EPS-Introduction and Architecture PDF

Study Program
Master Telecommunications and Internet Technologies

Course
Application Prototyping

LECTURE NOTE

Version: 1.1
Datum: 11. 06. 2010

EVOLVED PACKET
SYSTEM (EPS)
Introduction and Architecture

DI Franz Edler

EPS: Introduction and Architecture

Author: DI Franz Edler page: 2 / 42

CONTENTS:
1. Overview ...................................................................................................................................... 4
1.1. Content of the course ............................................................................................................ 4
1.2. Structure of the course .......................................................................................................... 4
1.3. Preconditions and further readings and exercises ................................................................ 4
1.4. Questions and exercises ........................................................................................................ 4
1.5. Target audience ..................................................................................................................... 4
2. Introduction to EPS ...................................................................................................................... 5
2.1. Principle architecture of EPS ................................................................................................ 5
2.2. Mobile network evolution..................................................................................................... 5
2.2.1. Motivation for EPS ........................................................................................................ 6
2.2.2. Building Blocks of EPS ................................................................................................. 6
2.2.3. Evolution of Data Rates ................................................................................................. 7
2.2.4. EPS overview ................................................................................................................. 8
2.2.5. Voice services in EPS .................................................................................................. 10
2.2.6. Seamless Mobility and Convergence with all-IP ........................................................ 11
3. Evolved System Architecture .................................................................................................... 13
3.1. 3G Architecture................................................................................................................... 13
3.2. EPS Architecture................................................................................................................. 14
3.2.1. Requirements ............................................................................................................... 14
3.2.2. Features ........................................................................................................................ 15
3.2.3. Architecture overview ................................................................................................. 15
3.2.4. Mobility Management Entity (MME) ......................................................................... 16
3.2.5. Serving Gateway (S-GW) and PDN-Gateway (P-GW) .............................................. 16
3.2.6. Home Subscriber Server (HSS) ................................................................................... 17
3.2.7. Evolved Packet Data Gateway (ePDG) ....................................................................... 17
3.2.8. Policy Charging Rule Function (PCRF) ...................................................................... 18
3.2.9. eUTRAN ...................................................................................................................... 18
3.2.10. Tracking concept ....................................................................................................... 19
3.2.11. Redundancy and distributed architecture .................................................................. 20
3.3. EPS Interfaces and Protocols .............................................................................................. 21
4. Registration ................................................................................................................................ 23
4.1. Authentication and Security ............................................................................................... 23
4.1.1. Life of a Mobile ........................................................................................................... 23
4.1.2. High Level View of network attachment .................................................................... 23
4.1.3. Initial Attach Request .................................................................................................. 24
4.1.4. Authentication .............................................................................................................. 25
4.1.5. Security ........................................................................................................................ 26
4.1.6. Subscription Information ............................................................................................. 28
4.2. Default Bearer Setup ........................................................................................................... 28
5. Service Data Flows and QoS ..................................................................................................... 31
5.1. Introduction to Service Data Flow and EPS Bearer ........................................................... 31
5.1.1. High Level View .......................................................................................................... 31
5.1.2. Services and Service Data Flow .................................................................................. 32
5.1.3. Service Data Flow and EPS Bearers ........................................................................... 32


5.1.4. EPS Bearer ................................................................................................................... 33
5.1.5. Downstream and Upstream Packet Classification ....................................................... 33
5.2. QoS ..................................................................................................................................... 34
5.2.1. Bearer classes ............................................................................................................... 34
5.2.2. QCI classes .................................................................................................................. 35
5.2.3. Differentiated Service .................................................................................................. 36
5.3. Service Addition and Dedicated Bearer Setup ................................................................... 37
5.3.1. Service Addition Example ........................................................................................... 37
5.3.2. PCRF links SDF and EPS Bearers .............................................................................. 38
5.3.3. Dedicated Bearer Creation ........................................................................................... 38
5.4. PMIPv6-based EPS Bearer ................................................................................................. 40
6. Exercises and Questions ............................................................................................................ 41
7. References .................................................................................................................................. 42
7.1. Books .................................................................................................................................. 42


1. OVERVIEW
1.1. CONTENT OF THE COURSE
to be added

1.2. STRUCTURE OF THE COURSE
to be added

1.3. PRECONDITIONS AND FURTHER READINGS AND EXERCISES
to be added

1.4. QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES
At the end of each part the student can find some questions which should help to get feedback on
the core points of the course. The student should be able to answer the questions and exercises at
the end of the course.
1.5. TARGET AUDIENCE
The target audience of this course are students on bachelor degree in the upper classes on
telecommunications systems and students for the master degree of Telecommunications und
Internet-technology.



