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CHAPTER 1

Introduction
The evolution of human civilization in the last hundred years was
made by passing from a hand made production to a real industrial
revolution with favorable consequences regarding the increasing of work
productivity and goods volume.
But this stage also consumed its progress resources, so in our
times we assist at a new step in human evolution.
In this period of time, science and research become, more and
more, forces implied in production and also, forces, which are involved
directly in making of materials values. In our days we cannot think at
progress without research.
One of the essential tasks for this actual stage of technique
research revolution is the promoting and implementation of new high
technologies performance able to lead to a spectacular increase of society
necessary goods volume.
!ew technologies are called to increase at higher levels the whole
material production sphere.

1.1 The object of The technology of construction
works disci!line
To offer a complete image of the actual knowledge level regarding
the technology of construction works we have to define the technology
notion in general " as it is presented in dictionaries, and after that to bring
it for the specific of constructions domain. #o, the term of technology has
its origin in $reek notion of technoart, skill and logos " word, study,
science which gives as in other words this idea% the science or study about
art or skill.
In &omanian 'ictionary the term of technology has two
meanings%
(. The science of materials processing methods and
means)
*. The totality of the means and knowledge used to
provide ob+ects necessary for human sustenance and comfort.
,e have also to define several other terms%
a- by !roduction !rocess we understand the action of the
working force, directly or by the help of other means, on the object of
work and its transformation into a product.
b- the technologic"l !rocess represents the transformations
which take place at the working ob+ect, under the direct or indirect action
of the working force, resulting hence, the construction !roduct.
The processes can be simple or comple., a characteristic of these
being that they are relatively limited. /or e.ample, pouring of concrete
represents the same technological process, no matter if we make a
monolith or a prefabricated element 0also without taking into account the
fact that the compaction is manual or mechanized-.
c- the technologic"l !roceeding represents the method or
mean used to make a technological process. By chancing the method or
the mean it results another technological proceeding.
d- By technologic"l flu# we understand a sum of techno "
logical proceedings sum which is ordered after the logical necessities of
the technological processes.
e- #o, technology represents the study of processes and
proceedings, methods and means, used for the transformation of the work
ob+ect.
1.$ The construction !roduction definition
The construction production represents the result of the working
force action over the working ob+ects, materialized in a spatial delimitated
edifice, independent from the utility point of view and with a well
specified functional destination. This result is currently named the
construction ob+ect. /or e.ample, a dwelling with all relevant
installations, an industrial hall, a water supply network or a bridge can be
a construction ob+ect.
/rom functional destination point of view, the construction ob+ects
are classified in following groups%
$roup I% industrial constructions)
$roup II% agrozoo technical constructions)
$roup III% civil constructions)
$roup I1% dwellings)
$roup 1% alimentation constructions)
$roup 1I% sewerage)
$roup 1II% roads)
$roup 1III% railways)
$roup I2% 3lectrical transportation networks)
$roup 2% miner works)
$roup 2I% 4ydro " improvements)
$roup 2II% Bridges, viaducts and tunnels)
$roup 2III% Technological equipment assembling)
5sually, the upper part of the structure is called superstructure and
the part situated under the zero quotas is called infrastructure.
%ig. 1.1 &u!erstructure "nd infr"structure of " building
'(ero )uot" * the ground floor )uot"+
The main component parts, after their functions in the ob+ect, are%
- strength structure%
i- foundations)
ii- vertical elements 0walls, pillars-)
iii- horizontal elements 0girders, plates-)
iv- principal roof elements 0girders, surface
elements-.
functional elements and also elements which delimitate
spaces%
i- partition walls)
ii- stairs)
iii- secondary roof elements)
iv- hydro and thermo " isolations)
v- +oinery)
- finishing%
i- floors)
ii- plasters, plywood)
iii- paintings)
The main construction work parts, necessary for making a
construction ob+ect are%
- monolith concrete)
- formworks)
- reinforcement mounting for concrete)
- construction isolations)
- masonry)
- plasters)
- stairs)
- plywood)
- mounting of prefabricated concrete elements)
1., The !"rticul"rities of the construction
!roduction
The main particularities are%
a- The products made after technological processes,
construction ob+ects are fi., but the production means are mobile.
b- Both the making up of construction ob+ects and
the application of technological processes is usually made in open
air. It results that they can be influenced by clime factors.
c- The construction production, any ob+ect that is
made, has usually a unique character.
d- The construction production is evidenced by great
diversity of madeup ob+ects.
e- The construction production is evidenced by a
great comple.ity of technological processes.
f- The period of time used for makingup of
construction ob+ects are usually very large.
g- The construction ob+ects are usually characterized
by a great weight.
1.- The techni)ue !rogress for
the construction !roduction
To satisfy the particularities mentioned above it is necessary to
solve the following aspects%
minimum decrease of the processes that occur on the ob+ective place, by
using construction elements with high factory process degree)
the conception and application on site of new superior parameter
technologies)
mechanization, comple. mechanization and automation of the main
technological processes that take place on site)
the management on the base of modern methods of the construction
production.
One of the most important ways of reducing the unfavorable
effects which results from the construction production particularities is
the prefabrication, after the industrial production principles, of some of
the elements that compose the construction ob+ect.
#o, for certain types of construction ob+ects, such as industrial
halls, we can prefabricate the main strength elements.
The prefabricate elements proportion, from the totality of the
works that compose the construction ob+ect, it can be e.pressed by the
prefabricated degree.
This degree is e.pressed function of weight, volume and value of
the prefabricates%
weight e.pression% $
p
6
c
p
7
7
(88 0(.(-
volume e.pression% $
p
6
c
p
1
1
(88 0(.*-
cost e.pression% $
p
6
c
p
9
9
(88 0(.:-
where%
$
p
" is the prefabrication degree)
7
p
) 1
p
) 9
p
" is the prefabrication weight, volume and
cost)
7
c
) 1
c
) 9
c
" is the weight, volume and cost of the hole
construction ob+ect)
The increase of the prefabricated degree indicates a greater use of
the prefabricated elements. The (88 prefabrication degree represents a
total prefabrication.
To limit the unfavorable effects of some of the construction
production particularities we have to use different ways such as%
- increasing the prefabricated elements dimension)
- increasing the finishing degree, in industry, of the
prefabricates elements)
- reducing the construction elements weight, by adopt
ting rational structures and by using materials with superior resistance
regarded to their weight)
- improving the construction works quality by over
dimension limitation)
- reducing the deficit material consumption such as
wood and steel by using superior steels and by reducing the non
removable formworks.
;ll these ways and directions can be synthesize by transferring in
plants the most important processes that take place into site, by pre
casting the main elements that compose the construction ob+ect.
CHAPTER $
.ech"ni("tion of
construction works
Industrialization of construction works means also the
mechanization of technological processes for a ma.imum economical
efficiency. The growth of the construction works productivity can not be
made without mechanization and automation.
$.1 &/"ll /ech"ni("tion0 /ech"ni("tion0 "uto/"tion "nd
co/!le# /ech"ni("tion
The common devices used for reducing physical effort in the
working process are called small mechanization devices) all these devices
are handled by man, being in the most cases electrical or pneumatic
apparatus or simple mechanisms for lifting and transport.
,hen working ob+ect transformations are made by comple.
mechanisms, the production process is mechanized or automates. In this
case man only has the role of lead, supervision or ad+usts the machine and
the process.
,hen we use assemble of mechanical devices by which is
mechanized a whole comple. of construction processes, we have a
comple. mechanized process.
$.$ Producti1ity of construction /"chines
The quantity of production that could be made in a time unit by a
machine is called the machine productivity.
The production quantity is e.pressed by natural units
characteristic to each construction work such as% m
:
0earthworks, poured
concrete, s.o.-, m
*
0plastering works-, t 0mass transported by crane-,
pieces 0concrete elements-.
Time unit of the productivity can be% hour, shift 0< or (8 h-, day
0(, *, : shifts-, month or year.
The construction machines productivity can be of several types
such as%
p
tc
" theoretical productivity)
p
t
" technical productivity)
p
e.p
" e.ploitation productivity.
"+ Theoretic"l !roducti1ity or constructive represents the
production made by a machine in an hour of continuos run, using an ideal
0theoretic- material, totally loaded and having highqualified personnel.
This productivity gives the qualities of the machine. /or a
machine, the theoretical productivity is unique and it is written in its
technical book. In most cases machines have a cyclic use) only the
transportation machines have continuous use.
The machines with cyclic use are characterized by the fact that
they e.ecute a series of successive actions, which last a certain period of
time, named cycle 0t
c
-) after a cycle is finished the same action are made
again and again.
The calculus relation for cyclic machines is%
p
tc
6 n q 0*.(-
where% p
tc
" theoretical productivity, in natural units = hour)
n " number of cycles = hour, given by one of the following
relations%
n 6 :>88=t
c
) n 6 >8=t
c
) n 6 (2t
c
0*.*-
t
c
" time span in seconds, minutes or hours)
q " quantity of work made in a cycle, in m
:
, m
*
, t, pieces.
9ontinuously working machines can transport the material with
constant sections using the relation%
p
tc
6 :>88 v ; 0*.:-
where% p
tc
" theoretical productivity 0m
:
=h-)
v " machine speed 0m=s-)
; " theoretical section of the transported material 0m
*
-.
To e.press the theoretical productivity in t=h we can use the
following relationship%
p
tc
6 :>88 v ;
a
0*.?-
,here% p
tc
" theoretical productivity)
v " the device speed)
; " the section of the material 0m
*
-

