates a ri si ng stem
hydraul i c and pneumati c gl obe val ve. Addi ti onal
i nformati on on thi s val ve i s avai l abl e i n Standard
Navy Valves, NAVSHI PS 0948-012-5000.
PRESSURE CONTROL VALVES
The safe and effi ci ent oper ati on of fl ui d
power systems, system components, and rel ated
equi pment r equi r es a means of contr ol l i ng
pressure. There are many types of automati c
pressure control val ves. Some of them merel y
provi de an escape for pressure that exceeds a set
pressure; some onl y reduce the pressure to a l ower
pressure system or subsystem; and some keep the
pressure i n a system wi thi n a requi red range.
RELIEF VALVES
Some fl ui d power systems, even when operat-
i ng normal l y, may temporari l y devel op excessi ve
pressure; for exampl e, when an unusual l y strong
work resi stance i s encountered. Rel i ef val ves are
used to control thi s excess pressure.
Rel i ef val ves are automati c val ves used on
system l i nes and equi pment to prevent over-
pressuri zati on. Most rel i ef val ves si mpl y l i ft (open)
at a preset pressure and reset (shut) when the
pressure drops sl i ghtl y bel ow the l i fti ng pressure.
They do not mai ntai n fl ow or pressure at a gi ven
amount, but prevent pressure from ri si ng above
a speci fi c l evel when the system i s temporari l y
over l oaded.
Mai n system r el i ef val ves ar e gener al l y
i nstal l ed between the pump or pressure source and
the fi rst system i sol ati on val ve. The val ve must
be l arge enough to al l ow the ful l output of the
hydr aul i c pump to be del i ver ed back to the
reservoi r. I n a pneumati c system, the rel i ef val ve
control s excess pressure by di schargi ng the excess
gas to the atmosphere.
Figure 6-10.Hydraulic and pneumatic globe valve (rising stem).
6-6
Smal l er rel i ef val ves, si mi l ar i n desi gn and
operati on to the mai n system rel i ef val ve, are often
used i n i sol ated parts of the system where a check
val ve or di recti onal control val ve prevents pressure
from bei ng rel i eved through the mai n system rel i ef
val ve and where pressures must be rel i eved at a
set poi nt l ower than that provi ded by the mai n
system rel i ef. These smal l rel i ef val ves are al so
used to rel i eve pressures caused by thermal
expansi on (see gl ossary) of the fl ui ds.
Fi gure 6-11 shows a typi cal rel i ef val ve. System
pressure si mpl y acts under the val ve di sk at the
i nl et to the val ve. When the system pressure
exceeds the force exerted by the val ve spri ng, the
val ve di sk l i fts off of i ts seat, al l owi ng some of
the system fl ui d to escape through the val ve outl et
unti l the system pressure i s reduced to just bel ow
the rel i ef set poi nt of the val ve.
Al l r el i ef val ves have an adjustment for
i ncreasi ng or decreasi ng the set rel i ef pressure.
Some rel i ef val ves are equi pped wi th an adjusti ng
screw for thi s purpose. Thi s adjusti ng screw i s
usual l y cover ed wi th a cap, whi ch must be
removed before an adjustment can be made. Some
type of l ocki ng devi ce, such as a l ock nut, i s
usual l y provi ded to prevent the adjustment from
changi ng through vi brati on. Other types of rel i ef
val ves are equi pped wi th a handwheel for maki ng
adjustments to the val ve. Ei ther the adjusti ng
screw or the handwheel i s turned cl ockwi se to
i ncrease the pressure at whi ch the val ve wi l l open.
I n addi ti on, most rel i ef val ves are al so provi ded
Figure 6-11.Relief valve.
wi th an operati ng l ever or some type of devi ce to
al l ow manual cycl i ng or gaggi ng the val ve open
for certai n tasks.
Var i ous modi fi cati ons of the r el i ef val ve
shown i n fi gure 6-11 are used to effi ci entl y serve
the requi rements of some fl ui d power systems;
however, thi s rel i ef val ve i s unsati sfactory for
some appl i cati ons. To gi ve you a better under-
standi ng of the operati on of rel i ef val ves, we wi l l
di scuss some of the undesi rabl e characteri sti cs of
thi s val ve.
A si mpl e r el i ef val ve, such as the one
i l l ustrated i n fi gure 6-11, wi th a sui tabl e spri ng
adjustment can be set so that i t wi l l open when
the system pressure reaches a certai n l evel , 500
psi for exampl e. When the val ve does open, the
vol ume of fl ow to be handl ed may be greater than
the capaci ty of the val ve; therefore, pressure i n
the system may i ncrease to several hundred psi
above the set pressure before the val ve bri ngs the
pressure under control . A si mpl e rel i ef val ve wi l l
be effecti ve under these condi ti ons onl y i f i t i s very
l arge. I n thi s case, i t woul d operate sti ffl y and the
val ve el ement woul d chatter back and forth. I n
addi ti on, the val ve wi l l not cl ose unti l the system
pressure decreases to a poi nt somewhat bel ow the
openi ng pressure.
The surface area of the val ve el ement must be
l arger than that of the pressure openi ng i f the
val ve i s to seat sati sfactori l y as shown i n fi gure
6-12. The pressure i n the system acts on the val ve
el ement open to i t. I n each case i n fi gure 6-12,
the force exerted di rectl y upward by system
pressure when the val ve i s cl osed depends on the
area (A) across the val ve el ement where the
el ement seats agai nst the pressure tube. The
moment the val ve opens, however, the upward
for ce exer ted depends on the hor i zontal ar ea (B)
of the enti re val ve el ement, whi ch i s greater than
area A. Thi s causes an upward jump of the val ve
el ement i mmedi atel y after i t opens, because the
Figure 6-12.Pressure acting on different areas.
6-7
same pressure acti ng over di fferent areas produces
forces proporti onal to the areas. I t al so requi res
a greater force to cl ose the val ve than was requi red
to open i t. As a resul t, the val ve wi l l not cl ose unti l
the system pressure has decreased to a certai n
poi nt bel ow the pressure requi red to open i t.
Let us assume that a val ve of thi s type i s set
to open at 500 psi . (Refer to fi g. 6-12.) When the
val ve i s cl osed, the pressure acts on area A. I f thi s
area i s 0.5 square i nch, an upward force of 250
pounds (500 0.5) wi l l be exerted on the val ve
at the moment of openi ng. Wi th the val ve open,
however, the pressure acts on area B. I f area B
i s 1 square i nch, the upward force i s 500 pounds,
or doubl e the force at whi ch the val ve actual l y
opened. For the val ve to cl ose, pressure i n the
system woul d have to decrease wel l bel ow the
poi nt at whi ch the val ve opened. The exact
pressure woul d depend on the shape of the val ve
el ement.
I n some hydraul i c systems, there i s a pressure
i n the return l i ne. Thi s back pressure i s caused
by restri cti ons i n the return l i ne and wi l l vary i n
rel ati on to the amount of fl ui d fl owi ng i n the
return l i ne. Thi s pressure creates a force on the
back of the val ve el ement and wi l l i ncrease the
force necessary to open the val ve and rel i eve
system pressure.
I t fol l ows that si mpl e rel i ef val ves have a
tendency to open and cl ose rapi dl y as they hunt
above and bel ow the set pr essur e, causi ng
pressure pul sati ons and undesi rabl e vi brati ons
and produci ng a noi sy chatter. Because of the
unsati sfactory performance of the si mpl e rel i ef
val ve i n some appl i cati ons, compound rel i ef val ves
wer e devel oped.
Compound rel i ef val ves use the pri nci pl es of
operati on of si mpl e rel i ef val ves for one stage of
thei r acti onthat of the pi l ot val ve. Provi si on i s
made to l i mi t the amount of fl ui d that the pi l ot
val ve must handl e, and ther eby avoi d the
weaknesses of si mpl e r el i ef val ves. (A pi l ot
val ve i s a smal l val ve used for operati ng another
val ve.)
The operati on of a compound rel i ef val ve i s
i l l ustrated i n fi gure 6-13. I n vi ew A, the mai n
val ve, whi ch consi sts of a pi ston, stem, and spri ng,
i s cl osed, bl ocki ng fl ow from the hi gh-pressure
l i ne to the reservoi r. Fl ui d i n the hi gh-pressure l i ne
fl ows around the stem of the mai n val ves as i t
fl ows to the actuati ng uni t. The stem of the mai n
val ve i s hol l ow (the stem passage) and contai ns
the mai n val ve spri ng, whi ch forces the mai n val ve
agai nst i ts seat. When the pi l ot val ve i s open the
stem passage al l ows fl ui d to fl ow from the pi l ot
Figure 6-13.Operation of compound relief valve,
6-8
val ve, around the mai n val ve spri ng, and down
to the return l i ne.
There i s al so a narrow passage (pi ston passage)
through the mai n val ve pi ston. Thi s passage
connects the hi gh-pr essur e l i ne to the val ve
chamber.
The pi l ot val ve i s a smal l , bal l -type, spri ng-
l oaded check val ve, whi ch connects the top of the
passage from the val ve chamber wi th the passage
through the mai n val ve stem. The pi l ot val ve i s
the control uni t of the rel i ef val ve because the
pressure at whi ch the rel i ef val ve wi l l open
depends on the tensi on of the pi l ot val ve spri ng.