2. INTRODUCTION TO EPS

2.1. PRINCIPLE ARCHITECTURE OF EPS
Figure 1 shows the principle architecture of the Evolved Packet System (EPS) without going into
details. It should help to understand the various terms used in standardisation and their history.
EUTRAN
EPC
EPS
+

Figure 1: Principle architecture of EPS
End of 2004 3GPP started to work on a new mobile network system. The first studies were
carried by two working groups, one dealing with evolution of the radio access network (LTE,
Long Term Evolution) and another working focussed on the evolution of the core network (SAE,
System Architecture Evolution). Both groups worked in a coordinated manner and therefore the
term LTA/SAE was used to describe this initiative.
The result of both groups was:
a new radio network technology and architecture called EUTRAN (Evolved UMTS
Terrestrial Radio Access Network), and
a new core network architecture called EPC (Evolved Packet Core).
Both components together (EUTRAN and EPC) comprise the EPS (Evolved Packet System).
These are the official terms, but LTE is still used for the radio network.

2.2. MOBILE NETWORK EVOLUTION
We can observe the phenomenon of an ongoing evolution process of wireless networks. With the
inclusion of IP connectivity in the service portfolio of mobile networks an ever increasing need
for higher data rates and capacity has been created.
The existing 3G networks cannot fulfill this demand because there are three limiting factors of
3G networks:
Data rates: Current 3G networks offer theoretical data rates of 14 Mbps in the downlink
and 5.7 Mbps in the uplink using a 5 MHz wide channel. However, these data rates are
not practical data rates for several reasons. One of the key reasons is that the 5 MHz
channel is also used to offer voice services, so the resources are divided between voice
and data users. The new radio technology of LTE will enable data rates of 50 to 100
Mbps in practice and therefore a much better end-user experience.
Delay: The latency or delay in current 3G networks is in the range of 50 to 100 ms. This
results in end-to-end delays of over 200-300 ms. To offer a rich multimedia experience,


we need to reduce the delays in radio networks to below 10 ms. This results in a better
user experience for real-time multimedia and video telephony/conferencing applications.
Architecture: The current 3G network continues to utilize the circuit and packet data
networks. They were designed to handle voice services in a circuit fashion and medium
rate data services. This limits the provision of feature-rich multimedia services.

2.2.1. MOTIVATION FOR EPS
The main aspects which drive the evolution of existing 3G networks towards 4G are:
Rapid growing of IP traffic
High performance with reduced cost
Seamless mobility
Enhancements like High Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA) and High Speed Uplink
Packet Access (HSUPA) make 3GPP access technology competitive today. To ensure the
competitiveness of 3GPP systems for the next ten years and beyond, LTE offers the long term
evolution of 3GPP access technology.
To meet the needs of the rapidly growing IP data traffic over the air, to reduce the cost per bit
and enable in parallel high performance a complicated network architecture and unnecessary
interfaces have to be avoided.
Reduction in the cost can be achieved by simplifying the wireless network, utilizing unified
protocols of IP, and reducing the number of network nodes.

2.2.2. BUILDING BLOCKS OF EPS
The enhancements offered by the EPS address all three main areas of a mobile network
Air Interface
Radio Network Architecture
Core Network
These enhancements are shown in Figure 2 below and summarized as follows:
- Use of Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) and advanced multiple
antenna techniques over the air interface: These techniques significantly increase the spectral
efficiency. The air interface allows many users to experience data rates in excess of 1 Mbps.
The peak supportable data rates are more than 100 Mbps (as high as 260 Mbps) in a 20 MHz
spectrum.
- Distributed (as opposed to centralized) architecture: Distributed radio network architecture
allows reduced latency since most dynamic decisions are made locally. An IP-based radio
network results in an easy-to-scale network and provides scalability and reduction in the cost.
- IP-based radio and core network: This allows introduction of new services easily via the IP
Multimedia Subsystem (IMS). However, the use of IMS is not mandatory and an operator
can offer numerous services even without IMS.