a
" specific density 0t=m
:
-.
In the case of continuously working machines 0the material is
carried in rations- the theoretical productivity is%
p
tc
6
a
q v :>88
0*.@-
where% p
tc
" theoretical productivity in m
:
=h)
v machine speed)
q " bowl capacity)
a " distance between bowl a.es 0m-.
b+ Technic"l !roducti1ity represents the production quantity made
by a machine during an hour, taking into consideration the real properties
of the material, totally loaded and having highqualified personnel.
Technical productivity is the theoretical productivity multiplied by
the coefficients that represents the influence of the material over machine
parameters%
p
t
6 p
tc
c
(
c
n
0*.>-
c
(
, c
*
, c
n
" parameters 0from tables-)
c+ 3orking !roducti1ity is the real productivity taking into
consideration all factors that appears during the process such as%
- real properties of the transported material)
- time spend for au.iliary operations)
- real skill of the worker)
- machine state of using.
The relationship that characterizes this productivity is%
p
e.p
6 k
(
k
*
k: k
?
p
t
0*.A-
where% p
e.p
" working productivity e.pressed in natural units=h)
k
(
" represents the time used in a shift for other indirect
operations 0machine reparations, fuelling, etc-.
This time is usually one hour, so%
k
(
6
<
A <
) 0*.<-
k
*
" represents the waiting that appears during a
comple. process made by several different machines 08.A 8.<-)
k
:
" is the working skill influence over productivity
08.B (.88-)
k
?
" represents the coefficient given by the machine
wear degree 0(.88-.
CHAPTER ,
4uilding /"teri"ls
tr"ns!ort"tion
,.1. 5ener"l notions6 Cl"ssific"tions "nd ch"r"cteristics of
constructions tr"ns!ort"tion
To make up construction works is necessary to move high
quantities of different materials such as aggregates, cement, steel,
concrete, plasters or precast elements from a place to another.
9onstruction transportation has the following particularities%
- the transported products have different shapes, dimensions and
densities)
- the transportation means are loaded only in one way from the
producer to the site, their returning being empty)
- the transportation distances can be small 0several meters- or very great
0up to hundred of kilometers-)
- usually there are to main directions in transportation% horizontal
transport and vertical one.
The construction product transportation represents a comple.
process that implies loading, circulation and unloading.
By taking into consideration the characteristics that influence the
transportation, the materials can be%
- powdery materials such as cement or plaster)
- granular materials such as sand, gravel or soil)
- regular small materials 0bricks-)
- uneven small materials 0lime balls or rocks-)
- big regular or uneven materials 0metallic profiles, precast elements-)
- liquid materials of different consistency 0water, gasoline, oils, hot
bitumen, and fresh concrete-.
;ll these materials can be transported%
- horizontally along big distances, between storehouses or from a
warehouse to a site 04
(
-)
- horizontally on small distances from the site storehouse to the lifting
device 04
*
-)
- vertically, to lift or to descend different materials 01
(
-)
- again horizontally on small distances to reach the working point 04
:
-.
combined 0both horizontal and vertical- directly from the site
storehouse to the ob+ect if the lifting device can 09
(
-.
These ways of transport are presented bellow%
%ig ,.1 3"ys of tr"ns!ort"tion
The materials can also be transported%
- directly in a transportation mean)
- in warps such as bo.es, bags or barrels) usually liquids and powders
are carried in such a way)
- in containers like big bo.es in which we put a number of bags)
- in packets on bottoms which represent simplified containers to reduce
the dead weight)
- through pipes.
,.$ Hori(ont"l tr"ns!ort"tion
;ccording to their rolling way the horizontal transportation can be
made by road or by rail.
The specific means used to transport materials by road are vehicles,
which are in present the most popular way of transport.
,.$.1 7ong dist"nce hori(ont"l tr"ns!ort"tion
5sually, vehicles have the following properties%
- different transportation capacities)
- high speeds)
- easy access at working points)
- easy maintenance and e.ploitation.
In constructions we use%
i+ %i# !l"tfor/ trucks have hinged shutters and are usually used to
transport warping materials or containers.
%ig. ,.$ %i# !l"tfor/ trucks
ii+ Ti!!ing trucks are used to transport materials, which can be
unloaded by sliding on a tilt plane such as granular and powder materials.
The unloading operation holds :8C>8 seconds and can be made only
backwards or both backwards and lateral) the tilting angle is >8. These
are better transportation vehicles than the first ones if the site is not
provided with lifting devices 0cranes-.
Tipping platform) @8
%ig. ,., Ti!!ing trucks
iii+ 8u/!ers transport the same materials like tipping trucks.
They are used for small distances 0app. ( km- inside the site area.
%ig. ,.- 8u/!ers
i1+ .otor t"nkers have the same forms like fi. platform trucks
only the bo. is replaced with a tank.
%ig. ,.9 T"nkers '/i#ers+
1+ .otor tr"ins are made by a truck 0motor tractor- and some
trailers or semitrailers. The number of trailers will be chosen in order to
obtain a ma.imum charge of the materials.
%ig. ,.: .otor tr"ins
One or more a.les who sustain a fi. or a mobile platform make a
trailer. ; fi. or e.tensible hook makes the link between the trailer and
the tracking vehicle. Trailers with fi. platform have the same utilization
domain as fi. platform trucks. ,hen organize the materials transportation
from one place to another 0from storehouse to site- it is very important to
correlate the transportation capacities with the road state, the distance and
the loading degree of the trailers. There are several rules in obtaining
motor trains that will be discussed further one.
%ig. ,.; %i# !l"tfor/ tr"ilers
To transport long building materials 0precast elements- we use
trailers with only one a.le. They are also called low platform trailers.
; semitrailer transmits to the truck half of its weight through a
device named saddle. This device also allows the circulation of the motor
trains in curves. The semitrailers can have fi. or mobile platforms, their
utilization domain being the same as for trailers.
%ig. ,.< 7ow !l"tfor/ tr"ilers
In order to transport precast elements such as columns an
important aspect has to be emphasized% the position of the element when
moving. That is because of the possibility of deteriorating the column due
to bad shape of the road, or due to the manipulation operations in the
handling stage and in the mounting stage. ;ll these appear because the
columnDs strength was computed taking into consideration some
assumptions, which are changed during these phases.
%ig. ,.= &e/i>tr"ilers
1i+ Auto>tr"ctors are specialized vehicles equipped with high
power engines) they have the possibility of tracking very heavy weight
but for relatively small distances. They also can be used in order to
remove vegetal soils if they have adapted a cutting device usually named
blade.
,.$.$ &hort dist"nces hori(ont"l tr"ns!ort"tion
#hort distances horizontal transportation is characteristic for the
material transportation inside the site perimeter. It is used to bring
materials from site storehouses to the transporting means.
/or this kind of transportation we usually use light devices such as
barrows and tombrils. The specified distances for this type of means are
from @8 up to (88m, so they are proper for sites where there are lifting
devices with small radius and lifting capacities.
%ig ,.1? Tu/bril @ bl"de tr"ctor
;nother transportation devices also used for short distances can be
loading tractors. They are used to load and unload different quantities of
materials. The equipment can be a bucket, a grab bucket or a hook.

%ig. ,.11 7o"der tr"ctor
If the materials are placed in containers of different shapes and
dimensions the vehicle that is proper to be used is motor "pilers.
%ig. ,.1$ Piler
,.$., R"ilw"y tr"ns!ort"tion
&ailway transportation usually is made using the national
network. This kind of transportation is used when the quantities of
materials or the distances are very big.
5sual railway routs may not have radius smaller than (<8 m and
declivity greater than :8
o
=
oo
.
%ig.,.1, R"ilw"y su!erstructure
;ccording to the materials that are transported we can have%
- tankers for liquid or powdery materials)
- tipping wagons for different kind of materials such as powdery or
granular)
- flat wagons for surface ob+ects such as prefab walls.
%ig. ,.1- T"nkers
%ig. ,.19 Ti!!ing w"gon
,., Check the tr"cking !ossibilities
To use the complete power of the tracks, especially when making
up motor trains, we have to verify the tracking possibilities by finding the
tracking adhesion force. This force appears at motor wheel outskirts.
The tracking force gives in one second a mechanical work equal
to effective power of the engine.
:>88
(888
1 /
t
6 (888 !
i
0:.(-
,here% 1 " vehicle speed 0km=h-)
/
t
" tracking adhesion force 0!-)
!
i
" engine power 0k,-)
reduction coefficient of the specified power 8.<@
8.B@.
It results% /t 6 :>88
1
!i
0:.*-
The medium speeds of vehicles depend on the road type E state
and are presented in the table (%
Table :.( " &oad type
&O;'
9;T3$O&F
&O;' TFG3
9irculation speed km=h
In town Outside
Transport capacity
@t @ < t @t @ < t
I ;sphalt 0good- (
>
(
?
:
8
*
>
II 9obbled, paved,
macadam 0good-
(
>
(
?
*
<
*
?
III 9obbled, paved,
macadam 0medium-
(
@
(
:
*
@
*
8
I1 9obbled 0bad- or
medium soil
(
?
(
*
*
8
(
>
1 #oil or sand0bad-) big
slopes * 8
(
:
(
*
a- #kidding limit of the wheels%
/
t
< (888 p
ad
0:.:-
,here% p
ad
" adhesion weight 0k!-)
G " vehicle total load)
medium value of the wheel adhesion coefficient.

Table :.* " Hedium values for adhesion force
1ehicle type p
ad
Iight tracks 8.@@ " 8.>< G
4eavy tracks 8.>< " 8.A@ G
,heel tractors 8.A G
9aterpillar tractors G
Table :.: " Hedium values for the adhesion coefficient
tacking into consideration the type E state of the road
&oad type E state
;dhesion coefficient
Tracks 9aterpillars
with soil
'ry
,et
8.>
8.:
8.B
8.<
Gaved, concrete,
macadam
'ry
,et
8.>
8.?
8.?
8.:
#and
'ry
,et
8.>
8.(<
8.?
8.:
with snow
'ry
,et
8.*(
8.(@
8.?
8.*
b- Hoving condition. The tracking force has to be greater than
the moving resistance%
/
t
G 0,
p
J ,
i
J ,
c
- J 0,K
p
J ,K
i
J ,K
c
- 7 0:.?-
or%
/
c
6 /
t
" G 0,
p
J ,
i
J ,
c
- 7 0,K
p
J ,K
i
J ,K
c
- 0:.@-
,here%
G " vehicle total load 0k!-)
7 " total load of trailers 0k!-)
/
c
" hook tracking force 0!-)
,
p
" moving resistance of the vehicles 0!=k!-)
,K
p
" moving resistance of the trailers 0!=k!-)
,
i
" slope moving resistance 0!=k!-)
,
c
" curves moving resistance 0only for rail transports-.
The following relation gives the slope moving resistance%
,
i
6 (888 i 0:.>-
,here LiM represents the slope in
o
N
oo
.
The curves moving resistance, which is determined only for the
rail transportation, depends on the curve radius and gauge. Otherwise its
value is equal with zero 0,
c
6 8-.
The medium value of moving resistance of the vehicles is given in
the following table 0table ?-. /or tracks ,
p
6 ,K
p
.
Table :.? Hoving resistance
&oad type E state
Hoving resistance
Trailers
trucks
Tractors
On wheels
9aterpillars
;sphalt *8 @8 *8
&ocks pavement ?8 @8 @8
;cceptable soil road <8 <8 <8
5nsatisfactory soil road (@8 (?8 (@8
4ard soil *88 (*8 *@8
Ioosen soil :88 (@8 :88
/rom 0:.@- it results the hauling weight 07-%
7
i p
c
, ,
/
+
0:.A-
or % 7
i p
t
, ,
/
+
G 0:.<-
/inally, the number of the trailers that can be transported is%
n 6
* ( q q
7
+
0:.B-
,here%
q
(
" own weight of a single trailer 0k!-)
q
*
" weight that can be placed in a trailer 0k!-.
#o, the trailers need to have their own brakes. It results hence that
the total braking force might give the possibility of stopping in any point%
/
fr
> 7 0,i J ,p- 0:.(8-
,here% /
fr
" the braking force of the trailers 0!-.