The pi l ot val ve spri ng tensi on i s adjusted by
turni ng the adjusti ng screw so that the bal l wi l l
unseat when system pressure reaches the preset
l i mi t.
Fl ui d at l i ne pr essur e fl ows thr ough the
nar r ow pi ston passage to fi l l the chamber .
Because the l i ne and the chamber are connected,
the pressure i n both are equal . The top and
bottom of the mai n pi ston have equal areas;
therefore, the hydraul i c forces acti ng upward
and downward are equal , and there i s no tendency
for the pi ston to move i n ei ther di r ecti on.
The onl y other force acti ng on the mai n val ve
i s that of the mai n val ve spri ng, whi ch hol ds i t
cl osed.
When the pressure i n the hi gh-pressure l i ne
i ncreases to the poi nt at whi ch the pi l ot val ve
i s set, the bal l unseats (fi g. 6-13, vi ew B).
Thi s opens the val ve chamber thr ough the
val ve stem passage to the l ow-pressure return
l i ne. Fl ui d i mmedi atel y begi ns to fl ow out of the
chamber, much faster than i t can fl ow through
the nar r ow pi ston passage. As a r esul t the
chamber pressure i mmedi atel y drops, and the
pi l ot val ve begi ns to cl ose agai n, r estr i cti ng
the outward fl ow of fl ui d. Chamber pressure
therefore i ncreases, the val ve opens, and the cycl e
repeats.
So far, the onl y part of the val ve that has
moved appreci abl y i s the pi l ot, whi ch functi ons
just l i ke any other si mpl e spri ng-l oaded rel i ef
val ve. Because of the smal l si ze of the pi ston
passage, there i s a severe l i mi t on the amount
of overpressure protecti on the pi l ot can provi de
the system. Al l the pi l ot val ve can do i s l i mi t
fl ui d pressure i n the val ve chamber above the
mai n pi ston to a pr eset maxi mum pr essur e,
by al l owi ng excess fl ui d to fl ow through the
pi ston passage, through the stem passage, and
i nto the return l i ne. When pressure i n the system
i ncreases to a val ue that i s above the fl ow capaci ty
of the pi l ot val ve, the mai n val ve opens,
permi tti ng excess fl ui d to fl ow di rectl y to the
return l i ne. Thi s i s accompl i shed i n the fol l owi ng
manner.
As system pressure i ncreases, the upward force
on the mai n pi ston overcomes the downward
force, whi ch consi sts of the tensi on of the mai n
pi ston spri ng and the pressure of the fl ui d i n the
val ve chamber (fi g. 6-13, vi ew C). The pi ston then
ri ses, unseati ng the stem, and al l ows the fl ui d to
fl ow from the system pressure l i ne di rectl y i nto
the return l i ne. Thi s causes system pressure to
decrease rapi dl y, si nce the mai n val ve i s desi gned
to handl e the compl ete output of the pump. When
the pressure returns to normal , the pi l ot spri ng
forces the bal l onto the seat. Pressures are equal
above and bel ow the mai n pi ston, and the mai n
spri ng forces the val ve to seat.
As you can see, the compound val ve over-
comes the greatest l i mi tati on of a si mpl e rel i ef
val ve by l i mi ti ng the fl ow through the pi l ot val ve
to the quanti ty i t can sati sfactori l y handl e. Thi s
l i mi ts the pressure above the mai n val ve and
enabl es the mai n l i ne pressure to open the mai n
val ve. I n thi s way, the system i s rel i eved when an
overl oad exi sts.
PRESSURE REGULATORS
Pressure regul ators, often r efer r ed to as
unl oadi ng val ves, are used i n fl ui d power systems
to regul ate pressure. I n pneumati c systems, the
val ve, commonl y r efer r ed to as a pr essur e
regul ator, si mpl y reduces pressure. Thi s type of
val ve i s di scussed l ater i n thi s chapter under
pressure-reduci ng val ves. I n hydraul i c systems the
pressure regul ator i s used to unl oad the pump and
to mai ntai n and regul ate system pressure at the
desi red val ues. Al l hydraul i c systems do not
r equi r e pr essur e r egul ator s. The open-center
system (di scussed i n chapter 12) does not requi re
a pressure regul ator. Many systems are equi pped
wi th vari abl e-di spl acement pumps (di scussed i n
chapter 4), whi ch contai n a pressure-regul ati ng
devi ce.
Pressure regul ators are made i n a vari ety of
types and by vari ous manufacturers; however, the
6-9
basi c operati ng pri nci pl es of al l regul ators are
si mi l ar to the one i l l ustrated i n fi gure 6-14.
A regul ator i s open when i t i s di recti ng fl ui d
under pressure i nto the system (fi g. 6-14, vi ew A).
I n the cl osed posi ti on (fi g. 6-14, vi ew B), the fl ui d
i n the part of the system beyond the regul ator i s
trapped at the desi red pressure, and the fl ui d from
the pump i s bypassed i nto the return l i ne and back
to the reservoi r. To prevent constant openi ng and
cl osi ng (chatter), the regul ator i s desi gned to open
at a pressure somewhat l ower than the cl osi ng
pressure. Thi s di fference i s known as di fferenti al
or operati ng range. For exampl e, assume that a
pressure regul ator i s set to open when the system
pressure drops bel ow 600 psi , and cl ose when the
pressure ri ses above 800 psi . The di fferenti al or
operati ng range i s 200 psi .
Referri ng to fi gure 6-14, assume that the
pi ston has an area of 1 square i nch, the pi l ot val ve
has a cross-secti onal area of one-fourth square
i nch, and the pi ston spri ng provi des 600 pounds
of force pushi ng the pi ston down. When the
pressure i n the system i s l ess than 600 psi , fl ui d
from the pump wi l l enter the i nl et port, fl ow to
the top of the regul ator, and then to the pi l ot
val ve. When the pressure of the fl ui d at the i nl et
i ncreases to the poi nt where the force i t creates
agai nst the front of the check val ve exceeds the
force created agai nst the back of the check val ve
by system pressure and the check val ve spri ng, the
check val ve opens. Thi s al l ows fl ui d to fl ow i nto
the system and to the bottom of the regul ator
agai nst the pi ston. When the force created by the
system pressure exceeds the force exerted by the
spri ng, the pi ston moves up, causi ng the pi l ot
val ve to unseat. Si nce the fl ui d wi l l take the path
of l east r esi stance, i t wi l l pass thr ough the
regul ator and back to the reservoi r through the
return l i ne.
When the fl ui d from the pump i s suddenl y
al l owed a free path to return, the pressure on the
i nput si de of the check val ve drops and the check
val ve cl oses. The fl ui d i n the system i s then
trapped under pressure. Thi s fl ui d wi l l remai n
pressuri zed unti l a power uni t i s actuated, or unti l
pressure i s sl owl y l ost through normal i nternal
l eakage wi thi n the system.
When the system pressure decreases to a poi nt
sl i ghtl y bel ow 600 psi , the spri ng forces the pi ston
down and cl oses the pi l ot val ve. When the pi l ot
val ve i s cl osed, the fl ui d cannot fl ow di rectl y to
the return l i ne. Thi s causes the pressure to i ncrease
i n the l i ne between the pump and the regul ator.
Thi s pressure opens the check val ve, causi ng the
fl ui d to enter the system.
I n summar y, when the system pr essur e
decreases a certai n amount, the pressure regul ator
wi l l open, sendi ng fl ui d to the system. When the
system pr essur e i ncr eases suffi ci entl y, the
regul ator wi l l cl ose, al l owi ng the fl ui d from the
pump to fl ow through the regul ator and back to
the reservoi r. The pressure regul ator takes the l oad
off of the pump and regul ates system pressure.
Figure 6-14.Hydraulic pressure regulator.
6-10
Figure 6-15.Installation
SEQUENCE VALVES
of sequence valves.
Sequence val ves contr ol the sequence of
operati on between two branches i n a ci rcui t; that
i s, they enabl e one uni t to automati cal l y set
another uni t i nto moti on. An exampl e of the use
of a sequence val ve i s i n an ai rcraft l andi ng gear
actuati ng system.
I n a l andi ng gear actuati ng system, the l andi ng
gear doors must open before the l andi ng gear
starts to extend. Conversel y, the l andi ng gear must
be compl etel y retracted before the doors cl ose. A
sequence val ve i nstal l ed i n each l andi ng gear
actuati ng l i ne performs thi s functi on.
A sequence val ve i s somewhat si mi l ar to a
rel i ef val ve except that, after the set pressure has
been reached, the sequence val ve di verts the fl ui d
to a second actuator or motor to do work i n
another part of the system. Fi gure 6-15 shows an
i nstal l ati on of two sequence val ves that control
the sequence of operati on of three actuati ng
cyl i nders. Fl ui d i s free to fl ow i nto cyl i nder A.
The fi rst sequence val ve (1) bl ocks the passage of
fl ui d unti l the pi ston i n cyl i nder A moves to the
end of i ts stroke. At thi s ti me, sequence val ve 1
opens, al l owi ng fl ui d to enter cyl i nder B. Thi s
acti on conti nues unti l al l three pi stons compl ete
thei r strokes.