OFDMA
OFDMA
Multiple
Antenna
Techniques
Very high
spectral
efficiency
Air Interface
OFDMA
Distributed
IP based
Reduced
Latency,
Scalability
Radio Network
Architecture
OFDMA
IMS
IP based
Scalability,
Cost efficiency,
Services
Core Network
Evolved
Packet
Systen

Figure 2: Areas of enhancements within the EPS

2.2.3. EVOLUTION OF DATA RATES

Figure 3 shows the evolution of data rates in mobile networks during the last 20 years.
There is also a difference between the maximum achievable data rates (theoretical value) and the
practical advertised data rates.

1990s 2000 2003 2006 2007 2008+
Maximum 56k 473k 14M DL 5,7M UL 42M / 11,4M
Advertised 14k 60 80k 400 -700 k tbd tbd
GSM
GPRS/
EDGE
UMTS/
HSDPA
UMTS/
HSUPA
UMTS/
HSPA+
Maximum 115k 614k 2,45M DL 3M / 1,8M
Advertised 14k 60 80k 400 -700 k 400k 800k
IS-95 1x
EV-DO
Rev 0
EV-DO
Rev A

Figure 3: Evolution of data rates in mobile networks
The figure shows the evolution of data rates from 2G networks (GSM, GPRD/EDGE) to 3G
networks (UMTS). HSDPA (High Speed Downlink Packet Access) and HSUPA (High Speed
Uplink Packet Access) are UMTS enhancements that enable more optimal use of bandwidth and


much higher data rates. Further enhancement of HSPA with Multiple Input and Multiple Output
techniques and a higher order modulation scheme resulted in HSPA+.
It also shows the CDMA2000 technology which is an evolution of the IS-95 system.
CDMA2000 1x and 1xEV-DO are two different options for 3G technologies. CDMA2000 is not
well known in Europe, as it used mainly in American, African and Asian countries Mobile
WiMAX is the competing 4G technology with LTE.
1

An important fact is that the EPS (LTE+EPC) has been defined as an evolution path for both
1xEV-DO and UMTS/HSPA networks. Also mobile WiMAX (not shown here) may be
connected to the EPC, but it is handled as a non 3GPP based network.
It should be mentioned that the ITU has defined requirements for an advanced radio technology
network called IMT-Advanced system
2
which will be the 4
th
generation (4G). The LTE
technology does not fulfill all the requirements of this definition (e.g. peak data rates up to
1 Gbps) is therefore not a 4G technology, but it is sometimes called as a pre-4G technology.
3GPP is already working on an LTE Advanced specification which will be available in
2010/2011 and offered as a candidate for 4G.

2.2.4. EPS OVERVIEW
The EPS (Evolved Packet System) is an end to end enhancement to the existing UMTS
architecture. EPS represents a migration from the traditional hierarchical system architecture to a
flat architecture that minimizes the number of hops and distributes the processing load across the
network. Some more details can be seen in Figure 4.
eNodeB
EUTRAN EPC
EPS
EUTRAN
- eNodeB
- reduced number of nodes
- OFDMA
- SC-FDMA
- adaptive modulation
(up to 64 QAM)
EPC
- all IP
- interworking with 3GPP
and non 3GPP networks
- More efficient QoS and
security
MME
P-GW S-GW
HSS

Figure 4: EPS overview

The evolved packet system (EPS) is made up of the evolved packet core (EPC) and evolved
UTRAN (EUTRAN). The EUTRAN has an evolved Node B (eNB) and a new air interface based
on Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA) in the downlink and Single
Carrier Frequency Division Multiple Access (SC-FDMA) in the uplink.
The EUTRAN air interface is a new packet-only wideband radio with flat architecture. The EPC
is a packet switched data solution which supports interworking across different 3GPP and non-
3GPP access technologies. The number of nodes and the interfaces are reduced in the LTE
architecture to cut down on the latency, the cost and the complexity.