,.- Tr"ns!ort"tion /e"ns !roducti1ity
Both long and short horizontal transportation means are vehicles
with cycle running. Because there can be a lot of factors that can
influence this kind of transportation such as speed vehicle and road type it
is necessary to evaluate the technical and e.ploitation productivity.
The technical productivity of a vehicle is%
p 6 n q 0:.((-
,here%
n " the cycles per hour)
q " transportation capacity 0m
:
, t-
The number of cycles for e.pressed in seconds is%
n 6 >8=t
c
0:.(*-
t
c
6 t
i
J t
p
Jt
g
J t
d
J t
a
0:.(:-

,here%
t
i
" loading time)
t
p
" transporting time when vehicle is loaded)
t
g
" transporting time when vehicle is unloaded)
t
d
" unloading time)
t
a
" waiting time when loading.
;ll these times are%
t
i
6
g O
q

ti p
>8
J t
mi
0:.(?-
,here% q " vehicle capacity 0t-)

g
" specific density 0t =m
:
-)
p
ti
" loading device productivity 0m:=h-)
t
mi
" manipulation time when loading 08.@ ( min-.
t
p
6 >8
p 1
'
0:.(@-
tg 6 >8 '=1
g
0:.(>-
,here%
' " transportation distance 0Pm-)
1
p
" transportation speed when vehicle is loaded 0Pm=h-)
1
g
" transportation speed when vehicle is unloaded
0Pm=h-)
t
d
6
g O
q

ti p
>8
J t
md
0:.(A-
t
md
" manipulation time when unloading 08.@( minutes-)
,.9 Aertic"l tr"ns!ort"tion
1ertical transportation has to bring loads from the ground level to
different heights for supplies or for technological processes. This kind of
transportation represents the link between long horizontal transportation
and the short one, so between the suppliers or storehouse to the working
point.
The means that can be used in this kind of transportation are%

i+ Pulleys represent simple mechanisms that are used for loading and
unloading weights. They usually are parts of other lifting devices.
Gulleys can be fi. or mobile.
%ig. ,.1: %i# @ /obile !ulleys
ii+ T"ckles are mechanisms made by a number of fi. and mobile pulleys
and are used to load great weights.
Tackles can be multiple or e.ponential. The multiple tackle is
made by a equal number of fi. and mobile pulleys and the e.ponential
one is made by a greater number of mobile pulleys.
%ig. ,.1; .ulti!le @ e#!onenti"l t"ckles
iii+ 3inchs are mechanisms used to transport loads on vertical or tilt
surfaces. They are made by system of toothed wheels which decrease the
tracking force and a drum for the cable.
%ig. ,.1< ."nu"l winch @ Electro/ech"nic"l winch
;nother type of winch is electromechanical one. It can be
reversible or irreversible. In the case of irreversible winches the engine is
used only for lifting the load. The descending is given by gravitational
weight of the load. /or the reversible one the engine provides both the
lifting and the descending.
i1+ Hydr"ulic j"cks are lifting devices for very big weights at small
heights. ; cylinder in which moves a piston activated by a liquid under
pressure 0usually oil- makes a +ack. The pressure of the liquid can be
increased with the help of pump.
%ig. ,.1= Hydr"ulic j"ck
To decrease the piston an orifice is opened to allow the liquid
returning into the pomp.
4ydraulic can lift loads from *8 to :88 tones but the lifting
heights are only *8 cm.
1+ Electric t"ckles are horizontal lifting and transporting devices. They
are made by electromechanical winch for lifting the weight and an engine
that provides the horizontal moving on a metallic profile. ; mobile
electrical panel makes the moving command. They can lift weights up to
(.@ k! and the lifting height is :8 m.
%ig. ,.$? Electric t"ckle
1i+ &l"b cr"nes are light devices that can be placed in the spaces provided
for widows by using a telescopic column or on floors by using a frame
and counterweights. Their lifting capacities are up to (.@ k! and the
lifting heights are :8 m.
%ig ,.$1 &l"b cr"ne
1ii+ Pioneer cr"nes are made by a rotary metallic platform placed on a
fourwheel truck. On this platform there is an articulated arm and an
electromechanical winch. The transportation of this kind of crane from a
floor to another is made by hand. The ma.imum lifting height is ?.@8 m if
the crane is placed on ground or :8 m if it is placed on a floor. The lifting
capacity is A.@ k! and the rotary radius is *.B8 m.
%ig. ,.$$ Pioneer cr"ne
,.: Co/bined tr"ns!ort"tion
'hori(ont"l B 1ertic"l+
This kind of transportation is characteristic for supplying and for
technological transportation.The cranes are the most used devices for this
kind of transportation.There are several types of cranes such as%
- truckcranes)
- truckmounted cranes)
- rubbermounted cranes)
- caterpillar cranes)
- tower cranes.
i+ Truck>cr"nes are used to load the truckDs platform, on which it is
permanently mounted. ; rotary column and an arm make the crane. The
arm is composed of three articulated sections that can be moved by a
hydraulic engine. The lifting capacity is *.@ k!.
%ig. ,.$, Truck cr"ne
ii+ Truck>/ounted cr"nes are lifting devices on wheels. They have some
particularities such as%
- the chassis has the classical truck shape)
- the crane has two cabins% one for driving the vehicle and the other
one for lifting operations.
These kinds of cranes have same advantages%
a- they do not depend on a rolling way such as tower cranes)
b- they have a great mobility 0the time spend to change their
positions are relatively small-)
c- they can move virtually on any kind of soil)
d- they can work properly without connecting to a power
supply because their engines have internal combustion.
There are several types of truckmounted cranes, but the most
important are%
1+ Truck>/ounted cr"ne of , tf is designed to lift different
weights at relatively small heights. It is a rotary crane, which can quickly
move from a working point to another. It can lift weights up to A.* m.
%ig. ,.$- Truck>/ounted cr"ne of , tf
$+ A. 9 truck>/ounted cr"ne @ tower e)ui!/ent A. 9>T 1.9
is usually used to load and unload granular materials or for mounting
operations on site. The tower equipment is used in the case of prefabs
mounting at industrial construction. On a truck chassis is placed a fi.
platform. The crane driverDs cabin is placed on a rotary platform, which is
sustained by the fi. one.
,hen it is used the crane the lifting capacity is of @ tf but the
lifting height is between ?.@ and A m.
%ig. ,.$9 A. 9 truck>/ounted cr"ne
To increase the lifting height the craneDs arrow can be replaced
with the tower equipment. This device is placed also on the rotary
platform. The lifting height becomes *> m for the minimum span, but the
manipulated weight decrease till (.@ tf.
%ig. ,.$: Tower e)ui!/ent A. 9 * T 1.9
The crane moves from a place to another if the road conditions are
normal with its arm folded or if the tower device is placed on the rotary
platform a single a.le trailer is used.
,+ Telesco!ic truck>/ounted cr"ne is a more powerful crane
with bigger lifting heights because it is made by a number of steel arms,
which can fold one to another. This type of crane is hydraulically acted.
%ig ,.$; Telesco!ic cr"ne
;ll these types of cranes present some disadvantages such as%
- the effective working radius decreases when the building height
increase)
- the craneDs arm cannot reach all points of the working point if it is
not provided with an e.tension piece)
- the wedging for any working point decreases the productivity.
iii+ Rubber wheel>/ounted cr"nes have also some particularities%
- the chassis is made by a metallic structure which lay on two or more
a.les)
- the rotary platform lay on the chassis through a special bearing)
- the arm is fi.ed to the rotary platform by a +oint.
/or this kind of crane the permitted acts are%
- hook lifting or descending 0loaded=unloaded-)
- platform rotation)
- arm declivity modification only when the crane is not loaded.
There are several types of rubbermounted cranes of different
capacities from @ tf up to ((* tf.
%ig ,.$< Rubber wheel>/ounted cr"ne in the tr"ns!ort"tion st"ge
The lifting heights are bigger than truckmounted cranes and they
can reach >8 m. ;lso the working radius is great, up to ?@ m.
i1+ C"ter!ill"r cr"nes have the lifting device similar to rubbermounted
cranes. The difference appears to the infrastructure where the rubber
wheels are replaced with caterpillars.
These kinds of cranes have some advantages such as%
- reduced earth pressure which implies easy access to all kind of
soils)
- they can lift bigger loads)
- no wedging operations so an increased productivity)
- they can move loaded.
The base frame is made from a welded steel channel to which
two machine a.les are attached and support the weight of the engine,
gearing and winches, controls, cab, boom and counterweights.
;bove the listed advantages they have some disatvanteages, such
as%
- are slower than the rubber mounted cranes which leads to big
waiting times between two +obs)
- are more e.pensive then the other cranes.
%ig. ,.$= C"ter!ill"r cr"ne
1+ Tower cr"nes are made by a tower and an arm which has an angle
with the horizontal that can be fi. or can vary. Transverse and rails make
their rolling way. The main advantage of the tower crane is that the +ib or
boom is supported at the top of a tall tower which may be set at a
sufficient height to clear any obstructions. This configuration allows the
crane to stand very close to, or even in, the structure under construction.
In this way a relatively short boom provides more reach in comparison
with other types of crane. Thus for high " rise buildings the tower crane is
often the cheapest form of device.
They are characterized by the following technical advantages%
- relatively reduced own weight)
- complete tower rotation)
- ma.imum stabilization.
The tower crane transportation can be made without its braking
apart) the tower and the arm are placed horizontally and the crane is
transported on a special wheel chassis.
There are several types of tower cranes but the most important and
used are%
"+ .T * -? tower cr"ne has the ma.imu radius &ma.6*8.@ m
and the weight that can be loaded at this radius *8 k!.
%ig. ,.,? .T * -? cr"ne
This crane is usually used for materials and concrete lifting to the
working area.
b+ .TA > 1$9 tower cr"ne has the ma.imum action radius &
ma.
6 ?@m,
7
&ma.
6 :8 k! and 4
ma.
6 @8 m. Its boom is horizontal.
The crane comprises a vertical standing lattice " framed central
mast, which supports a horizontal " boom in two parts, the larger section
being used for lifting and carries a trolley or a saddle traveling on guides
along the length of the boom. On the opposite side of the mast a shorter
boom supports a kentledge block and serves as a counterbalance. The
resistance to overturning when lifting 0and from wind pressure- is
transferred through the tower to a heavy foundation base.
The tower cranes must be designed to resist torsion from side
loads acting on the boom such as swinging load, wind, etc. it is usual for
crane operation to be suspended when the wind gust speed e.ceed >8
km=h and the boom is left to swing freely on the turntable to reduce the
torsion effect. The crane has :>8Q slewing capability and the turntable is
commonly mounted at the top of the mast. This configuration usually
involves transporting the crane in sections with an associated slow
assembly on site, but rapid development in self " erecting cranes is taking
place. The whole unit is supported on a strong foundation connected to
the base of the mast with the main counterweight also located in this
position. The centre of gravity is thus brought nearer to the ground to
improve the craneDs stability.
%ig. ,.,1 .TA * 1$9 Tower cr"ne
,.; Cr"nes cl"ssific"tion t"king in
consider"tion the working !"r"/eters
One of the most important ways of crane classification is that
regarding the civil engineer point of view. 4e is less interested to know
the constructive characteristics of the equipment, the component parts or
their acting mechanism.
The civil engineer wants to know mainly, how to use the device
and the optimum acting domains.
/rom this point of view, cranes are characterized by their
functional parameters in this way%
Inclined arm cranes)
Tower cranes.
Inclined "r/ cr"nes are characterized by their mobility) they can
move and stay in working position relatively easy because they have
wheel or caterpillar rolling system.
Because of that the inclined arm cranes are usually used to make
one level buildings, halls, storehouses or industrial halls.
%ig. ,.,$ The working di"gr"/ of the cr"ne
The main parameters of inclined arm cranes are%
- 7 " the load that can be lifted)
- & " the radius or the distance from where it can lift the load)
- 4 " the height where it can put the load.
;ll these parameters can be placed in a coordinate a.is system to
make a correlation between them. This system is also named the working
diagram of the crane.
Between load 07- and radius 0&- there e.ists an inverse
proportionality ratio. If the radius decreases the lifting load becomes
bigger, and reverse. The minimum radius gives the ma.imum lifting load.
The working parameters of the main inclined arm cranes are presented
in the following table, the dimensions having the meanings presented in
the figure%
%ig. ,.,, The function"l !"r"/eters of the cr"ne
Table :.@
!
The denomination of
the crane
7ma.
0t-
;
0mm-
B
0mm-
9
0mm-
4
0mm-
ma.
0-
(
El"n &8 1?? (8 *<*8 *@88 :*88 *B?8 A>.<
* C 1$- (*.? :8@8 *B88 :A88 ?8?A A@.?
: E 1$9< *8 :>88 :*88 :?88 :AB8 A?.B
? C $99 *@.@ :<88 :(@8 ?@88 :<<8 A?.<
@ ."nito1oc $,?? *A ::<8 ::@8 :B(8 >8:8 AA.>
> 8e/"g TC ;9 :8 :?(8 *@88 @888 @((@ A<.*
A PH -,? :(.< :@@> *?@8 ?<>8 :<88 A>.?
< DCC R"!ier 999 ?8 :@<8 *<:8 ?*<8 >(*8 <8
B 8e/"g TC 1-? ?@ :??8 *A@8 @@88 :<@8 <8
(8 8e/"g TC 1<? >8 :A(8 :888 >888 ?<88 <8
(( Coles 5"rg"ntu" >A :>>8 *B88 @B?8 :B>8 AA.B
(* Coles A"li"nt A( ?((@ *<(B @>:B ?:(< AB.>
(: 7un" 5T <?2-9 <8 :BA8 :888 A8(8 :<B* <8
(? ."nito1oc ,=?? B8.A ?::8 ::@8 @8<8 >8@8 AB.?
(@ Coles Centurion ((* ?*A8 *B>8 >:@8 ?888 AA.?
(> 5ro1e T. 1$;9 4 ((A ?(>8 :888 <<@8 ?888 <8
(A Coles T -??? (?: ?:@8 :888 >B@8 :<@8 A>.<
(< 8e/"g TC :?? (@8 @@@8 *@8: A888 :<@8 A<
The using modalities of the working diagrams are presented in the
following e.ample%
If we have to mount a prefabricated column of a given weight 07- in a
specified foundation also by knowing the distance between the crane and
the foundation 0&- we can use the following picture.
Taking into consideration the element characteristics and the working
area, the necessary parameters are determined% 7
nec
, &
nec
, and 4
nec
.
%ig. ,.,- The necess"ry !"r"/eters deter/in"tion for "
!ref"bric"ted ele/ent /ounting
By studying the working diagrams of different crane types the
equipment which is adopted is that who satisfy simultaneous all three
parameters. Obviously the crane which will be adopted is the optimum
one, so that with the lowest rent who satisfies the required parameters.