There are vari ous types of sequence val ves.
Some are control l ed by pressure and some are
control l ed mechani cal l y.
Pressure-Controlled Sequence Valve
The operati on of a typi cal pressure-control l ed
sequence val ve i s i l l ustrated i n fi gure 6-16. The
openi ng pressure i s obtai ned by adjusti ng the
tensi on of the spri ng that normal l y hol ds the
pi ston i n the cl osed posi ti on. (Note that the top
part of the pi ston has a l arger di ameter than the
l ower part.) Fl ui d enters the val ve through the
i nl et port, fl ows around the l ower part of the
pi ston and exi ts the outl et port, where i t fl ows to
the pri mary (fi rst) uni t to be operated (fi g. 6-16,
vi ew A). Thi s fl ui d pressure al so acts agai nst the
l ower surface of the pi ston.
Figure 6-16.Operation of a pressure-controlled sequence valve.
6-11
When the pri mary actuati ng uni t compl etes i ts
operati on, pressure i n the l i ne to the actuati ng uni t
i ncreases suffi ci entl y to overcome the force of the
spri ng, and the pi ston ri ses. The val ve i s then i n
the open posi ti on (fi g. 6-16, vi ew B). The fl ui d
enteri ng the val ve takes the path of l east resi stance
and fl ows to the secondary uni t.
A drai n passage i s provi ded to al l ow any fl ui d
l eaki ng past the pi ston to fl ow from the top of
the val ve. I n hydraul i c systems, thi s drai n l i ne i s
usual l y connected to the mai n return l i ne.
Mechanically Operated Sequence Valve
The mechani cal l y operated sequence val ve
(fi g. 6-17) i s operated by a pl unger that extends
thr ough the body of the val ve. The val ve i s
mounted so that the pl unger wi l l be operated by
the pri mary uni t.
A check val ve, ei ther a bal l or a poppet, i s
i nstal l ed between the fl ui d ports i n the body. I t
can be unseated by ei ther the pl unger or fl ui d
pr essur e.
Port A (fi g. 6-17) and the actuator of the
pri mary uni t are connected by a common l i ne.
Port B i s connected by a l i ne to the actuator of
the secondary uni t. When fl ui d under pressure
fl ows to the pri mary uni t, i t al so fl ows i nto the
sequence val ve through port A to the seated check
val ve i n the sequence val ve. I n order to operate
the secondary uni t, the fl ui d must fl ow through
the sequence val ve. The val ve i s l ocated so that
the pri mary uni t depresses the pl unger as i t
compl etes i ts operati on. The pl unger unseats
the check val ve and al l ows the fl ui d to fl ow
Figure 6-17.Mechanically operated sequence valve.
thr ough the val ve, out por t B, and to the
secondary uni t.
Thi s type of sequence val ve permi ts fl ow i n
the opposi te di recti on. Fl ui d enters port B and
fl ows to the check val ve. Al though thi s i s return
fl ow from the actuati ng uni t, the fl ui d overcomes
spri ng tensi on, unseats the check val ve, and fl ows
out through port A.
PRESSURE-REDUCING VALVES
Pressure-reduci ng val ves provi de a steady
pressure i nto a system that operates at a l ower
pressure than the suppl y system. A reduci ng val ve
can normal l y be set for any desi red downstream
pressure wi thi n the desi gn l i mi ts of the val ve. Once
the val ve i s set, the reduced pressure wi l l be
mai ntai ned r egar dl ess of changes i n suppl y
pressure (as l ong as the suppl y pressure i s at l east
as hi gh as the reduced pressure desi red) and
regardl ess of the system l oad, provi di ng the l oad
does not exceed the desi gn capaci ty of the reducer.
Figure 6-18.Spring-loaded pressure-reducing valve.
6-12
Ther e ar e var i ous desi gns and types of
pr essur e-r educi ng val ves. The spr i ng-l oaded
r educer and the pi l ot-contr ol l ed val ve ar e
di scussed i n thi s text.
Spring-Loaded Reducer
The spri ng-l oaded pressure-reduci ng val ve
(fi g. 6-18) i s commonl y used i n pneumati c
systems. I t i s often referred to as a pressure
regul ator.
The val ve si mpl y uses spri ng pressure agai nst
a di aphragm to open the val ve. On the bottom
of the di aphragm, the outl et pressure (the pressure
i n the reduced-pressure system) of the val ve forces
the di aphragm upward to shut the val ve. When
the outl et pressure drops bel ow the set poi nt of
the val ve, the spri ng pressure overcomes the outl et
pressure and forces the val ve stem downward,
openi ng the val ve. As the outl et pressure i ncreases,
appr oachi ng the desi r ed val ue, the pr essur e
under the di aphragm begi ns to overcome spri ng
pressure, forci ng the val ve stem upwards, shutti ng
the val ve. You can adjust the downstr eam
pressure by turni ng the adjusti ng screw, whi ch
vari es the spri ng pressure agai nst the di aphragm.
Thi s parti cul ar spri ng-l oaded val ve wi l l fai l i n the
open posi ti on i f a di aphragm rupture occurs.
Pilot-Controlled Pressure-Reducing Valve
Fi gure 6-19 i l l ustrates the operati on of a
pi l ot-control l ed pressure-reduci ng val ve. Thi s
val ve consi sts of an adjustabl e pi l ot val ve, whi ch
control s the operati ng pressure of the val ve, and
a spool val ve, whi ch reacts to the acti on of the
pi l ot val ve.
The pi l ot val ve consi sts of a poppet (1), a
spri ng (2), and an adjusti ng screw (3). The val ve
Figure 6-19.Pilot-controlled pressure-reducing valve.
6-13
spool assembl y consi sts of a val ve spool (10) and
a spri ng (4).
Fl ui d under mai n pressure enters the i nl et port
(11) and under al l condi ti ons i s free to fl ow
through the val ve and the outl et port (5). (Ei ther
port 5 or port 11 maybe used as the hi gh-pressure
por t.)
Fi gure 6-19, vi ew A, shows the val ve i n the
open posi ti on. I n thi s posi ti on, the pressure i n the
reduced-pressure outl et port (6) has not reached
the preset operati ng pressure of the val ve. The
fl ui d al so fl ows through passage 8, through smal l er
passage 9 i n the center of the val ve spool , and i nto
chamber 12. The fl ui d pressure at outl et port 6
i s therefore di stri buted to both ends of the spool .
When these pressures are equal the spool i s hydrau-
l i cal l y bal anced. Spri ng 4 i s a l ow-tensi on spri ng
and appl i es onl y a sl i ght downward force on the
spool . I ts mai n purpose i s to posi ti on the spool
and to mai ntai n openi ng 7 at i ts maxi mum si ze.
As the pressure i ncreases i n outl et port 6 (fi g.
16, vi ew B), thi s pressure i s transmi tted through
passages 8 and 9 to chamber 12. Thi s pressure al so
acts on the pi l ot val ve poppet (1). When thi s
pressure i ncreases above the preset operati ng
pressure of the val ve, i t overcomes the force of
pi l ot val ve spri ng 2 and unseats the poppet. Thi s
al l ows fl ui d to fl ow through the drai n port (15).
Because the smal l passage (9) restri cts fl ow i nto
chamber 12, the fl ui d pressure i n the chamber
drops. Thi s causes a momentary di fference i n
pressure across the val ve spool (10) whi ch al l ows
fl ui d pressure acti ng agai nst the bottom area of
the val ve spool to overcome the downward force
of spri ng 4. The spool i s then forced upward unti l
the pressures across i ts ends are equal i zed. As the
spool moves upward, i t restri cts the fl ow through
openi ng 7 and causes the pressure to decrease i n
the reduced pressure outl et port 6. I f the pressure
i n the outl et port conti nues to i ncrease to a val ue
above the preset pressure, the pi l ot val ve wi l l open
agai n and the cycl e wi l l repeat. Thi s al l ows the
spool val ve to move up hi gher i nto chamber 12;
thus further reduci ng the si ze of openi ng 7.
These cycl es repeat unti l the desi red pressure i s
mai ntai ned i n outl et 6.
When the pressure i n outl et 6 decreases to a
val ue bel ow the preset pressure, spri ng 4 forces
the spool downward, al l owi ng more fl ui d to fl ow
through openi ng 7.
COUNTERBALANCE VALVE
The counterbal ance val ve i s normal l y l ocated
i n the l i ne between a di recti onal control val ve and
the outl et of a ver ti cal l y mounted actuati ng
cyl i nder whi ch supports wei ght or must be hel d
6-14
i n posi ti on for a peri od of ti me. Thi s val ve serves
as a hydraul i c resi stance to the actuati ng cyl i nder.
For exampl e, counterbal ance val ves are used i n
some hydraul i cal l y operated forkl i fts. The val ve
offers a resi stance to the fl ow from the actuati ng
cyl i nder when the fork i s l owered. I t al so hel ps
to support the fork i n the UP posi ti on.
Counterbal ance val ves are al so used i n ai r-
l aunched weapons l oaders. I n thi s case the val ve
i s l ocated i n the top of the l i ft cyl i nder. The val ve
requi res a speci fi c pressure to l ower the l oad. I f
adequate pressure i s not avai l abl e, the l oad cannot
be l owered. Thi s prevents col l apse of the l oad due
to any mal functi on of the hydraul i c system.