1
See: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_CDMA2000_networks
2
IMT = International Mobile Telecommunications Advanced


The reduction in complexity can be seen by comparing the in Figure 5 with the EPS architecture
in Figure 6.

GSM radio network
(GERAN)
UMTS radio network
(UTRAN)
BSC
RNC
MSC/
VLR
SGSN
A
G
b
Iu-PS
I
u
-
C
S
GGSN
External
Voice
Network
External
Data
Networks
BTS
NodeB
GMSC
BTS Base Transceiver Station
MSC Mobile Switching Center
GMSC Gateway MSC
RNC Radio Network Controller
SGSN Serving GPRS Support Node
GGSN Gateway GPRS Support Node
GERAN GSM EDGE Radio Access Network
UTRAN UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network
CS-CN
PS-CN
HLR
HLR

Figure 5: 2G/3G network architecture

EPC
S1-U
S6a
S11
S5/S8
External
Data
Networks
(PDNs)
SGi
eNodeB
LTE
S-GW
MME
HSS
P-GW

Figure 6: EPS network architecture



The two main differences between the packet network part of 2G/3G and the EPS network
architecture are:
Flat network architecture in EPS:
No central controller for eNodeB: the functions of the RNC are distributed between eNodeB,
MME and S-GW
Clear separation between signaling and data:
The data connections go directly to the S-GW and signaling (for mobility and radio session)
is handled by MME. This allows a better scaling of the network equipment. If data rate
requirements are increasing due to e.g. the introduction of a new service like mobile TV then
only the capacity of the S-GW and P-GW have to be prepared accordingly.

2.2.5. VOICE SERVICES IN EPS
The EPS architecture does not have a separate circuit-switched network (CS) as in 2G/3G
networks. All services are packet-switched (PS) and therefore also voice calls have to be handled
natively by VoIP and IMS. This is one of the key changes due to the evolution towards an all-IP
based core network.
In EPS both voice and data services are provided by one consolidated network. Operators will be
able to provide voice and data services with a single unified core network. As a result, separation
between the circuit switched and packet switched networks will disappear.
A network operator who does not already have an IMS based voice service in place is required to
introduce IMS in parallel to the introduction of LTE. At least this is the proposed strategy of
GSMA
3
. GSMA supports an industry initiative called VoLTE (Voice over LTE
4
) and creates a
profile for minimum IMS functions to be supported by an operator to guarantee interoperability
and roaming.
But how is IMS included in the EPS architecture? Looking to Figure 6 the IMS network is one of
the PDNs (Packet Data Networks) where an operator offers access to. That means that IMS
signaling and media is transparently carried throughout LTE and EPC networks and handed over
to an IMS network as one of the possible PDNs. This is depicted in Figure 7 below.
EUTRAN EPC IMS
IMS signalling and session data

Figure 7: EPS and IMS as a dedicated Packet Data Network (PDN)

The VoLTE initiative was a clear message against another initiative, which proposes to continue
re-using the CS-infrastructure of 2G/3G by tunneling TDM oriented voice-traffic via PS access
network (VoLGA
5
). Despite of some hype at start of the VoLGA initiative it meanwhile seems
to be clear that the VoLGA initiative will not be supported by most of the operators. The main

3
GSMA = GSM Association ; http://www.gsmworld.com/
4
VoLTE initiative: http://www.gsmworld.com/our-work/mobile_broadband/VoLTE.htm
5
VoLGA initiative: http://www.volga-forum.com/


issue of separate solutions is that due to the handset market and the requirement of roaming a
market fragmentation (VoLTE and VoLGA) seems to be economically infeasible,
But even when the strategy is clear and the industry is moving towards an IMS based service
infrastructure the complexity of seamless handover between 2G/3G CS-based voice services and
IMS based voice service in EPS must not be underestimated. 3GPP has therefore decoupled the
introduction of LTE/EPC from the introduction of IMS by defining a so called CS-Fallback
solution. All the details of the integration of voice-services and inter-RAT
6
technology handover
will be covered by another part of the lecture.