Tower cr"nes are characterized by the lifting possibilities at big
heights. The problem appears for the working area, which is relatively
small. These kinds of cranes are used for multistoried buildings.
The main parameters of tower cranes are the same as those of
inclined arm ones, with some particularities. The load L7M is limited to
the biggest utilized lifting device specific for the construction work. /or
e.ample, if the building is made in the monolith variant, the load is
limited to (C* tones, the weight of a skip. The height L4M remains
constant for a working level.
%ig. ,.,9 The working di"gr"/ of tower cr"nes
In the case of a prefabricated building the load is limited at > (*
tones which represents the weight of a wall or a floor prefabricated
element. ;s it can be observed in the working diaphragm, taking into
consideration the statically point of view, the crane can lift bigger loads.
CHAPTER -
E"rth * works technology
-.1 5ener"l "s!ects6 E"rth configur"tion
To study the digging process, the adequate methods and means,
the acting modalities on the soil to dislocate it from a place and put to
another is necessary to know the nature and the crowd modalities of the
earth. The soil is made up of rocks that can be classified after their
making modalities in three main groups%
- volcanic rocks)
- sedimentary rocks)
- metamorphic rocks.
The 1olc"nic rocks are made of solidified magma that gets on
earth surface after volcanic eruptions. The main volcanic rocks are
granites and basalt. These kinds of rocks can be easily recognized after
their surface te.ture) they have crystalline shining aspects and mosaic
variegated colors.
%ig. -.1 Aolc"nic rock "s!ect
The main characteristic of these kinds of rocks is the primary
fragmentation because of the fissure area apparition in the cooling process
of the magma. These microfissures create low resistance zones in the
massif, zones that permit through mechanical actions, such as hammer
knocks, the block fragmentation. ;s e.ample, granite fragments are
vertical such as columns and basalt fragments are horizontal like plates.
%ig. -.$ Colu/ns "nd !l"tes fr"g/ent"tion
The volcanic rocks have great compression resistance 0(888
da!=cm
*
-.
&edi/ent"ry rocks are made of accumulated substance deposits
during a period of time on the surface of the soil or at the bottom of the
waters due to corrosion of pree.istent rocks. The main sedimentary rocks
can be classified such as%
- detritus rocks 0gritstone, clay, marl- which are
made by desegregation)
- fire destroyed rocks 0tuff, volcanic tuff-)
- precipitation rocks 0limestone, gypsum-.
These types of rocks can have agglomerated cemented shapes
or amorphous aspects.
#edimentary rocks can be easily recognized after their strati
fied aspect, after the animal and vegetal fossils contain or after their
colors, which are relatively uniform.
'istinct categories of sedimentary rocks are the residual ones,
which are made by the erosion of pree.istent rocks without their
movement. The erosion is produced by physical and chemical agents or
by the action of bacterial environment.
%ig. -., &edi/ent"ry rocks "s!ect
These rocks can be find at the upper part of the earth and they are
usually named 1eget"l soils. The width of these soils is ?8CA8 cm. They
have low resistance, which implies that they cannot be used for building
foundations.
.et"/or!hic rocks can result from the transformation of
pree.istent rocks 0volcanic and sedimentary- under different climatic
actions such as temperature or pressure of the superior structures.
#late from clay metamorphose, quartz from sand transformation
or marble from limestone metamorphose are some e.amples of these kind
of rocks.
/rom the aggregation point of view the soils can be%
- compact rocks, also named rocky or semirocky
soils)
- desegregated rocks also named earthy soil.
; great compression resistance 0at least @8 da!=cm
*
- characterizes
rocky soils. These kinds of rocks are stable in water, as e.ample granite
or basalt.
The compression resistance of se/i>rocky soils is smaller than
the rocky ones 0< @8 da!=cm
*
- and in the presence of water they soak
0gritstone or marl-.
E"rthy soils can be grouped as follows%
cohesive soils with linking forces between particles)
cohesiveless soils with no linking forces between particles.
The classification of these two types of soils is made after the
granule dimension for cohesionless soils and after the value of the
linking force for cohesive ones.
Table ?.(
Type 9haracteristic 'enomination
9
o
h
e
s
i
o
n

l
e
s
s

s
o
i
l
s
$
r
a
n
u
l
a
t
i
o
n
&ough
$ranulation
Blocks >*88mm
9obble *8C*88 mm
$ravel *C*8 mm
Hedium
$ranulation
Big sand 8.@C* mm
Hedium sand 8.*@C8.@ mm
/ine
$ranulation
/ine sand 8.(C8.*@ mm
/loury sand 8.8@C8.( mm
9
o
h
e
s
i
v
e

s
o
i
l
s
9
o
h
e
s
i
o
n
,eak
9ohesion
;rgillaceous sand, loess, silty
sand, silt,
argillaceous silt
Hedium
9ohesion
#ilty clay
#andy clay
$reat cohesion 9lay
Tough clay
Harl soils
The sand, gravel and cobble mi. from the riverbed is called
pebble or ballast.
Taking into consideration the particle dimensions, in the following
figure is presented the soil image%
> 8.8@ 6 8.8@ 8.88@ < 8.88@
sandy soils silty soils argillaceous
soils
%ig. -.- &oil cl"ssific"tion "fter !"rticle di/ensions
Taking into consideration the dislocation resistance, soils can be
classified in 1II distinct groups.
The classification criterion was made due to the digging difficulty
degree.
The digging ways differ from a soil type to another, so%
for desegregated soils the digging tools can be shovel, spade, picka.e,
sledge hammer and pick)
for compact soils the digging tool usually is the pneumatic drill.
;ll these groups are presented in the following table%
Table ?.* 'esegregated E compact soils
#oil
type
#oil nature
Hanual
'igging
Tool
'rilling
time
min = m
'igging
&esistance
da! = cm
*
I
'
e
s
e
g
r
e
g
a
t
e
d

s
o
i
l
s
#oft
soils
#and, ooze,
vegetal soil
#hovels
spade 8.@
II
Hediu
m soils
;rgillaceous
sand,
argillaceous
silt, sand,
loess
#pade,
partial
picka.e

(.88
III
4ard
soils
;rgillaceous
silt, pebble,
ballast
Gicka.e
partial
spade
*.88
I1
1ery
4ard
soils
Tough clay,
marl clay,
cobble,
/rozen soil
Gicka.e
sledge
hammer
pick
:.88
1
9
o
m
p
a
c
t

s
o
i
l
s
#emi
hard
#oils
Harl,
argillaceous
marl, tuff
8:8
1I
4ard
soils
Iimestone,
marl,
calcareous
marl, slate
:8>8
1II
1ery
4ard
soils
$ranite
Basalt
>8(*8
-.$ E"rth constituent !h"ses
3.cepting the solid phase that is formed by granules, the other
soils are also characterized by the arrangement of the particles and the
spaces that appears between them. These spaces can be filled with water
or with gases. #o, we can say that soils are formed by those three phases%
solid, liquid and gaseous.
To determine the quantitative ratios between earth constitutive
phases the following measures are used%
> Porosity 'n+ represents the ratio between the total pore volume
01
p
- and the apparent volume 0total volume of the soil including all
spaces-%
n 6
a
p
1
1
(88 R 0?.(-
> Pore inde# '+ is the ratio between pores volume and solid
skeleton volume 0which is contained in the same soil volume-%
6
s
p
1
1
0?.*-

Hu/idity 'w+ of the soil is defined as the ratio between the
liquid phase mass contained in pores 0m
a
- and solid one 0m
s
-%
w 6
s
a
m
m
(88 R 0?.:-

Iiquid phase mass is that which is eliminated by soil drying at
(8@9.
Hu/idity degree '&+ is the ratio between earth humidity at a
given moment 0w- and the humidity of the same soil in saturation state
0w
sat
-%
# 6
sat w
w
0?.?-

Taking into consideration the humidity degree value soils can be%
Table ?.:
#oils state
4umidity degree
'ry # 8.?
Hoist 8.? < # 8.<
1ery moist 8.< < # 8.B
#aturated 8.B < # (
Inferior !l"sticity li/it 'w
f
+ also named kneading limit, is the
humidity that correspond to soil passing from hard state to plastic state.
&u!erior !l"sticity li/it 'w
c
+ also named flowing limit, is the
humidity that correspond to soil passing from plastic state to flowing
state.
Pl"sticity inde#es 'I
!
+ gives the humidity interval in which the
soils stay in plastic state% Ip 6 w
l
" w
f
0?.@-.
Table ?.?
&educed plasticity
8 < I
p
(8
Glastic I
p
6 8C:@
1ery plastic I
p
> :@
Consistency inde#es 'I
c
+ is given by%
I
c
6
f l
l
w w
w w
6
p
l
I
w w
0?.>-