One type of counterbal ance val ve i s i l l ustrated
i n fi gure 6-20. The val ve el ement i s a bal anced
spool (4). The spool consi sts of two pi stons
permanentl y fi xed on ei ther end of a shaft. The
i nner surface areas of the pi stons are equal ;
therefore, pressure acts equal l y on both areas
regardl ess of the posi ti on of the val ve and has no
effect on the movement of the val vehence, the
term balanced. The shaft area between the two
pi stons provi des the area for the fl ui d to fl ow
Figure 6-20.Counterbalance valve.
when the val ve i s open. A smal l pi ston (9) i s
attached to the bottom of the spool val ve.
When the val ve i s i n the cl osed posi ti on, the
top pi ston of the spool val ve bl ocks the di scharge
port (8). Wi th the val ve i n thi s posi ti on, fl ui d
fl owi ng from the actuati ng uni t enters the i nl et
port (5). The fl ui d cannot fl ow through the val ve
because di scharge port 8 i s bl ocked. However,
fl ui d wi l l fl ow through the pi l ot passage (6) to the
smal l pi l ot pi ston. As the pressure i ncreases, i t acts
on the pi l ot pi ston unti l i t overcomes the preset
pressure of spri ng 3. Thi s forces the val ve spool
(4) up and al l ows the fl ui d to fl ow around the
shaft of the val ve spool and out di scharge port
8. Fi gure 6-20 shows the val ve i n thi s posi ti on.
Duri ng reverse fl ow, the fl ui d enters port 8. The
spri ng (3) forces val ve spool 4 to the cl osed
posi ti on. The fl ui d pressure overcomes the spri ng
tensi on of the check val ve (7). The check val ve
opens and al l ows free fl ow around the shaft of
the val ve spool and out through port 5.
The operati ng pressure of the val ve can be
adjusted by turni ng the adjustment screw (1),
whi ch i ncreases or decreases the tensi on of the
spri ng. Thi s adjustment depends on the wei ght
that the val ve must support.
I t i s normal for a smal l amount of fl ui d to l eak
around the top pi ston of the spool val ve and i nto
the area around the spri ng. An accumul ati on
woul d cause addi ti onal pressure on top of the
spool val ve. Thi s woul d r equi r e addi ti onal
pressure to open the val ve. The drai n (2) provi des
a passage for thi s fl ui d to fl ow to port 8.
DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES
Di recti onal control val ves are desi gned to
di rect the fl ow of fl ui d, at the desi red ti me, to the
poi nt i n a fl ui d power system where i t wi l l do
work. The dri vi ng of a ram back and forth i n i ts
cyl i nder i s an exampl e of when a di recti onal
control val ve i s used. Vari ous other terms are used
to i denti fy di recti onal val ves, such as sel ector
val ve, transfer val ve, and control val ve. Thi s
manual wi l l use the term di recti onal control val ve
to i denti fy these val ves.
Di r ecti onal contr ol val ves for hydr aul i c
and pneumati c systems are si mi l ar i n desi gn
and oper ati on. However , ther e i s one major
di fference. The return port of a hydraul i c val ve
i s ported through a return l i ne to the reservoi r,
whi l e the si mi l ar port of a pneumati c val ve,
commonl y referred to as the exhaust port, i s
usual l y vented to the atmosphere. Any other
di fferences are poi nted out i n the di scussi on of
the val ves.
Di recti onal control val ves may be operated by
di fferences i n pressure acti ng on opposi te si des
of the val vi ng el ement, or they maybe posi ti oned
manual l y, mechani cal l y, or el ectri cal l y. Often two
or more methods of operati ng the same val ve wi l l
be used i n di fferent phases of i ts acti on.
CLASSIFICATION
Di recti onal control val ves may be cl assi fi ed i n
several ways. Some of the di fferent ways are by
the type of control , the number of ports i n the
val ve housi ng, and the speci fi c functi on of the
val ve. The most common method i s by the type
of val vi ng el ement used i n the constructi on of the
val ve. The most common types of val vi ng
el ements are the bal l , cone or sl eeve, poppet,
r otar y spool , and sl i di ng spool . The basi c
operati ng pri nci pl es of the poppet, rotary spool ,
and sl i di ng spool val vi ng el ements are di scussed
i n thi s text.
Poppet
The poppet fi ts i nto the center bore of the seat
(fi g. 6-21). The seati ng surfaces of the poppet and
the seat are l apped or cl osel y machi ned so that
the center bore wi l l be seal ed when the poppet i s
Figure 6-21.Operation of a simple poppet valve.
6-15
seated (shut). The acti on of the poppet i s si mi l ar
to that of the val ves i n an automobi l e engi ne. I n
most val ves the poppet i s hel d i n the seated
posi ti on by a spri ng.
The val ve consi sts pri mari l y of a movabl e
poppet whi ch cl oses agai nst the val ve seat. I n the
cl osed posi ti on, fl ui d pressure on the i nl et si de
tends to hol d the val ve ti ghtl y cl osed. A smal l
amount of movement from a force appl i ed to the
top of the poppet stem opens the poppet and
al l ows fl ui d to fl ow through the val ve.
The use of the poppet as a-val vi ng el ement i s
not l i mi ted to di recti onal control val ves.
Rotary Spool
The rotary spool di recti onal control val ve
(fi g. 6-22) has a round core wi th one or more
passages or recesses i n i t. The core i s mounted
wi thi n a stati onary sl eeve. As the core i s rotated
wi thi n the stati onary sl eeve, the passages or
recesses connect or bl ock the ports i n the sl eeve.
The ports i n the sl eeve are connected to the
appropri ate l i nes of the fl ui d system.
Sliding spool
The oper ati on of a si mpl e sl i di ng spool
di recti onal control val ve i s shown i n fi gure 6-23.
The val ve i s so-named because of the shape of the
val vi ng el ement that sl i des back and forth to bl ock
and uncover ports i n the housi ng. (The sl i di ng
el ement i s al so referred to as a pi ston.) The i nner
pi ston areas (l ands) are equal . Thus fl ui d under
pressure whi ch enters the val ve from the i nl et ports
CHECK VALVE
Figure 6-22.Parts of a rotary spool directional control
valve.
Figure 6-23.Two-way, sliding spool directional control
valve.
acts equal l y on both i nner pi ston areas regardl ess
of the posi ti on of the spool . Seal i ng i s usual l y
accompl i shed by a ver y cl osel y machi ned fi t
between the spool and the val ve body or sl eeve.
For val ves wi th more ports, the spool i s desi gned
wi th more pi stons or l ands on a common shaft.
The sl i di ng spool i s the most commonl y used type
of val vi ng el ement used i n di recti onal control
val ves.
Check val ves are used i n fl ui d systems to
permi t fl ow i n one di recti on and to prevent fl ow
i n the other di recti on. They are cl assi fi ed as
one-way di recti onal control val ves.
The check val ve may be i nstal l ed i nde-
pendentl y i n a l i ne to al l ow fl ow i n one di recti on
onl y, or i t may be used as an i ntegral part of
gl obe, sequence, counterbal ance, and pressure-
reduci ng val ves.
Check val ves are avai l abl e i n vari ous desi gns.
They are opened by the force of fl ui d i n moti on
fl owi ng i n one di recti on, and are cl osed by fl ui d
attempti ng to fl ow i n the opposi te di recti on. The
force of gravi ty or the acti on of a spri ng ai ds i n
cl osi ng the val ve.
6-16
Figure 6-24.Swing check valve.
Fi gure 6-24 shows a swi ng check val ve. I n the
open posi ti on, the fl ow of fl ui d forces the hi nged
di sk up and al l ows free fl ow through the val ve.
Fl ow i n the opposi te di recti on wi th the ai d of
gravi ty, forces the hi nged di sk to cl ose the passage
and bl ocks the fl ow. Thi s type of val ve i s
someti mes desi gned wi th a spri ng to assi st i n
cl osi ng the val ve.
The most common type of check val ve,
i nstal l ed i n fl ui d-power systems, uses ei ther a bal l
or cone for the seal i ng el ement (fi g. 6-25). As fl ui d
pressure i s appl i ed i n the di recti on of the arrow,
the cone (vi ew A) or bal l (vi ew B) i s forced off
i ts seat, al l owi ng fl ui d to fl ow freel y through the
val ve. Thi s val ve i s known as a spri ng-l oaded
check val ve.
The spri ng i s i nstal l ed i n the val ve to hol d the
cone or bal l on i ts seat whenever fl ui d i s not
fl owi ng. The spri ng al so hel ps to force the cone
or bal l on i ts seat when the fl ui d attempts to fl ow
i n the opposi te di recti on. Si nce the openi ng and
cl osi ng of thi s type of val ve i s not dependent on
gravi ty, i ts l ocati on i n a system i s not l i mi ted to
the verti cal posi ti on.
A modi fi cati on of the spri ng-l oaded check
val ve i s the ori fi ce check val ve (fi g. 6-26). Thi s
Figure 6-25.Spring-loaded check valves. Figure 6-26.Typical orifice check valves.
6-17
val ve al l ows normal fl ow i n one di recti on and
restri cted fl ow i n the other. I t i s often referred
to as a one-way restri ctor.