2.2.6. SEAMLESS MOBILITY AND CONVERGENCE WITH ALL-IP
Before the details of the EPC architecture are explained the advantages of the EPS architecture
based on an all-IP network should be highlighted again.
For operators, these integrated networks offer reduced operating costs. They also enable
operators to offer integrated multimedia services combining voice and data services. As every
communication network moves to IP-based networks, seamless mobility can be achieved by
moving to All-IP-based networks.
During the introduction the 3GPP based access networks (GERAN/UTRAN/EUTRAN) have
been mentioned only. But in next chapter the inclusion of non 3GPP networks will also be
explained. As an overall picture the target network infrastructure offered by EPS looks as
presented in Figure 8 .
Services
(e.g. IMS)
All-IP Core (EPC)
WLAN
Hot-Spots
UTRAN
GERAN
EUTRAN WiMAX

Figure 8: Seamless Mobility with all-IP network

For instance, the user should be able to move from a Wireless LAN connection (voice and data)
to a cellular network connection while leaving for work. Once the user enters the office, the
connection should seamlessly be transferred from a cellular network to an enterprise network.
The idea has been around since 2G networks were introduced. However with LTE it is close to
getting realized. IMS enables using the same service with any access technology. LTE
interworking enables handovers across different access technologies. These two together make
seamless mobility no more a dream but a reality.

6
Inter-RAT = Inter Radio Access technology; this means change of radio technology during operation


Another is the growth of IP networks. As every type of wireless network moves towards IP
networks, and cellular networks develop an all-IP core network architecture, mobility between
various types of radio networks can be achieved by all-IP networks.
The network architecture shown above is based on IMS and inter-technology interworking. This
enables true convergence of services. Convergence is a phenomenon that allows the subscriber
to access any service, anywhere, using any device and any access network. IP convergence fully
exploits the potential of IP to implement convergence.
In practice, IP convergence allows the user to obtain numerous services while stationary or while
on the move using a variety of devices on different radio access networks.



3. EVOLVED SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE
3.1. 3G ARCHITECTURE

Figure 9 (again) shows the typical architecture of a 2G/3G network which usually has two types
of core networks, a circuit switched-core network (CS-CN) and a packet switched-core network
(PS-CN). Both core networks are usually supported by two radio networks GERAN (2G) and
UTRAN (3G). Voice services are supported using the circuit switched network and packet
services are supported using the packet switched core network. The radio interfaces support
bursty traffic for the packet domain and traditional telephony traffic for the CS domain

GSM radio network
(GERAN)
UMTS radio network
(UTRAN)
BSC
RNC
MSC/
VLR
SGSN
A
G
b
Iu-PS
I
u
-
C
S
GGSN
External
Voice
Network
External
Data
Networks
BTS
NodeB
GMSC
BTS Base Transceiver Station
MSC Mobile Switching Center
GMSC Gateway MSC
RNC Radio Network Controller
SGSN Serving GPRS Support Node
GGSN Gateway GPRS Support Node
GERAN GSM EDGE Radio Access Network
UTRAN UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network
CS-CN
PS-CN
HLR
HLR

Figure 9: 2G/3G network architecture

The GSM EDGE Radio Access Network (GERAN) consists of Base Transceiver Stations (BTS)
and Base Station Controller (BSC). The UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (UTRAN)
consists of Node Bs and Radio Network Controllers (RNCs).
The MSC/VLR (Mobile Switching Center/Visitor Location Register) is the key element in the
circuit switched core network.
The Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN) and the Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN) are
the two key elements in the packet switched core network. The Home Location Register (HLR)
maintains the database for the domains and may be used in common. Initial releases of UMTS
used an ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) backbone. Later releases moved towards an IP
backbone.