Table ?.@
/lowing soils
8 <

I
c
8.*@
Glastic soils 8.*@ < I
c
(
4ard soils I
c
> (
-., .ech"ni(ed digging of the soil
-.,.1 8igging !rocess !"rticul"rities
The digging of the soil is mainly influenced by the type of the
cutting device, by its position and by the properties and the nature of the
earth.
The soil digging equipment can be provided with specific working
devices, on the acting level of the earth. 5sually, this kind of device is
called cutter. Its shape is presented in the figure ?.@.
%ig. -.9 The sh"!e "nd the ch"r"cteristic "nglesof the cutting de1ice
The cutting device is characterized by its constructive shape and
by its placing position regarding the cutting plane which takes into
consideration the following angles%
the cutting angle)
the placing angle)
the sharpening angle.
The digging process of the soil takes place in several stages and it
is influenced also by the nature of the earth and its humidity degree.
In the first stage the penetration and the advancing of the cutting
device gives a soil particles tamping 0the space between particle
decreases-. The compression efforts appear now.
The ne.t stage is characterized by the making of some slipping
soil planes) it appears the cutting shear given by the advancing plane of
the cutter.
In the third stage takes place the soil portions displacement in
front or to the upper part of the cutter.
Taking into consideration the soil nature and its humidity degree
the cut pieces of the earth can be disposed in different ways.
To cohesiveless soils such as sand, gravel, and ballast after the
furrow cutting, a deformation of the terrain and an agglomeration in an
unorganized shape in front of the cutting device take place.
%ig. -.: The digging !rocess !"rticul"rities
of the cohesi1e>less soils
The prism that is made in the digging process becomes in time
bigger and bigger. In the case of cohesive soils with an inferior humidity
degree 0I
p
< (8- appears a fragmentation of the cut furrow in pieces by
making of several slipping planes at equal intervals.
%ig. -.; The !"rticul"rities of the digging
!rocess for cohesi1e soils
In time these soil parts have the tendency of moving in the upper
part of the cutter.
Glastic cohesive soils have the most favorable behavior at digging.
The prisms that appear stay relatively intact and can be directed to be
organized in optimum conditions during the digging process.
%ig. -.< The digging !rocess of
!l"stic cohesi1e soils
Taking into consideration the device characteristics, the cut
furrow can be disposed in different shapes that lead to minimum
resistance during the digging process.
/or hard cohesive soils 0I
c
> (- the soil dislocation appears in
boulders. They have an unorganized shape in front of the cutter.
%ig. -.= The digging !rocess !"rticul"rities
of the h"rd cohesi1e soils
-.,.$ 5ener"l notions reg"rding the soil digging
resist"nce
By the action of the digging device on the soil it appears a
reaction L&M.
%ig. -.1? The re"ctions th"t "!!e"r during the soil furrow disloc"tion
The reactions that appear are%
- &
t
" the cutting resistance)
- &
n
" normal resistance.
The last reaction 0&
n
- gives during the cutting process a friction
force between the cutter and the soil.
&
f
6 &
n
0?.A-
This friction force is function of LM, the friction coefficient
between the cutter and the soil.
To realize the digging process is necessary to overcome the
digging reaction &
s
which is usually made by the cutting resistance &
t
, the
friction resistance &
f
and the resistance of the soil furrow displacement
&
d
.
&
s
6 &
t
J &
f
J &
d
0?.<-
%ig. -.11 The re"ctions th"t "!!e"r during the
digging !rocess
It becomes obvious that the digging force L;M has to be greater
than the resistance force L&
s
M.
/or different types of cutting devices the general relation will have
particular values.
In a simplified form, taking into consideration e.perimental data
by introducing the concept of specific digging resistance LkM, the formula
becomes%
&
s
6 k # Sda!T 0?.B-
,here% k"is the digging resistance Sda!=cm
*
T)
#"is the furrow section surface perpendicular to the
digging direction Scm
*
T.
By taking into consideration the soil type and the working device
there are presented in the following table the values of specific digging
resistance.
Table ?.>
#oil type #oil
category
k, da!=cm
*
Bucket
Blade
#and, ooze, vegetal
soil I 8.(> " 8.A8 8.*< (.*8
;rgillaceous sand,
argillaceous silt,
loess
II 8.>8 " (.:8 (.88 (.B8
#ilty clay, clay,
ballast, cobble III (.(@ " (.B@
Tough clay, marl
clay, cobble I1 *.88 " :.88
/rozen smashed
soils 1 *.<8 " :.*@
/rozen dislocated
soils 1I :.<8 " ?.A8
/rom this table it results that the equipment with blade devices
can work only for the first two categories. Blade cannot digs hard soils.
-.,., E)ui!/ents for e"rth digging "nd tr"ns!ort"tion
; general classification of the digging equipments can be made by
taking into consideration the shape of the digging device%
- bucket devices)
- blade devices.
3.cavators are equipments that have bucket digging devices.
They can dig and place the soil in a transportation mean or in a
storehouse.
The e.cavators can have periodic action if they are provided with
a single bucket or continuous action if they have several buckets.
The classification of single bucket e.cavators can be made by
taking into consideration the following points of view%
a- taking into consideration the universality point of view they can be%
universal e.cavators equipped with different types of
working devices such as front acting buckets, back acting buckets, grab
buckets, dragline buckets.
semiuniversal e.cavators equipped only with one, two
or three working devices such as front acting, back acting and dragline
buckets.
special e.cavators are specific for big soil volumes, in
quarries or earth mines equipped with only one working device.
b- taking into consideration the acting system they can have%
mechanical action)
electromechanical action)
hydrostatic action.
c- taking into consideration the rolling system they can be%
- caterpillar e.cavators)
- rubber wheel e.cavators)
- railway e.cavators)
- floating e.cavators)
- stepping e.cavators.
;ll these kind of classifications are important, but
taking into consideration the civil engineerDs point of view the main
particularity is regarding the bucket of the equipment, so the universal
e.cavators can be%
- front acting e.cavators)
- back acting e.cavators)
- dragline e.cavators)
- grab e.cavator.

-.,.- The constructi1e ch"r"cteristics "nd the function"l
!"r"/eters of the front "cting e#c"1"tors
"+ The constructi1e ch"r"cteristics of the e#c"1"tors
/rom the component parts and equipment functionality point of
view front acting e.cavators can be%
- mechanical e.cavators)
- hydrostatic e.cavators.
(- Hechanical e.cavators are made by a rolling system 0(-, an upper
platform on which are placed the engines and the winches 0*- and a
turning round system for the upper platform 0:-.
The working device is made by a fi. boom or arm 0?-, a rotating
boom 0@- and a fi. bucket 0>- provided with teeth for cutting the soil.
%ig. -.1$ %ront "cting e#c"1"tor with
/ech"nic"l "ction
;t these kinds of e.cavators the characteristic feature is the fi.ing
of the rotating boom to the arm by a special device 0;- which allows both
rotation and moving.
5sually the fi. boom can change the angle 0- only when the
e.cavator is not digging. ,hen digging, the bucket is continuously rise
into the earth together with a forward and than backward movement until
the bucket is loaded.
%ig. -.1, %ront "cting bucket /ech"nic"lly "cted
Then, the e.cavator makes the rotating movement to the
unloading position. The cycle is performed again. The digging positions
can be for%
- front digging)
- lateral 0left or right- digging.
The bucket running level is mostly over the e.cavation 0see the
figure- but occasionally it can dig under its running level, in order to
provide itself with the access road into the e.cavation 0 (@R declivity-.
%ig. -.1- The furrow tr"jectory for the front "cting e#c"1"tor0
/ech"nic"lly "cted
The width of the dig up furrow is function of the soil type. ;s
bigger the soil category as smaller the furrow width.
*- 4ydrostatic e.cavators are made up of a rolling system 0(-, a
horizontal rotary system 0*-, an upper platform 0:- on which are placed
the command ensembles, a fi. boom 0?-, a rotating boom 0@- and a bucket
0>-.
The fi. boom, the rotating boom and the bucket are articulated
one to each other.
Because of this making way of the working devices the bucket
can describe any tra+ectory in the working front.
%ig.-.19 %ront "cting e#c"1"tor0 hydr"ulic"lly "cted
b+ The /"in function"l !"r"/eters of front "cting e#c"1"tor
In order to organize in optimum conditions the working front and
to obtain as smaller costs as possible is necessary to know the functional
possibilities of the working devices. /or this we have to find the
ma.imum values of these parameters and the tra+ectory of the bucket
within these values.
;s it is shown in the figure there are three important points 0a, b,
c- for the digging and two 0bD, cD- for the unloading. /or all these points
we have to determine the coordinates.
%ig. -.1: ."#i/u/ function"l !"r"/eters for front "cting e#c"1"tor
/or the digging phase the coordinates are%
&
os
" digging radius at the moving level of the e.cavator)
&D
s
" the ma.imum digging range)
4D
s
" the ma.imum digging height)
&M
s
" the digging radius for the ma.imum digging height)
4M
s
" the digging height for the ma.imum digging range.
#o%
a is given by &
os
)
b is given by &D
s
and 4M
s
)
c is given by 4D
s
and &M
s
.
/or the unloading phase the coordinates are%
&D
d
" the ma.imum unloading range)
4D
d
" the ma.imum unloading height)
&M
d
" the unloading radius for the ma.imum unloading height)
4M
d
" the unloading height for the ma.imum unloading radius.
These coordinates determine the position of points bD and cD.
c+ The furrow tr"jectory e)u"tions
In an a.is system 0., y- the bucket tra+ectory is%
. 6 &D
s
08.A J
s *4U
y
- ?.(8
%ig. -.1; The furrow tr"jectory e)u"tions
forE 8 y 4M
s
, and
. 6 &D
s
0(.:
s *4U
y
- ?.((
for% 4M
s
y 4D
s
.
d+ 3orking fronts
To realize the digging of a precinct in order to place the building
foundations is necessary to organize the location of e.cavators and their
acting directions. #o, there are several methods such as%
- front"l /ethodE
The digging is made after a working front perpendicular to the
moving direction of the e.cavator.
The digging is made for the whole width of the transversal profile,
in front and laterals 0right and left-. The transportation equipment
circulates on the same direction with the e.cavator but in the opposite
sense.
%ig. -.1< The front"l /ethod
The advantage is that the e.cavator digs from one position in a
large working front which gives a high productivity but the disadvantage
is that for unloading it makes a rotation up to (<8.
- longitudin"l /ethodE
%ig. -.1= The longitudin"l /ethod
By this longitudinal method the e.cavator circulates after a
parallel direction to the working front.
The digging is made lateral after a parallel direction to the
e.cavator displacement. The advantage of this method is that it opens a
large working front on which can dig simultaneous more e.cavators. The
disadvantage is that from a single position the e.cavator has a limited
working front. The transportation means have a parallel direction to the
e.cavator.
There can be several others ways of working front that contains
elements from those two methods.