Fi gure 6-26, vi ew A, shows a cone-type ori fi ce
check val ve. When suffi ci ent fl ui d pressure i s
appl i ed at the i nl et port, i t overcomes spri ng
tensi on and moves the cone off of i ts seat. The
two ori fi ces (2) i n the i l l ustrati on represent several
openi ngs l ocated around the sl anted ci rcumference
of the cone. These ori fi ces al l ow free fl ow of fl ui d
through the val ve whi l e the cone i s off of i ts seat.
When fl ui d pressure i s appl i ed through the outl et
port, the force of the fl ui d and spri ng tensi on
move the cone to the l eft and onto i ts seat. Thi s
acti on bl ocks the fl ow of fl ui d through the val ve,
except through the ori fi ce (1) i n the center of the
cone. The si ze of the ori fi ce (i n the center of the
cone) determi nes the rate of fl ow through the
val ve as the fl ui d fl ows from ri ght to l eft.
Fi gure 6-26, vi ew B, shows a bal l -type ori fi ce
check val ve. Fl ui d fl ow through the val ve from
l eft to ri ght forces the bal l off of i ts seat and
al l ows normal fl ow. Fl ui d fl ow through the val ve
i n the opposi te di recti on forces the bal l onto i ts
seat. Thus, the fl ow i s restri cted by the si ze of the
ori fi ce l ocated i n the housi ng of the val ve.
NOTE: The di recti on of free fl ow through the
or i fi ce check val ve i s i ndi cated by an ar r ow
stamped on the housi ng.
SHUTTLE VALVE
I n certai n fl ui d power systems, the suppl y of
fl ui d to a subsystem must be from more than one
source to meet system requi rements. I n some
systems an emergency system i s provi ded as a
source of pressure i n the event of normal system
fai l ure. The emergency system wi l l usual l y actuate
onl y essenti al components.
The mai n purpose of the shuttl e val ve i s to
i sol ate the normal system from an al ternate or
emergency system. I t i s smal l and si mpl e; yet, i t
i s a very i mportant component.
Fi gure 6-27 i s a cutaway vi ew of a typi cal
shuttl e val ve. The housi ng contai ns three ports
normal system i nl et, al ternate or emergency
system i nl et, and outl et. A shuttl e val ve used to
operate more than one actuati ng uni t may contai n
addi ti onal uni t outl et ports. Encl osed i n the
housi ng i s a sl i di ng part cal l ed the shuttl e. I ts
purpose i s to seal off ei ther one or the other i nl et
ports. There i s a shuttl e seat at each i nl et port.
6-18
Figure 6-27.Shuttle valve.
When a shuttl e val ve i s i n the nor mal
operati on posi ti on, fl ui d has a free fl ow from the
normal system i nl et port, through the val ve, and
out through the outl et port to the actuati ng uni t.
The shuttl e i s seated agai nst the al ternate system
i nl et por t and hel d ther e by nor mal system
pressure and by the shuttl e val ve spri ng. The
shuttl e remai ns i n thi s posi ti on unti l the al ternate
system i s acti vated. Thi s acti on di rects fl ui d under
pressure from the al ternate system to the shuttl e
val ve and forces the shuttl e from the al ternate
system i nl et port to the normal system i nl et port.
Fl ui d from the al ternate system then has a free
fl ow to the outl et port, but i s prevented from
enteri ng the normal system by the shuttl e, whi ch
seal s off the normal system port.
The shuttl e may be one of four types: (1)
sl i di ng pl unger, (2) spri ng-l oaded pi ston, (3)
spri ng-l oaded bal l , or (4) spri ng-l oaded poppet.
I n shuttl e val ves that are desi gned wi th a spri ng,
the shuttl e i s normal l y hel d agai nst the al ternate
system i nl et port by the spri ng.
TWO-WAY VALVES
The term two-way i ndi cates that the val ve
contai ns and control s two functi onal fl ow control
ports-an i nl et and an outl et. A two-way, sl i di ng
spool di recti onal control val ve i s shown i n fi gure
6-23. As the spool i s moved back and forth, i t
ei ther al l ows fl ui d to fl ow through the val ve or
prevents fl ow. I n the open posi ti on, the fl ui d
enters the i nl et port, fl ows around the shaft of
the spool , and through the outl et port. The spool
cannot move back and forth by di fference of
forces set up wi thi n the cyl i nder, si nce the forces
there are equal . As i ndi cated by the arrows agai nst
the pi stons of the spool , the same pressure acts
on equal areas on thei r i nsi de surfaces. I n the
cl osed posi ti on, one of the pi stons of the spool
si mpl y bl ocks the i nl et port, thus preventi ng fl ow
through the val ve.
A number of features common to most sl i di ng
spool val ves are shown i n fi gure 6-23. The smal l
ports at ei ther end of the val ve housi ng provi de
a path for any fl ui d that l eaks past the spool to
fl ow to the reservoi r. Thi s prevents pressure from
bui l di ng up agai nst the ends of the pi stons, whi ch
woul d hi nder the movement of the spool . When
spool val ves become worn, they may l ose bal ance
because of greater l eakage on one si de of the spool
than on the other. I n that event, the spool woul d
tend to sti ck when i t i s moved back and forth.
Smal l grooves are therefore machi ned around the
sl i di ng surface of the pi ston; and i n hydraul i c
val ves, l eaki ng l i qui d wi l l enci rcl e the pi stons and
keep the contacti ng sur faces l ubr i cated and
center ed.
THREE-WAY VALVES
Three-way val ves contai n a pressure port, a
cyl i nder port, and a return or exhaust port. The
three-way di recti onal control val ve i s desi gned to
operate an actuati ng uni t i n one di recti on; i t
permi ts ei ther the l oad on the actuati ng uni t or
a spri ng to return the uni t to i ts ori gi nal posi ti on.
Cam-Operated Three-Way Valves
Fi gure 6-28 shows the operati on of a cam-
oper ated, thr ee-way, poppet-type di r ecti onal
control val ve. Vi ew A shows fl ui d under pressure
forci ng the pi ston outward agai nst a l oad. The
upper poppet (2) i s unseated by the i nsi de cam
(5), permi tti ng fl ui d to fl ow from the l i ne (3) i nto
the cyl i nder to actuate the pi ston. The l ower
poppet (1) i s seated, seal i ng off the fl ow i nto the
return l i ne (4). As the force of the pressuri zed fl ui d
extends the pi ston rod, i t al so compresses the
spri ng i n the cyl i nder.
Vi ew B shows the val ve wi th the control
handl e turned to the opposi te posi ti on. I n thi s
posi ti on, the upper poppet (2) i s seated, bl ocki ng
the fl ow of fl ui d from the pressure l i ne (3). The
l ower poppet (1) i s unseated by the outsi de cam
(6). Thi s rel eases the pressure i n the cyl i nder and
al l ows the spri ng to expand, whi ch forces the
pi ston rod to retract. The fl ui d from the cyl i nder
fl ows through the control val ve and out the return
Figure 6-28.Three-way, poppet-type directional control
valve (cam-operated).
6-19
port (4). I n hydraul i c systems, the return port i s
connected by a l i ne to the reservoi r. I n pneumati c
systems, the return port i s usual l y open to the
atmosphere.
Pilot-Operated Three-Way Valves
A pi l ot-oper ated, poppet-type, thr ee-way
di recti onal control val ve i s shown i n fi gure 6-29.
Val ves of thi s desi gn are often used i n pneumati c
systems. Thi s val ve i s normal l y cl osed and i s
for ced open by fl ui d pr essur e enter i ng the
pi l ot chamber. The val ve contai ns two poppets
connected to each other by a common stem. The
poppets are connected to di aphragms whi ch hol d
them i n a centered posi ti on.
The movement of the poppet i s control l ed by
the pressure i n the pi l ot port and the chamber
above the upper di aphr agm. When the pi l ot
chamber i s not pressuri zed, the l ower poppet i s
seated agai nst the l ower val ve seat. Fl ui d can fl ow
from the suppl y l i ne through the i nl et port and
through the hol es i n the l ower di aphragm to fi l l
the bottom chamber. Thi s pressure hol ds the
l ower poppet ti ghtl y agai nst i ts seat and bl ocks
fl ow from the i nl et port through the val ve. At the
same ti me, due to the common stem, the upper
poppet i s forced off of i ts seat. Fl ui d from the
actuati ng uni t fl ows through the open passage,
around the stem, and through the exhaust port
to the atmosphere.
When the pi l ot chamber i s pressuri zed, the
force acti ng agai nst the di aphragm forces the
poppet down. The upper poppet cl oses agai nst i ts
seat, bl ocki ng the fl ow of fl ui d from the cyl i nder
to the exhaust port. The l ower poppet opens, and
the passage from the suppl y i nl et port to the
cyl i nder port i s open so that the fl ui d can fl ow
to the actuati ng uni t.
The val ve i n fi gure 6-29 i s a normal l y cl osed
val ve. Normal l y open val ves are si mi l ar i n desi gn.