With the advent of VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol) UMTS started moving towards
supporting even voice services over the packet domain, with the assistance of IMS (IP
Multimedia Subsystem). Using only one core network to support both voice and packet services
reduces the CAPEX and OPEX cost for the operators.
But as the legacy CS-CN cannot be switched off on an instant 3GPP has defined the voice call
continuity (VCC) feature to enable handover between the two domains. VCC relies on IMS and
enables seamless mobility. It also requires support of inter-radio-access-technology (inter-RAT)
interworking.
Moving from a circuit-switched core network for a voice call towards a packet-switched core
network brings up the issue of latency. The reduction of latency of the packet switched network
(LTE and EPC) has been one major requirement of the EPS architecture.

3.2. EPS ARCHITECTURE
3.2.1. REQUIREMENTS
The main requirements of EPS are summarized in Figure 10.
The usual core network requirements like low latency, good QoS support and enhanced security
features apply also for the EPS. But decreased complexity is also a key requirement of the EPS.

Main EPS
requirements
Low latency
Decreased Complexity
- No CS-core-network
- Direct Link between core
and NodeB
Good QoS support
Enhanced security

Figure 10: EPS requirements

The EPS doesn't have a circuit switched core network and the radio access network (LTE) does
not support legacy TDM oriented transmission as it is only packet based. Therefore voice
services are supported on the packet network only. This leads to some disruption which we will
further investigate later.
The only major architectural difference is that the core network directly communicates with the
Node B instead of the RNC. Basically the functionalities of the Node B and the RNC are merged
into a common node called the Evolved Node B or the eNode B. This helps to reduce the
latency.



3.2.2. FEATURES
The main features of EPS to be mentioned are:
1. No circuit switched network
Voice call continuity between EPC and a CS-network is supported with the help of IMS.
2. Network sharing
LTE allows multiple PLMNs to share a radio access network. The eUTRAN broadcasts
multiple PLMN-IDs and the UE can choose the best one.
3. Evolution path for 3GPP and 3GPP2 networks
EPC supports interworking between technologies like UMTS, CDMA2000,
1x/1xEV-DO, GPRS/EDGE and WiMAX.
4. Distributed architecture
If one node goes down, the other nodes can pick up the load from that faulty node.
Redundancy and load sharing are main benefits of the EPC's IP-based distributed
architecture.

3.2.3. ARCHITECTURE OVERVIEW
The overview architecture of the Evolved Packet System (LTE + EPC) is depicted in Figure 11.

S1-U
S
1
-
M
M
E
S11
S5/S8
External
Packet Data
Network
(PDN) eNodeB
eUTRAN
LTE
S6a
EPC
PCRF
HSS
ePDG
MME
P-GW S-GW

Figure 11: EPS overview architecture

The EPS consists of a radio network (LTE) and the packet switched core network (EPC). The
radio network is also called an Evolved UTRAN or EUTRAN. The packet core network of EPC
is called the Evolved Packet Core network. The new entities in the Evolved Packet Core (EPC)
consist of the Mobility Management Entity (MME), the Serving Gateway (S-GW), the PDN
Gateway (P-GW), Home Subscriber Server (HSS) and the evolved Packet Data Gateway
(ePDG).
The different nodes within the EPC are explained in the next chapters.



3.2.4. MOBILITY MANAGEMENT ENTITY (MME)
The MME is the prime node for all core signaling functionalities. It is responsible for:
- Managing and storing UE contexts information like IMSI (International Mobile Subscriber
Identity) and UE network capability
- Generating temporary identifiers for the UEs like Globally Unique Temporary Identity
- Mobility management functions such as coordinating the signaling for inter-S-GW
handovers
- Session management function like coordinating the signaling to establish and to end bearers
for a service
- Distributing paging messages to eNode Bs
- Security/authentication control
The MME plays a key role in inter-technology handovers.

3.2.5. SERVING GATEWAY (S-GW) AND PDN-GATEWAY (P-GW)
Two gateways are used within the core network to handle the user traffic. The Serving Gateway
communicates with the eNodeB and the PDN-Gateway communicates with the external packet
data network (PDN). The task-split between S-GW and P-GW is shown in Figure 12.