-.,.9 F!ti/u/ ch"r"cteristics of the working fronts
for the front"l /ethod
The aim of studding the making possibilities of the digging is that
of determine the optimum dimensions of the working fronts that leads to
high productivity by using the e.cavator functional parameters at
ma.imum, respectively minimum costs.
; single cross of the e.cavator can not generally make the
precinct of a trench. #o, it is necessary to make an organize plan in a
vertical section for the digging possibilities. Taking into consideration a
transversal section of a precinct there will be disposed successive passing
of the e.cavator. It results strips of different shapes.
The first strip that is made by the e.cavator has a trapezoidal
shape and is called ending strip 0I-, the other strip has a parallelogram
shape and is usually called current strip 0II-.
To realize minimum costs for the earth digging of the precinct
presented in figure ?.*8 is necessary that the dimensions of the strips 0I,
II- to be optimum. It appears the problem of geometrical dimension
determination of the strips taking into consideration the functional
parameters of the working devices and the properties of soils.
%ig. -.$? The !recinct digging org"ni("tion
-.,.: The o!ti/u/ di/ensions of the ending stri!s
Taking into consideration the notations from the figure 0?.*8- for
ma.imum utilization of the functional parameters of the working devices
we will adopt for the height LhM a close value to the ma.imum digging
height L4D
s
M.
%ig.-.$1 5eo/etric"l di/ension deter/in"tion of the ending stri!
#o, h 4D
s
0?.(*-
;t the upper part of the strip the dimension LBM will be adopted to
a close value of the digging radius 0&M
s
- for the ma.imum digging height
04D
s
-%
B &M
s
0?.(:-
#o, from the geometrical elements of the figure it results%
b B " h=n 0?.(?-
Taking into consideration the equality sign for the above relations,
it results the optimum dimensions of the working frontDs transversal
section.
It is also necessary to verify if the established geometrical
elements satisfy some necessary conditions%
1. If the working e)ui!/ent h"s the !ossibility of digging the
di/ension b "t the /o1ing le1el of the e#c"1"torE
b &
os
0?.(@-
If this condition is not satisfied results that the bucket cannot dig
the dimension LbM which results from 0?.(?- and it is necessary to adopt
another value, Lb
(
M, for the basic dimension%

b
(
6 &
os
0?.(>-
The height of the section remains fi. 0?.(*-, but the dimension
from the upper part becomes%
B
(
6 b
(
J h=n 0?.(A-
$. 4etween the b"ck of the e#c"1"tor "nd the e/b"nk/ent
foot h"s to be " s"fety s!"ce for "n e1entu"l worker 'l"bor
!rotection+.
b ; J d 0?.(<-
where%
; " the back of the e.cavator)
d " the space 08.@C(.88 m -.
%ig. -.$$ The ending stri! di/ensions
fro/ the l"bor !rotection condition
If this condition is not satisfied is necessary to adopt another
dimension, which has to fulfill the labor protection condition%
b
*
6 ; J d 0?.(B-
By adopting b
*
, the height of the working front does not
correspond any more to the relation 0?.(*- so it results smaller than 4D
s
and it is necessary to determine the new value of it 0h
*
- and the new value
for the upper part 0B
*
-.
/rom geometrical point of view results%
B
*
6 b
*
J h
*
=n 0?.*8-
in which B
*
and h
*
are unknown.
Pnowing the furrow tra+ectory equation we can write a second
relation%
B
*
6 &D
s
0(.: "
s
*
*4U
h
- 0?.*(-

By solving this equations system we can determine B
*
and h
*
. If h
*
is not placed in the interval 4M
s
< h
*
4D
s
is necessary to remake the
system by taking the other furrow tra+ectory equation%
B
*
6 &D
s
08.A J
s
*
*4U
h
- 0?.**-
,. Is i/!osed in order to incre"se the working
!roducti1ity of the e#c"1"tor.
/or this is rationally to reduce the rotary angle of the e.cavator
between the digging zone and the position of the transportation mean. It is
useful to determine the working front dimensions in such a way that the
lorry to be placed between the e.cavator and the embankment foot.
It is necessary that LbM dimension to fulfill the condition%
b ; J d J c J d 0?.*:-
%ig. -.$, The ending stri! di/ensions fro/
the incre"sing !roducti1ity condition
If this condition is not satisfied is necessary to impose another
dimension for the inferior part of the strip, so%
b
:
6 ; J d J c J d 0?.*?-
By taking this value the height of the working front becomes
smaller than 4D
s
so is necessary to adopt another value for it 0h
:
- and
consequently for the dimension of the upper part B
:
.
Taking into consideration the geometrical features of the strip we
have%
B
:
6 b
:
J h
:
=n 0?.*@-
where h
:
, and B
:
are unknown.
Pnowing the furrow tra+ectory equations we can write the
following equation%
B
:
6 &D
s
0(.: "
s
:
*4U
h
- 0?.*>-
By solving the equation system which result the values B
:
, and h
:
becomes known.
The following steps are the same as for condition *.
-. The condition i/!osed in order to fill the bucket.
/unction of the soil nature and the bucket capacity the filling is
made on a smaller furrow length for soils with reduce digging resistance
and on a bigger one for soils with high digging resistance. #o, the digging
heights will be conditioned for the same bucket by the soil digging
resistance.
By e.periment the optimum digging heights for filling the buckets
are presented in the figure 0?.*:-. It was observed that during the digging
process in the situation of a big height 0a- the soil gets into the bucket,
fills it, overcomes it and then falls to the embankment foot. The final part
of the height is covered useless.
,hen the strip height is a little bit greater then the height when
the bucket is filled 0b- the soil does not overcome the cup, which implies
that the e.cavator made the rotation for the unloading with minimum
energy consumption.
In the last case 0c- if the height is smaller the soil does not fill the
bucket.
%ig. -.$- 8igging heights fro/ the bucket
fill condition
In table ?.A are presented the optimum digging heights
e.perimentally determined.
Table ?.A
#oil category
Bucket cup
0m
:
-
h
optim
I II III I1
< 8.@ (.@ " * * " : ? " @
8.@ " ( * " : ? " @ > " >.@
( " (.@ ? " @ > " >.@ A
(.@ * @.@ " > A <
;lso from the e.perimental observation point of view is necessary
that the digging height to fulfill the following condition%
h : h
bucket
0?.*A-
where h
bucket
is the bucket height.
#o from all these points of view it results that%
If the condition is not satisfied the following step is to impose the equality
and the other dimensions are computed by solving the following system
of equations%
By passing through all determining stages of the ending strip
dimension finally the user will adopt the suitable solution.
-.,.; The o!ti/u/ di/ensions of the current stri!
In order to adopt the optimum dimensions of the current strips the
same reasoning such as in the first case 0ending strip- are made, so the
correlation between the functional parameters of the working equipment
and the soil category for a favorable use of the e.cavator.
In the following figure is presented the transversal section through
a current strip.
%ig. -.$9 The current stri! di/ensions
The left side dimensions are the same with the dimensions of the
ending strip. /or the dimensions from the right the reasoning is the
following%
The e.cavators can dig at the moving level with the dimension &
os
. #o, we will adopt%
bD &
os
0?.:8-
and results from geometrical point of view%
BD bD " h=n 0?.:(-
-.,.< 4"ck "cting e#c"1"tors
/rom the component parts and equipment functionality point of
view backacting e.cavators can be%
- mechanical e.cavators)
- hydrostatic e.cavators.
.ech"nic"l e#c"1"tors have the working equipment made by
the boom 0(-, the bucket arm 0*-, the bucket 0:-, the cable 0?-
which act the bucket arm, another cable 0@- for the boom and the mast 0>-.
The tra+ectory of mechanical e.cavators can be curved or linear
function of the acting modalities on cables L?M and L@M.
To obtain a curved route we act on cable L@M and cable L?M is
progressively released.
%ig. -.$: The working e)ui!/ent describing " cur1ed route
;fter the bucket is filled we block cable L@M and lift the boom by
acting on cable L?M. To unload the soil, the platform is rotated till the
bucket gets the unloading vertical point then the cable L?M is blocked and
cable L@M is suddenly released.
%ig. -.$; 4ucket in the unlo"ding !osition
The bucket, under the effect of centrifuge force, moves to e.terior
and unloads itself. There are also equipments when the bucket unloads the
soil by opening a flap.
In order to realize a linear tra+ectory the cable L?M remains fi. and
we act only on cable L@M.
%ig. -.$< The working e)ui!/ent describing " line"r route
Hydr"ulic e#c"1"tors have the working equipment made by a
boom 0(-, a bucket arm 0*-, a bucket 0:- and hydraulic cylinders.
%ig. -.$= 4"ck>"cting hydr"ulic e#c"1"tor
#ome types have the boom made of two pieces, which are also
acted by hydraulic cylinders.
%ig. -.,? Hydr"ulic e#c"1"tor with two !ieces boo/
The digging process generally takes place by acting the bucket
arm cylinder to rise the bucket and the cup cylinder in order to ensure an
optimum cutting angle 0regarding the soil nature-.
%ig. -.,1 The unlo"ding !osition
By combining the hydraulic cylinders action, the bucket can
describe different digging and unloading tra+ectories.
%ig. -.,$ Hydr"ulic e#c"1"torGs tr"jectories
-.,.<.1 3orking fronts for b"ck>"cting e#c"1"tors
The backacting e.cavator digs the soil in an opposite sense with
its moving direction, usually backwards and laterals 0right and left-
realizing by that a large working front from a fi. position. ;fter that the
e.cavator moves back for another position.
In order to ensure the soil stability is necessary to maintain safety
spaces all around the e.cavator and the embankments slopes to be
suitable with the soil properties and with the overload given by the
e.cavator.
/requently, there are the following ways of organize the working
fronts%
- the e.cavator digs and unloads in a transportation
mean)
- the e.cavator digs and unloads in a storehouse)
- the e.cavator digs lateral and unloads in a truck or
in a storehouse.
The e#c"1"tor digs "nd unlo"ds in " tr"ns!ort"tion /e"n.
In this situation the e.cavator digs from the same position a large
working front at right, at left and backwards.

%ig. -.,, The working front di/ensions
In order to use at optimum the functional parameters of the
working equipment is necessary that the geometrical elements of the
transversal section to fulfill the following conditions%
3 " the back of the e.cavator)
d " the safety space that takes into consideration the soil
characteristics and the overload value.
The e#c"1"tor digs "nd unlo"ds in " storehouse.
In this case the e.cavator digs backward, and lateral only in one of
the sides 0left or right- because in the other side it makes the storehouse.
In this situation, in order to use at optimum the functional
parameters of the working equipment is necessary that the geometrical
elements of the transversal section to fulfill the following conditions
c " a safety space between bucket in the unloading position and the upper
part of the storehouse.
By analyzing the geometrical features is observed that remains
two unknown dimensions, b in the digup area and bD at the storehouse.
#o% &
s
J&
d
6 h=n J b J h=n J a J hD=nD J bD 0?.:?-
;nother condition that can be used is the digup soil volume has
to be equal with that placed in the storehouse%
%ig. -.,- The working front di/ensions
1 i 6 1D 0?.:@-
1 " the digup soil volume)
1D " the storehouse soil volume)
i " the swelling coefficient.
Taking into consideration the soil volume made from the
transversal section with the width of ( meter the relation becomes%
# i (m 6 #D (m 0b J h=n- h i 6 0bD JhD=nD- hD 0?.:>-
/rom relationsD 0?.:?- and 0?.:>- it results an equation system that
solve the problem.
If the value of LbM results negative the signification is presented in
the figure 0?.::-.
%ig. -.,9 The !hysic"l signific"tion
for the di/ension b
Ghysically, LbM cannot take negative values. #o, the digging has at
least a triangular shape, which implies that LbM has to be equal with zero.
If LbM is equal with zero results that LhM is changing its value and
becomes Lh
(
M an unknown value.
The equations become%
&
s
J &
d
6 h
(
=n J h
(
=n J a J hD=nD J bD
0?.:A-
h
(
=n h
(
i 6 0b
(
J hD=nD- hD
The solutions of the system give the unknown dimensions h
(
and
bD.
If bD is negative the signification is the following%
%ig. -.,: The signific"tion of bG
#imilarly with the first case bD cannot take negative values, which
implies that the shape of the filling represents a triangle. By imposing bD
equal to zero hD changes its value and becomes hD
(
. #o, the equations
becomes%
&
s
J &
d
6 h
(
=n J h
(
=n J a J hD=nD JbD
0?.:<-
h
(
=n h
(
i 6 0bD J hD=nD- hD
By solving this system hD
(
and b becomes known.
If both b and bD are negative result the following situation%
&
s
J &
d
6 h
(
=n J h
(
=n Ja J h
(
D=nD
0?.:B-
h
(
=n h
(
i 6 h
(
D=nD h
(
D
The e#c"1"tor digs l"ter"l "nd unlo"ds in " storehouse or in "
tr"ns!ort"tion /e"n.
This situation is generally necessary for digging canals or ditches
in order to introduce pipes. The e.cavator has a reduced working front
because it digs only lateral 0right or left-.
%ig. -.,; The di/ensions of the working front for l"ter"l digging "nd
unlo"ding in tr"ns!ort"tion /e"n
It is necessary that between the rolling system of the e.cavator
and the superior part of the embankment to be maintained a safety bench
of about onemeter. The embankment slope has to ensure the stability of
the border and the overweight given by the e.cavator.
The dimensions of the working front result from the relations%
&
s
B J 03=* Jd-