When no pressure i s appl i ed to the pi l ot chamber,
the upper poppet i s for ced off of i ts seat and the
l ower poppet i s cl osed. Fl ui d i s fr ee to fl ow fr om
the i nl et port through the cyl i nder to the actuati ng
uni t. When pi l ot pressure i s appl i ed, the poppets
are forced downward, cl osi ng the upper poppet
and openi ng the l ower poppet. Fl ui d can now fl ow
from the cyl i nder through the val ve and out the
exhaust port to the atmosphere.
FOUR-WAY VALVES
Most actuati ng devi ces requi re system pressure
for operati on i n ei ther di recti on. The four-way
di recti onal control val ve, whi ch contai ns four
ports, i s used to control the operati on of such
devi ces. The four-way val ve i s al so used i n some
systems to control the operati on of other val ves.
I t i s one of the most wi del y used di recti onal
control val ves i n fl ui d power systems.
The typi cal four-way di recti onal control val ve
has four ports: a pressure port, a return or exhaust
port, and two cyl i nder or worki ng ports. The
pressure port i s connected to the mai n system
pressure l i ne and the return l i ne i s connected to
the reservoi r i n hydraul i c systems. I n pneumati c
systems the return port i s usual l y vented to the
atmosphere. The two cyl i nder ports are connected
by l i nes to the actuati ng uni ts.
Poppet-Type Four-Way Valves
Fi gure 6-30 shows atypi cal four-way, poppet-
type di recti onal control val ve. Thi s i s a manual l y
oper ated val ve and consi sts of a gr oup of
conventi onal spri ng-l oaded poppets. The poppets
ar e encl osed i n a common housi ng and ar e
i nterconnected by ducts to di rect the fl ow of fl ui d
i n the desi red di recti on.
Figure 6-29.Three-way, poppet-type, normally closed directional control valve (pilot-operated).
6-20
The poppets ar e actuated by cams on a
camshaft (fi g. 6-30). The camshaft i s control l ed
by the movement of the handl e. The val ve may
be operated by manual l y movi ng the handl e, or,
i n some cases, the handl e may be connected by
mechani cal l i nkage to a control handl e whi ch i s
l ocated i n a conveni ent pl ace for the operator
some di stance from the val ve.
The camshaft may be rotated to any one
of thr ee posi ti ons (neutr al and two wor ki ng
posi ti ons). I n the neutral posi ti on the camshaft
l obes are not contacti ng any of the poppets. Thi s
assures that the poppet spri ngs wi l l hol d al l four
poppets fi rml y seated. Wi th al l poppets seated,
there i s no fl ui d fl ow through the val ve. Thi s al so
bl ocks the two cyl i nder ports; so when the val ve
i s i n neutral , the fl ui d i n the actuati ng uni t i s
tr apped. Rel i ef val ves ar e i nstal l ed i n both
worki ng l i nes to prevent overpressuri zati on caused
by thermal expansi on.
NOTE: I n some versi ons of thi s type of val ve,
the cam l obes ar e desi gned so that the two
return/exhaust poppets are open when the val ve
i s i n the neutral posi ti on. Thi s compensates for
thermal expansi on, because both worki ng l i nes are
open to the return/exhaust when the val ve i s i n
the neutral posi ti on.
The poppets are arranged so that rotati on of
the camshaft wi l l open the proper combi nati on
of poppets to di rect the fl ow of fl ui d through the
desi red worki ng l i ne to an actuati ng uni t. At the
same ti me, fl ui d wi l l be di r ected fr om the
actuati ng uni t through the opposi te worki ng l i ne,
through the val ve, and back to the reservoi r
(hydr aul i c) or exhausted to the atmospher e
(pneumati c).
To stop rotati on of the camshaft at an exact
posi ti on, a stop pi n i s secured to the body and
extends through a cutout secti on of the camshaft
fl ange. Thi s stop pi n prevents overtravel by
ensuri ng that the camshaft stops rotati ng at the
poi nt wher e the cam l obes have moved the
poppets the greatest di stance from thei r seats and
wher e any fur ther r otati on woul d al l ow the
poppets to start returni ng to thei r seats.
O-ri ngs are spaced at i nterval s al ong the l ength
of the shaft to prevent external l eakage around
the ends of the shaft and i nternal l eakage from
one of the val ve chamber s to another . The
camshaft has two l obes, or rai sed porti ons. The
shape of these l obes i s such that when the shaft
i s pl aced i n the neutral posi ti on the l obes wi l l not
contact any of the poppets.
When the handl e i s moved i n ei ther di recti on
from neutral , the camshaft i s rotated. Thi s rotates
Figure 6-30.Cutaway view of poppet-type, four-way directional control valve.
6-21
the l obes, whi ch unseat one pressure poppet and
one return/exhaust poppet (fi g. 6-31). The val ve
i s now i n the worki ng posi ti on. Fl ui d under
pressure, enteri ng the pressure port, fl ows through
the verti cal fl ui d passages i n both pressure poppets
seats. Si nce onl y one pressure poppet, I N (2), i s
unseated by the cam l obe, the fl ui d fl ows past the
open poppet to the i nsi de of the poppet seat. From
there i t fl ows through the di agonal passages, out
one cyl i nder port, C2, and to the actuati ng uni t.
Return fl ui d from the actuati ng uni t enters the
other cyl i nder port, C1. I t then fl ows through the
correspondi ng fl ui d passage, past the unseated
return poppet, OUT (1), through the verti cal fl ui d
passages, and out the return/exhaust port. When
the camshaft i s rotated i n the opposi te di recti on
to the neutral posi ti on, the two poppets seat and
the fl ow stops. When the camshaft i s further
rotated i n thi s di recti on unti l the stop pi ns hi ts,
the opposi te pressure and return poppets are
unseated. Thi s reverses the fl ow i n the worki ng
l i nes, causi ng the actuati ng uni t to move i n the
opposi te di recti on.
Rotary Spool Valve
Four-way di recti onal control val ves of thi s
type are frequentl y used as pi l ot val ves to di rect
fl ow to and from other val ves (fi g. 6-32). Fl ui d
i s di rected from one source of suppl y through the
rotary val ve to another di recti onal control val ve,
where i t posi ti ons the val ve to di rect fl ow from
another source to one si de of an actuati ng uni t.
Fl ui d from the other end of the mai n val ve fl ows
through a return l i ne, through the rotary val ve
to the return or exhaust port.
The pri nci pal parts of a rotary spool di rec-
ti onal control val ve are shown i n fi gure 6-22.
Figure 6-31.Working view of a poppet-type, four-way
directional control valve.
Figure 6-32.Sliding spool valve controlled by a rotary spool
valve.
Fi gure 6-33 shows the operati on of a rotary spool
val ve. Vi ews A and C show the val ve i n a posi ti on
to del i ver fl ui d to another val ve, whi l e vi ew B
shows the val ve i n the neutral posi ti on, wi th al l
passages through the val ve bl ocked.
Rotary spool val ves can be operated manual l y,
el ectri cal l y, or by fl ui d pressure.
Sliding Spool Valve
The sl i di ng spool four-way di recti onal control
val ve i s si mi l ar i n operati on to the two-way
val ve previ ousl y descri bed i n thi s chapter. I t i s
si mpl e i n i ts pri nci pl e of operati on and i s the
most durabl e and troubl e-free of al l four-way
di recti onal control val ves.
The val ve descri bed i n the fol l owi ng para-
graphs i s a manual l y operated type. The same
pri nci pl e i s used i n many remotel y control l ed
di recti onal control val ves.
The val ve (fi g. 6-34) consi sts of a val ve body
contai ni ng four fl ui d por tspr essur e (P),
Figure 6-33.Operation of a rotary spool, four-way
directional control valve.
6-22
Figure 6-34.Operation of a sliding spool, four-way directional control valve.
6-23
return/exhaust (R), and two cyl i nder ports (C/1
and C2). A hol l ow sl eeve fi ts i nto the mai n bore
of the body. There are O-ri ngs pl aced at i nterval s
around the outsi de di ameter of the sl eeve. These
O-ri ngs form a seal between the sl eeve and the
body, creati ng chambers around the sl eeve. Each
of the chambers i s l i ned up wi th one of the fl ui d
ports i n the body. The dri l l ed passage i n the body
accounts for a fi fth chamber whi ch resul ts i n
havi ng the two outboard chambers connected to
the return/exhaust port. The sl eeve has a pattern
of hol es dri l l ed through i t to al l ow fl ui d to fl ow
from one port to another. A seri es of hol es are
dri l l ed i nto the hol l ow center sl eeve i n each
chamber.
The sl eeve i s prevented from turni ng by a
sl eeve retai ner bol t or pi n whi ch secures i t to the
val ve body.
The sl i di ng spool fi ts i nto the hol l ow center
sl eeve. Thi s spool i s si mi l ar to the spool i n the
two-way val ve, except that thi s spool has three
pi stons or l ands. These l ands ar e l apped or
machi ne fi tted to the i nsi de of the sl eeve.
One end of the sl i di ng spool i s connected to
a handl e ei ther di rectl y or by mechani cal l i nkage
to a more desi rabl e l ocati on. When the control
handl e i s moved, i t wi l l posi ti on the spool wi thi n
the sl eeve. The l ands of the spool then l i ne up
di ffer ent combi nati ons of fl ui d por ts thus
di recti ng a fl ow of fl ui d through the val ve.