b 6 B " * h=n 0?.?8-
5
s
h
If the dimensions of the trench are imposed, it will be chosen an
e.cavator with the parameters given by the above relations.
-.,.= The org"ni("tion of " !recinct by using front or
b"ck "cting e#c"1"tors
Pnowing the dimensions of a precinct that has to be dig is
necessary to determine the number of horizontal and vertical strips, the
dimensions of the transversal sections of the strips being determined in
the above paragraphs.

%ig. -.,< The !recinct of the digging for " building
9onsidering the height of the precinct L4M bigger than the height
of the working front LhM determined in the above paragraphs is necessary
that the digging to be made in terraces. The following relation determines
the theoretical number of these terraces%
m 4=h 0?.?(-
In order to determine the effective number of the terraces is
adopted the value m
(
, real number, immediate superior to that found by
calculus. It results also h
(
effective%
h
(effectiv
6 4=m
(
0?.?*-
; calculus of economical efficiency shows the optimum variant,
respectively the minimum cost per soil unit 0(88 m
:
-.
It is necessary when digging to respect the design organization of
the precinct because that fact gives the ma.imum use of the working
parameters correlated with the soil characteristics and hollow dimensions.
In order to make a proper work is necessary to peg out on the soil
with an alignment parallel to the working front a.le. The alignment is
situated at a distance LdM equal to the distance between the vertical a.le of
the e.cavator platform and the sitting chair of the worker.
In order to maintain a horizontal level for the digging there are
placed two fi. markers 0( and *- at the same quota and another marker
%ig. -.,= The "lign/ent of the fl"g!oles
0:- fi.ed on the e.cavator function of the designed height of the working
front. Through a sight, between markers one and two, is determined the
position of marker three) the quota of the e.cavator is corrected by
maintaining the collinear position of those three markers.

%ig. -.-? Hori(ont"l /"int"ining "nd the designed )uot" of the
digging
-.,.1? 8r"gline e#c"1"tor
The dragline e.cavators can be used in order to dig soft soils 0I
and II- and soils with high humidity where the access of other e.cavators
is not possible. They are currently used also in ballast pits in order to
e.tract the gravel from the riverbed.
The working equipment is made by the arm 0(-, the bucket 0*- and
different ropes 0:, ?-.
%ig. -.-1 8r"gline e#c"1"tor
The bucket has a specific shape, presented in the figure. It has at
the frontal part the chains 0@- linked with the drag rope 0?-, at the
posterior part other chains 0>- liked with the hoisting rope 0:- and an
equilibration rope 0A- which is linked at an end with the superior part of
the bucket. The other end of the equilibration rope is linked with the drag
rope through a pulley 0<-.

%ig. -.-$ The dr"gline bucket
'uring working time the bucket has two characteristic positions%
- the digging filling position)
- the unloading position.
%ig. -.-, The !ositions of the bucket
The e.cavatorDs working manner is%
- when the bucket is in position LIM the drag rope 0?-
is released till the dragline, which is kept by the hoisting rope 0:-, reaches
a vertical position 0II-. In this moment the hoisting rope 0:- is released so
the bucket thrust the soil with its teeth 0III-.
%ig. -.-- The working /"nner of the dr"gline
By acting the drag rope 0?- the bucket rotates to the filling
position 0I1-. This is the moment when the digging process begins. The
drag rope is continually acted so that the bucket has successive positions
in the working front. The dragline is filled with soil till it reaches position
01-. The drag rope is released secured and the hoisting rope is lifted till it
reaches position 01I-. #imultaneous, the upper platform of the e.cavator
is rotated up to the unloading position. In that moment the drag rope is
released so that the bucket gets a vertical position and unloads itself.
The equilibration rope 0A- does not permit the overturn of the
bucket in a vertical plane between positions 1 and 1I when the drag and
the hoisting ropes become collinear.
%ig. -.-9 The dr"gline
-.,.11 5r"b bucket e#c"1"tor
$rab bucket e.cavators are usually used in order to perform
precincts with small dimensions in plane but relatively great depths such
as independent foundations, ditches with propping banks, open caissons,
mould walls or straps. The working equipment is made by the boom 0(-,
the bucket made of two parts 0*-, the lifting " descending cable 0:- and
the tightening cable 0?-.
%ig. -.-: The gr"b bucket e#c"1"tor
The two parts of the bucket are +ointed one to each other in the
central part and they have two pairs of soldiers 0>- in the lateral parts that
are also +ointed together at their superior part. On this central +oint there
are twofi. pulleys 0A-. The superior +oint is linked to the lifting "
descending cable and over the pulleys is pass the tightening cable.
%ig. -.-; The gr"b bucket
In position LIM the tightening cable is released, the bucket being
sustained only by the cable 0:-) the two parts of the grab, under their own
weight, become open. By releasing cable 0:- the bucket vertically falls
and thrusts into the soil 0position LIIM-. By acting the tightening cable that
is looped over the pulleys the distance between them is diminished, so the
parts of the grab close up.
%ig. -.-< The !ositions of the gr"b bucket
;cting cable 0:- makes the lifting of the bucket. In the same time
the upper platform of the e.cavator is rotated till it reaches the unloading
position. In this moment by acting cable 0?-, under the own weight of the
soil the grab bucket unloads itself.
The grab bucket can be also acted by using hydraulic cylinders as
shown in the figure.
%ig. -.-= Hydr"ulic gr"b e#c"1"tor
-.,.1$ The e#c"1"tors st"bility
5nder the action of the forces that act over them, the e.cavators
have to maintain their stability. The acting forces are the gravitational
ones given by the weight of the e.cavatorDs subassemblies and the
reaction that appears during the furrow cutting.
Two situations can be considered characteristic%
- the stability during cutting)
- the stability during movement on inclined roads.
The insurance of the cutting stability can be determined by using the
equilibrium equation between the overturning moment and the stability
moment multiplied with a safety coefficient.
In the figure is presented a front acting e.cavator under the action
of the forces that appear when cutting.
%ig. -.9? The forces th"t "ct u!on "n e#c"1"tor during cutting
$
(
, $
*
, $
:
, $
?
, and $@ " are the gravitational forces given by the weight
of the e.cavatorDs subassemblies)
$
>
" is the gravitational force given by the bucket filled with soil)
&
st
, &
sn
" are the reactionDs components at furrow cutting.
The following relation has to be fulfilled%
(.8@ H
s
=H
r
(.( 0?.?:-
The moments H
s
and H
r
are determined with respect to point L;M%
H
s
6