The detent spri ng i s a cl othespi n-type spri ng,
secur ed to the end of the body by a spr i ng
retai ni ng bol t. The two l egs of the spri ng extend
down through sl ots i n the sl eeve and fit i nto the
detents. The spool i s gri pped between the two l egs
of the spri ng. To move the spool , enough force
must be appl i ed to spread the two spri ng l egs and
al l ow them to snap back i nto the next detent,
whi ch woul d be for another posi ti on.
Fi gur e 6-34, vi ew A, shows a manual l y
oper ated sl i di ng spool val ve i n the neutr al
posi ti on. The detent spri ng i s i n the center detent
of the sl i di ng spool . The center l and i s l i ned up
wi th the pressure port (P) preventi ng fl ui d from
fl owi ng i nto the val ve through thi s port. The
return/exhaust port i s al so bl ocked, preventi ng
fl ow through that port. Wi th both the pressure
and return ports bl ocked, fl ui d i n the actuati ng
l i nes i s trapped. For thi s reason, a rel i ef val ve i s
usual l y i nstal l ed i n each actuati ng l i ne when thi s
type of val ve i s used.
Fi gure 6-34, vi ew B, shows the val ve i n the
worki ng posi ti on wi th the end of the sl i di ng spool
retracted. The detent spri ng i s i n the outboard
detent, l ocki ng the sl i di ng spool i n thi s posi ti on.
The l ands have shi fted i nsi de the sl eeve, and the
ports are opened. Fl ui d under pressure enters the
sl eeve, passes through i t by way of the dri l l ed
hol es, and l eaves through cyl i nder port C2. Return
fl ui d, fl owi ng from the actuator enters port C1,
fl ows through the sl eeve, and i s di rected out the
return port back to the reservoi r or exhausted to
the atmosphere. Fl ui d cannot fl ow past the spool
l ands because of the l apped surfaces.
Fi gure 6-34, vi ew C, shows the val ve i n the
opposi te worki ng posi ti on wi th the sl i di ng spool
extended. The detent spri ng i s i n the i nboard
detent. The center l and of the sl i di ng spool i s now
on the other si de of the pressure port, and the
fl ui d under pressure i s di rected through the sl eeve
and out port C1. Return fl ui d fl owi ng i n the other
cyl i nder port i s di rected to the dri l l ed passage i n
the body. I t fl ows al ong thi s passage to the other
end of the sl eeve where i t i s di rected out of the
return/exhaust port.
The di r ecti onal contr ol val ves pr evi ousl y
di scussed are for use i n cl osed-center fl ui d power
systems. Fi gure 6-35 shows the operati on of
Figure 6-35.Open center, sliding spool directional control
valve.
6-24
a r epr esentati ve open-center , sl i di ng spool When the spool i s moved to the ri ght of the
di recti onal control val ve. neutral posi ti on, vi ew B, one worki ng l i ne (C1)
i s al i gned to system pressure and the other
When thi s type of val ve i s i n the neutral worki ng l i ne (C2) i s open through the hol l ow
posi ti on (fi g. 6-35, vi ew A), fl ui d fl ows i nto the spool to the return port. Vi ew C shows the fl ow
val ve through the pressure port (P) through the of fl ui d through the val ve wi th the spool moved
hol l ow spool , and return to the reservoi r. to the l eft of neutral .
6-25
CHAPTER 7
SEALI NG DEVI CES AND MATERI ALS
Recal l from chapter 1 that Pascal s theorem,
from whi ch the fundamental l aw for the sci ence
of hydr aul i cs evol ved, was pr oposed i n the
seventeenth century. One sti pul ati on to make the
l aw effecti ve for practi cal appl i cati ons was a
pi ston that woul d fi t the openi ng i n the vessel
ex actl y . However, i t was not unti l the l ate
ei ghteenth century that Joseph Brahmah i nvented
an effecti ve pi ston seal , the cup packi ng. Thi s l ed
to Brahmah's devel opment of the hydraul i c press.
The packi ng was probabl y the most i mportant
i nventi on i n the devel opment of hydraul i cs as a
l eadi ng method of tr ansmi tti ng power . The
devel opment of machi nes to cut and shape cl osel y
fi tted par ts was al so ver y i mpor tant i n the
devel opment of hydraul i cs. However, regardl ess
of how preci se the machi ni ng process i s, some type
of packi ng i s usual l y requi red to make the pi ston,
and many other parts of hydraul i c components,
fi t exactl y. Thi s al so appl i es to the components
of pneumati c systems.
Through years of research and experi ments,
many di fferent materi al s and desi gns have been
created i n attempts to devel op sui tabl e packi ng
devi ces. Sui tabl e materi al s must be durabl e, must
provi de effecti ve seal i ng, and must be compati bl e
wi th the fl ui d used i n the system.
The packi ng materi al s are commonl y referred
to as seal s or seal i ng devi ces. The seal s used i n
fl ui d power systems and components are di vi ded
i nto two general cl asses-stati c seal s and dynami c
seal s.
The stati c seal i s usual l y referred to as a gasket.
The functi on of a gasket i s to provi de a materi al
that can fl ow i nto the surface i rregul ari ti es of
mati ng areas that requi re seal i ng. To do thi s, the
gasket materi al must be under pressure. Thi s
r equi r es that the joi nt be ti ghtl y bol ted or
otherwi se hel d together.
The dynami c seal , commonl y referred to as
a packi ng, i s used to provi de a seal between two
parts that move i n rel ati on to each other.
These two cl assi fi cati ons of seal sgaskets
and packi ngappl y i n most cases; however ,
devi ati ons are found i n some techni cal publ i -
cati ons. Certai n types of seal s (for exampl e, the
O-ri ng, whi ch i s di scussed l ater) may be used
ei ther as a gasket or a packi ng.
Many of the seal s i n fl ui d power systems
prevent external l eakage. These seal s serve two
purposesto seal the fl ui d i n the system and to
keep forei gn matter out of the system. Other seal s
si mpl y prevent i nternal l eakage wi thi n a system.
NOTE: Al though l eakage of any ki nd resul ts
i n a l oss of effi ci ency, some l eakage, especi al l y
i nternal l eakage, i s desi red i n hydraul i c systems
to provi de l ubri cati on of movi ng parts. Thi s al so
appl i es to some pneumati c systems i n whi ch drops
of oi l are i ntroduced i nto the fl ow of ai r i n the
system.
The fi rst part of thi s chapter deal s pri mari l y
wi th the di fferent types of materi al s used i n the
constructi on of seal s. The next secti on i s devoted
to the di fferent shapes and desi gns of seal s and
thei r appl i cati on as gaskets and/or packi ngs i n
fl ui d power systems. Al so i ncl uded i n thi s chapter
are secti ons concerni ng the functi ons of wi pers
and backup washers i n fl ui d power systems and
the sel ecti on, storage, and handl i ng of seal i ng
devi ces.
SEAL MATERIALS
As menti oned pr evi ousl y, many di ffer ent
materi al s have been used i n the devel opment of
seal i ng devi ces. The materi al used for a parti cul ar
appl i cati on depends on sever al factor s: fl ui d
compati bi l i ty, resi stance to heat, pressure, wear
resi stance, hardness, and type of moti on.
The sel ecti on of the correct packi ngs and
gaskets and thei r proper i nstal l ati on are i mportant
factors i n mai ntai ni ng an effi ci ent fl ui d power
system. The types of seal s to be used i n a
parti cul ar pi ece of equi pment i s speci fi ed by the
equi pment manufacturer.
7-1
Often the sel ecti on of seal s i s l i mi ted to seal s
covered by mi l i tary speci fi cati ons. However, there
are occasi ons when nonstandard or propri etary
seal s refl ecti ng the advanci ng state of the art may
be approved. Thus, i t i s i mportant to fol l ow the
manufacturers i nstructi ons when you repl ace
seal s. I f the proper seal i s not avai l abl e, you
shoul d gi ve careful consi derati on i n the sel ecti on
of a sui tabl e substi tute. Consul t the Naval Ships
Technical Manual, mi l i tary standards, mi l i tary
standardi zati on handbooks, and other appl i cabl e
techni cal manual s i f you have any doubts i n
sel ecti ng the proper seal .
Seal s ar e made of mater i al s that have
been car eful l y chosen or devel oped for spe-
ci fi c appl i cati ons. These mater i al s i ncl ude
tetr afl uor oethyl ene (TFE), commonl y cal l ed
Tefl on; syntheti c r ubber (el astomer s); cor k;
l eather; metal ; and asbestos. Some of the most
common materi al s used to make seal s for fl ui d
power systems are di scussed i n the fol l owi ng
paragraphs.
CORK
Cork has several of the requi red properti es,
whi ch makes i t i deal l y sui ted as a seal i ng materi al
i n certai n appl i cati ons. The compressi bi l i ty of
cork seal s makes them wel l sui ted for confi ned
appl i cati ons i n whi ch l i ttl e or no spread of the
materi al i s al l owed. The compressi bi l i ty of cork
al so makes a good seal that can be cut to any
desi red thi ckness and shape to fi t any surface and
sti l l provi de an excel l ent seal .
One of the undesi rabl e characteri sti cs of cork
i s i ts tendency to crumbl e. I f cork i s used as
packi ng or i n areas where there i s a hi gh fl ui d
pressure and/or hi gh fl ow vel oci ty, smal l parti cl es
wi l l be cast off i nto the system. Cork use i n fl ui d
power systems i s therefore l i mi ted. I t i s someti mes
used as gasket materi al s for i nspecti on pl ates of
hydraul i c reservoi rs.
Cork i s general l y recommended for use where
sustai ned temperatures do not exceed 275
0
F.
CORK AND RUBBER
Cork and rubber seal s are made by combi ni ng
syntheti c rubber and cork. Thi s combi nati on has
the properti es of both of the two materi al s.
Thi s means that seal s can be made wi th the
compressi bi l i ty of cork, but wi th a resi stance to
fl ui d comparabl e to the syntheti c rubber on whi ch
they are based. Cork and rubber composi ti on i s
someti mes used to make gaskets for appl i cati ons
si mi l ar to those descri bed for cork gaskets.
LEATHER
Leather i s a cl osel y kni t materi al that i s
general l y tough, pl i abl e, and rel ati vel y resi stant
to abr asi on, wear , str ess, and the effects of
temperature changes. Because i t i s porous, i t i s
abl e to absorb l ubri cati ng fl ui ds. Thi s porosi ty
makes i t necessary to i mpregnate l eather for most
uses. I n general , l eather must be tanned and
treated i n order to make i t useful as a gasket
mater i al . The tanni ng pr ocesses ar e those
normal l y used i n the l eather i ndustry.
Leather i s general l y resi stant to abrasi on
regardl ess of whether the grai n si de or the fl esh
si de i s exposed to abrasi ve acti on. Leather remai ns
fl exi bl e at l ow temperatures and can be forced
wi th comparati ve ease i nto contact wi th metal
fl anges. When pr oper l y i mpr egnated, i t i s
i mpermeabl e to most l i qui ds and some gases,
and capabl e of wi thstandi ng the effects of
temperatures rangi ng from 70
0
F to +220
0
F.
Leather has four basi c l i mi tati ons. Fi rst, the
si ze of the typi cal hi de l i mi ts the si ze of the seal s
that can be made fr om l eather . A second
l i mi tati on i s the number of seal s that ar e
acceptabl e. Another l i mi tati on i s that under heavy
mechani cal pressures l eather tends to extrude.
Fi nal l y, many of the pr oper ti es (such as
i mper meabi l i ty, tensi l e str ength, hi gh- and
l ow-temper atur e r esi stance, pl i abi l i ty, and
compati bi l i ty wi th envi ronment) depend upon the
type of l eather and i mpregnati on. Leathers not
tanned and i mpregnated for speci fi c condi ti ons
and properti es wi l l become bri ttl e, dry, and
compl etel y degreased by exposure to parti cul ar
chemi cal s. Leather i s never used wi th steam
pressure of any type, nor wi th aci d or al kal i
sol uti ons.
Leather may be used as packi ng. When
mol ded i nto Vs and Us, and cups, and other
shapes, i t can be appl i ed as dynami c packi ng,
whi l e i n i ts fl at form i t can be used as strai ght
compressi on packi ng.
METAL
One of the most common metal seal s used i n
Navy equi pment i s copper. Fl at copper ri ngs are
someti mes used as gaskets under adjusti ng screws
to provi de a fl ui d seal . Mol ded copper ri ngs are
someti mes used as packi ng wi th speed gears
operati ng under hi gh pressures. Ei ther type i s
7-2
Figure 7-1.Spiral-wouna metallic-asbestos gasket.
easi l y bent and requi res careful handl i ng. I n
addi ti on, copper becomes hard when used over
l ong peri ods and when subjected to compressi on.
Whenever a uni t or component i s di sassembl ed,
the copper seal i ng ri ngs shoul d be repl aced.
However, i f new ri ngs are not avai l abl e and the
part must be repai red, the ol d ri ng shoul d be
softened by anneal i ng. (Anneal i ng i s the process
of heati ng a metal , then cool i ng i t, to make i t
more pl i abl e and l ess bri ttl e.)
Metal l i c pi ston ri ngs are used as packi ng i n
some fl ui d power actuati ng cyl i nders. These ri ngs
ar e si mi l ar i n desi gn to the pi ston r i ngs i n
automobi l e engi nes.
Metal i s al so used wi th asbestos to form
spi ral -wound metal l i c-asbestos gaskets (fi g. 7-1).
These gaskets are composed of i nterl ocked pl i es
of pr efor med cor r ugated metal and asbestos
stri ps, cal l ed a fi l l er.
The fi l l er may or may not be encased i n a sol i d
metal outer ri ng. These gaskets are used i n fl anged
connecti ons and for connecti ng the body to the
bonnet i n some val ves, and are usual l y requi red
i n speci fi c hi gh-pr essur e, hi gh-temper atur e
appl i cati ons.
RUBBER
The ter m r ubber
and syntheti c rubbers,
cover s many natur al
each of whi ch can be
compounded i nto numer ous var i eti es. The
characteri sti cs of these vari eti es have a wi de range,
as shown i n tabl e 7-1. The tabl e shows, wi th the
excepti on of a few basi c si mi l ari ti es, that rubbers
have di verse properti es and l i mi tati ons; therefore,
speci fi c appl i cati ons requi re careful study before
the seal i ng materi al i s sel ected.
Natural rubbers have many of the charac-
teri sti cs requi red i n an effecti ve seal . However,
thei r very poor resi stance to petrol eum fl ui ds and
rapi d agi ng when exposed to oxygen or ozone l i mi t
thei r use. Today thei r use has al most ceased.
There are two general cl asses of syntheti c
rubber seal s. One cl ass i s made enti rel y of a certai n
syntheti c rubber. The term homogeneous, whi ch
means havi ng uni form structure or composi ti on
throughout, i s frequentl y used to descri be thi s
cl ass of seal . The other cl ass of seal i s made by
i mpregnati ng woven cotton duck or fi ne-weave
asbestos wi th syntheti c rubber. Thi s cl ass i s
someti mes referred to as fabri cated seal s.
Addi ti onal i nformati on on seal i ng materi al s
i s provi ded i n the Military Handbook, Gasket
Materials (Nonmetalic), MI L-HDBK-212; and
the Naval Ships Technical Manual, chapter 078.
TYPES OF SEALS
Fl ui d power seal s are usual l y typed accordi ng
to thei r shape or desi gn. These types i ncl ude
T-seal s, V-ri ngs, O-ri ngs, U-cups and so on. Some
of the most commonl y used seal s are di scussed
i n the remai nder of thi s chapter.
T-SEALS
The T-seal has an el astomeri c bi di recti onal
seal i ng el ement resembl i ng an i nverted l etter T.
Thi s seal i ng el ement i s al ways pai red wi th two
speci al extrusi on-resi sti ng backup ri ngs, one on
each si de of the T. The basi c T-seal confi gurati on
i s shown i n fi gure 7-2, vi ew A. The backup ri ngs
Fi gur e7-2. T-seal s.
7-3
Table 7-l.Comparison of Physical Properties for Some Hydraulic Fluid Seal Materials
Figure 7-3.V-rings.
7-4
are si ngl e turn, bi as cut, and usual l y made of TFE,
mol ybdenum-di sul fi de-i mpregnated nyl on, or a
combi nati on of TFE and nyl on. Nyl on i s wi del y
used for T-seal backup ri ngs because i t provi des
excel l ent resi stance to extrusi on and has l ow
fri cti on characteri sti cs.
The speci al T-ri ng confi gurati on adds stabi l i ty
to the seal , el i mi nati ng spi ral i ng and rol l i ng.
T-seal s are used i n appl i cati ons where l arge
cl earances coul d occur as a resul t of the expansi on
of the thi n-wal l ed hydraul i c cyl i nder. The T-ri ng
i s i nstal l ed under radi al compressi on and provi des
a posi ti ve seal at zero or l ow pressure. Backup
ri ngs, one on each si de, ri de free of T-ri ng fl anges
and the rod or cyl i nder wal l (fi g. 7-2, vi ew B).
These cl earances keep seal fri cti on to a mi ni mum
at l ow pressure. When pressure i s appl i ed (fi g. 7-2,
vi ew C), the T-ri ng acts to provi de posi ti ve seal i ng
acti on as fl ui d pressure i ncreases. One frequentl y
used T-ri ng, manufactured by Greene, Tweed and
Company, (cal l ed a G-Tri ng
1
), i ncorporates a
uni que, patented backup ri ng feature. One corner
on the I D of each radi us-styl ed backup ri ng on
the G-Tri ng
.
There i s no mi l i tary standard part numberi ng
system by whi ch T-seal s can be i denti fi ed. I n
general , each manufacturer i ssues propri etary part
numbers to i denti fy seal s. However, i t i s common
practi ce to i denti fy T-seal si zes by the same
dash numbers used for equi val ent O-ri ng si zes
(di scussed l ater i n thi s chapter) as defi ned by
AS568 and MS28775 di mensi on standar ds.
Typi cal l y, an O-ri ng groove that accepts a certai n
O-ri ng dash number wi l l accept the same dash
number T-seal .
I n the absence of an exi sti ng mi l i tary standard
for i denti fyi ng T-seal s, a new and si mpl e
1
G-Tring