:
( i
i i d $ J &
sn
4M
s
0?.??-
H
r
6

>
? i
i i d $ J &
st
&D
s
0?.?@-
/or the second situation is also necessary to write the equilibrium
equation so that the e.cavator to be stable in respect to points ;
(
and ;
*
.
This determination can be made analytically or graphically by using the
force polygon and the link polygon. ,hen moving on slopes, in order to
compensate the counterweight is recommended that the boom and the
bucket arm to be e.tended.
%ig. -.91 The e#c"1"tor st"bility deter/in"tion
In the case presented in the figure the direction of the forces resultant
is placed outside the sustaining polygon, so the e.cavator is not stable. To
avoid this, there are some possibilities%
- to climb backwards)
- to use supplementary counterweights)
- to tighten the boom and the bucket arm.
-.,.1, 4ulldo(ers
Bulldozers are currently used on civil building sites especially for
leveling works, for removing the vegetal soil or in order to spread the soil
in different layers for embankments. These equipments can be also used
for transporting on small distances 0@8 (88 m- or to make soil
storehouses.
%ig. -.9$ 4ulldo(er
; steel blade of a certain shape, mounted in front of a tractor
makes the working equipment of the bulldozer. #ome bulldozers can have
au.iliary working equipments, such as scarifying device in order to stir
the soil, or digging device to e.cavate it.
#o, the bulldozer is made by a tractor that has a frame 0(-, which
can rotate around some hinges 0*- under the action of hydraulic cylinders
0:-, a steel blade 0?- equipped with a cutter at its inferior part and some
fi.ing bars 0@- that can be ad+usted.
By taking into consideration the positions of the blade the
bulldozers can be%
with the blade perpendicular to the moving direction 0a-)
with the possibility of moving in horizontal plane " angledozers
0b-)
with the possibility of moving in vertical plane " tiltdozers 0c-)
with the blade made of two parts having the possibility of
making a sharp or obtuse angle " varidozers.
%ig. -.9, 8ifferent !ositions of the bulldo(erGs bl"de
-.,.1,.1 The digging !rocess
The position and the forces that appear in the digging process are
presented in the figure%
%ig. -.9- The digging forces
/or an optimum profile of the blade and a cutting angle adequate
to the digging requirements, the furrow moves, for the plastic cohesive
soils, towards the superior part of the blade by looping and rolling in a
form of a cylinder in the advancing direction of the bulldozer.
3.cepting the specific resistances for making the furrow, other
component appears " the rolling resistance of the soil wave.
%ig. -.99 The digging !rocess of cohesi1e soils
/or an inadequate cutting angle or for noncohesive soils in front
of the blade appears an unorganized soil agglomeration as is presented in
the figure.
%ig.-.9: The digging !rocess of cohesi1e>less soils
In this case, e.cepting the specific digging resistance, it appears
also the resistance given by the friction of the agglomerated prism with
the soil. Because the rolling resistance is inferior to the friction one 0soil
to soil- the situation of working on cohesive soils becomes favorable.
%ig. -.9; The !rofile of the cutting
In order to reduce the digging resistance and the power needed to
push the blade is recommended that the working procedure to be made of
repetitive cycles containing descending, advancing and rising the blade
till in front of it is obtained a sufficient amount of soil to be transported.
The profile that is obtained is shown in the following figure.
It follows the soil transportation by pushing the blade forward
with its maintaining to the surface of the terrain. Because a part of the soil
is lost through the bladeDs edges the transportation zone is limited to @8
(88 m.
;fter the soil unloading, in order to make another furrow the bulldozer
moves backward for small distances or turns around and moves forward
for bigger ones.
To reduce the soil quantity that is lost in the process the
bulldozerDs blade can be provided with steel wings or we can use the
varidozer.
The leveling working procedure consists in maintaining firstly the
bladeDs cutter at an inferior quota 0@ (8 cm- under the moving level of
the bulldozer. In this way is obtained a small height furrow that by
transporting is placed in zones with inferior quotas of that of the blade.
The leveling can be made with angledozers or with sharp angle
varidozers.
The working process for the soil spreading in layers consists in
maintaining the bladeDs cutter at a superior quota 0(8 *8 cm- over the
moving level of the bulldozer.
%ig. -.9< &oil le1eling using the bulldo(ers
It follows that the device undertakes the soil quantity that e.ists in
storehouses made by tracks and uniformly spreads it.
%ig. -.9= &oil s!re"ding using bulldo(ers
-.,.1- .otor gr"der
The grader is a comple. equipment that can be hauled or self
propelled 0motor grader-. It can be used for leveling horizontal or inclined
platforms, for digging ditches or for leveling embankments.
%ig. -.:? .otor gr"der
The motor grader is made by a main frame 0(-, a traction frame
0*-, a working equipment 0:- and a hydrostatic or mechanical command
system.
; rotary circle 0?- and a blade 0@- make the working equipment.
5sually it can be also provided with a scarifier 0>-.
%ig. -.:1 Constituent !"rts of the /otor gr"der
The circle 0?- can rotate itself around a perpendicular a.le and the
blade 0@- can be moved with respect to the circleDs plane.
%ig. -.:$ The bl"de of the /otor gr"der
-.,.19 &cr"!er
Tractorpulled scrapers have established an important position in
the earth moving field. ;s they are selfoperating to the e.tent that they
can load, haul and discharge material, they are not dependent on other
equipment. If one of them have a temporary breakdown, it is not
necessary to stop the +ob, as would be the case for a machine which is
used e.clusively for loading earth into hauling units, for if the loader
breaks down, the entire +ob must stop until repairs can be made.
These machines are the result of a compromise between the best
loading and the best hauling machines, and, as must be e.pected of any
composite machine, they are not superior to other equipment in both
loading and hauling. Gower shovels, draglines, and belt loaders usually
will surpass them in loading only, while trucks may surpass them in
hauling only, especially when long, wellmaintained haul roads are used.
4owever, their ability to load and haul earth gives them a definite
advantage on many pro+ects. The development of highspeed wheeltype
tractors has increased the economic haul distance.
The ability of these machines to deposit their loads in uniformly
thick layers will allow the succeeding spreading operations. On the return
trips to pits the cutting blades of scrapers may be lowered enough to
remove high spots, thereby assisting in maintaining the haul roads.
3arth frequently is found in stratified layers, which must be
blended by mi.ing the materials from several layers. The limited depth of
cut will not permit scrapers to mi. the layers satisfactory. /or this reason
shovels and trucks sometimes are used, even though scrapers will handle
the earth more economically.
There are two types of scrapers, based on the type of tractor used
to pull them " the crawler tractor pulled and the wheel tractor pulled.
Cr"wler>tr"ctor scr"!er
/or relatively short haul distances the crawler type tractor, pulling
a rubbertired selfloading scraper, can move earth economically. The
high drawbar pull in loading a scraper, combined with good traction even
on poor haul roads, gives the crawler tractor an advantage for short hauls.
4owever, as the haul distance is increased, the low speed of a crawler
tractor becomes a disadvantage compared with a wheel tractor.
5nless the loading operation is difficult, a crawler tractor can load
scraper without the aid of a bulldozer. 4owever, if there are several
scraper units on a +ob, the increased output resulting from using a
bulldozer to help load the scrapers usually will +ustify the use of a
bulldozer.
3heel>tr"ctor scr"!ers
/or longer haul distances the higher speed of a wheel type tractorpulled
selfloading scraper will permit it to move earth more economically than
a crawlertype tractor. ;lthough the wheeltype tractor cannot deliver as
great a tractive effort in loading a scraper, the higher travel speed will
offset the disadvantage in loading when the haul distance is sufficiently
long.
The breakeven distance, the haul distance at which the cost of hauling
with a crawler or a wheel tractor will be the same, may be determined by
making an analysis of a given +ob. The analysis should consider the class
of the soil, the condition of the pit, the condition, length, and slope of the
road, the nature of the fill, and weather.
%ig. -.:, The scr"!er
F!er"ting " scr"!er
; scraper is loaded by lowering the front end of the bowl until the
cutting edge which is attached to and e.tends across the width of the
bowl, enters the ground and, at the same time, raising the front apron to
provide an open slot through which the earth may flow into the bowl. ;s
the scraper is pulled forward a strip of earth is forced into the bowl. This
operation is continued until the bowl is filled or until no more earth may
be forced in. The cutting edge raised and the apron is lowered to prevent
spillage during the haul trip.
The dumping operation consists of lowering the cutting edge to
the desired height above the fill, raising the apron, and forcing the earth
out between the blade and the apron by means of a movable e+ector
mounted at the rear of the bowl.
%ig. -.:- &ingle engine wheel ty!e tr"ctor
!ulled scr"!er
The elevating scraper is equiped with horizontal slats which are
operated by two endless chains, to which the ends of the slats are
connected. ;s the scraper moves forward with its cutting edges digging
into and loosening the earth, the slats rake the earth upward and into the
bowl of the scraper.
This action requires less energy than pushing earth upward
through material already in the bowl. This scraper is able of loading the
bowl without assistance from a pusher tractor.
;lso, the pulverizing action of the slats permits a more complete
filling of the bowl and it permits a more uniform spreading action on the
fill.
-.- &oil br"cing
,hen digging the precinct that appears can have vertical or
inclined walls 0borders-.
The diggings made with inclined walls are also named
embankment diggings. These kinds of diggings can be with natural
embankment 0for cohesiveless soils- or with stable embankment 0for
cohesive soils-. It is necessary that the embankment slope, defined as the
tangent of the inclined angle with respect to the horizontal 0tan 6 h=b-, to
not overcome the ma.imum admissible values given by standards%
Table ?.<
The
#oil
!ature
'igging depth
5p to : m Bigger than : m
Tan 6 h=b tan 6 h=b
#and, gravel (=(.*@ (=(.@8
9layey sand (=8.>A (=(
#andy clay (=8.>A (=8.A@
9lay (=8.@8 (=8.>A
Ioess (=8.@8 (=8.A@
The diggings with vertical walls are made when their placement
can not permit a bigger dimension at their superior part, as e.ample if the
future building is placed near an e.isting one or in case of ditches in order
to put different networks 0electrical, gases- inside town area.
The diggings with vertical walls, in order to maintain the stability,
have to be braced. The bracings can be classified in%
a- narrow space bracings " when the soil pushing is transmitted from
a border to another)
b- wide space bracings " when the soil pushing is transmitted to the
bottom of the digging.
%ig. -.:9 4r"cings in n"rrow s!"ces '"+ "nd in wide s!"ces 'b+
#oils have the property of maintaining their stability a certain
period of time 0< *? h- without bracing till they lose their natural
humidity.
%ig. -.:: The s!ecific height
This property is defined for a certain height 0h
8
- with respect to the
soil characteristics. The height h
8
is shown in the following table%
Table ?.B
#oil type h
8
'rifting #and 8.*@ m
#oft #oil 8.*@ 8.A@ m
4ard #oil 8.A@ (.*@ m
1ery 4ard #oil (.*@ *.@8 m
The bracing systems for narrow or wide spaces are presented
bellow%
%ig. -.:; 4r"cing /ethods /"de "fter the digging is "cco/!lished
/or unstable soils another procedure is used. In order to overcome
the instability of the borders the bracing system is made appro.imately
simultaneous with the digging. In this case the initial
digging height is :8 ?8 cm. The bracing system has the following
components% wale 0(-, horizontal sheeting *-, splices 0:-, wood pickets
0?- and inclined sheeting 0@-. In figure are presented both cases for
narrow and wide diggings.
%ig. -.:< 4r"cing syste/s /"de si/ult"neous with the digging
-.9 &oil co/!"cting
#oil compaction is made in order to consolidate the terrain and to
increase its stability. By compacting the spaces that e.ist between solid
particles are decreased.
5sually is used the term Llayer by layer compactionM because this
procedure is applied for fillings in layers up to one meter.
The compacted fillings for civil engineering are those made for
building foundations, for spaces between foundations or for spaces bellow
floors. The fillings are usually made using the soils resulted from
e.cavation. #lag and mineral residues can also be used for fillings but
only after a technological sheet is made in order to provide the
performing conditions and to check the quality of these materials.
Before filling is made, the removing of vegetal soil is obligatory
and the resulted surface is arranged with ( (.@R slopes for water
eviction.
There are a number of mathematical formulas in order to establish
the compaction. These are%
a- the compacting degree %
k 6
ma. V
V
0?.?>-
where% k " the compacting coefficient)
" the density of the compacted soil sample)

ma.
" the density of the soil sample obtained in standardized
conditions.
The compaction has to be made with a force that will not overtake
the braking limit of the soil.
b- the number of passing represents the fact that each horizontal
elementary layer is individually compacted, and only after its compaction
is completed the soil is spread to the following layer.
The numbers of passing depend upon the compacting device, the
soil nature and its humidity degree.
c- The compacting forces that appear can be%
- the pressure force)
- the impact force)
- the vibration force)
- the unrest force.
;ll compacting devices have a combined action of pressure
and one of the other forces.
d- The compacting methods are%
i- compaction by rolling is made by using a pressure force
combined sometimes with a vibrating one. The working devices can have
the contact surface plane or with prominence 0with dog spikes, with
tamping, with segments or with grates-.
%ig. -.:= &oil co/!"cting by rolling
ii- compaction by beating is realized through the socks produced
by a relatively big weight that is allowed to fall from a certain height.
%ig. -.;? &oil co/!"cting by be"ting
iii- compaction by vibrations is a method used in combination
with the rolling one. It results that the devices used for rolling have also a
vibrating property that is transmitted to the soil.
%ig. -.;1 &oil co/!"cting by 1ibr"ting
-.: 3"ter e1"cu"tion fro/ buildingGs !recinct
The waters that result from rains and snow 0the socalled
superficial waters- usually flood the buildingDs precinct. This water that
can affect the embankments of the precinct is collected in an open
guarding trench placed outside the digging territory.
%ig. -.;$ &u!erfici"l w"ter e1"cu"tion
This trench is prolonged outside the area where the waters can
infiltrate in the precinct. The water flowing speed is determined with
respect to the slope value of the trenchDs bottom.
%ig.,.;, 8ifferent trenches for w"ter collecting
The precipitation waters that fall directly in the precinct, as well as
the waters that appear from its bottom, are collected in trenches placed at
the lowest level of the digging but outside the main territory. These
waters are directed to one or more collecting points and then are
evacuated by using pumps.
%ig. -.;- 3"ter e1"cu"tion by using trenches "nd collecting !oints
If the infiltration flow is big, because the e.cavations placement is
bellow the phreatic layer, the water evacuation by pumping is very
difficult. #o, another method is used, the socalled Lphreatic layer
descending procedureL. It consists in introducing a number of cleaning
strainers into the soil and pumping the water through a pump that is
linked to the filters by two pipes.
Fli/!i" &!ortGs H"ll * Ro/" * Pier 7uigi Der1i
Fli/!i" &!ortGs H"ll * det"il

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