S1-U S5
External
Packet Data
Networks
(PDN)
eNodeB
SGi
Data Forwarding
Inter-3GPP mobility anchor
Gateway to PDNs
Inter-technology mobility anchor
IP address allocation
Data rate enforcment
S-GW P-GW

Figure 12: Task-split between S-GW and P-GW

The S-GW is defined to handle user data and is involved in the routing/forwarding of data
packets between the EUTRAN (eNodeB) and the P-GW. Packets are forwarded between the
S-GW and the P-GW over the S5 interface. The S-GW is connected to the EUTRAN via the S1-
U interface which provides user plane tunneling. The S-GW also performs mobility anchoring
for inter-3GPP mobility like LTE to UMTS handovers. An S4 interface (not shown in above
figure) connects the S-GW with the legacy SGSN. A UE can be connected (via eNodeB) to
exactly one serving gateway at any instance.
The PDN Gateway is the node that connects the UE to external PDNs (Packet Data Networks)
and acts as the UE's default router. The world-wide Internet is an example of a PDN and IMS is
another example.


A UE may be connected to multiple PDNs through one or more PDN Gateways. The PDN-GW
is responsible for anchoring the user plane mobility between the 3GPP access networks and non-
3GPP access networks like 1xEV-DO.
The PDN Gateway is also responsible for the allocation of an IP address to the UE. Furthermore
it supports downlink data rate enforcement ensuring that a user does not exceed his subscribed
traffic rate.
In practical implementations both gateway functions may be included in a single network node
(combined S-GW/P-GW).

3.2.6. HOME SUBSCRIBER SERVER (HSS)
The HSS (Home Subscriber Server) is a user database that stores subscription related
information to support call control and session management. It therefore communicates with the
MME and acts as a storehouse for user identification, numbering and the Service Profile.
The function of the HSS for the EPS may be combined with the HSS defined for IMS. Both
functional entities contain data for the subscribers within a domain.

3.2.7. EVOLVED PACKET DATA GATEWAY (EPDG)
The evolved Packet Data Gateway (ePDG) is used to interwork with non trusted non-3GPP IP
access systems.
untrusted
non-3GPP
access
network
EPC
P-GW
ePDG
T
u
n
n
e
l
i
n
g

Figure 13: Tunnel connection to ePDG

The ePDG secures the non trusted access by having a secured tunnel (IPsec tunnel) between the
UE and the ePDG as shown in Figure 13. When a UE attaches to a non trusted non-3GPP access
network, first the UE discovers the IP address of the ePDG, then it sets up an IPSec tunnel to the
ePDG and finally it can access the services in the PDN. The UE cannot access any node in the
EPC until it authenticates and sets up an IPsec tunnel. The ePDG can also act as a local mobility
anchor within the non trusted non-3GPP access network.


3.2.8. POLICY CHARGING RULE FUNCTION (PCRF)
With the introduction of IMS the SIP session signaling (control plane) has already been
separated from user data (user plane). The same concept is continued with introduction of the
EPS. The EPS represents the user plain including a sophisticated mobility control while the
session signaling is done in IMS outside of the EPS.
The PCRF (Policy Charging Rule Function) is already known from the IMS architecture. It has
the same role in EPS where it controls the data connections which are called EPS bearers. The
applications (which are represented by the P-CSCF in case of IMS, or e.g. by a video streaming
server) interact with the PCRF and the PCRF controls the P-GW and in some cases also the
S-GW and other access gateways to open and close gates and to enforce bandwidth and QoS.
This interaction is also required to tie up the signaling and bearer for billing purposes.

S5/S8
PCRF
P-GW
External
Packet Data
Network
(IMS)
P-CSCF
SGi

Figure 14: Control of EPS bearers by PCRF

3.2.9. EUTRAN
The evolved NodeB (eNodeB) is part of the new 3GPP defined radio access network eUTRAN.
The eNodeBs are responsible for controlling the radio link and to care for data rates in excess of
100 Mbps. Figure 15 shoes the principle architecture of the eUTRAN.

LTE-Uu
S1 S1 S1
Evolved Packet
Core
X2
X
2
X
2
Radio Resource Management
Radio Handover Management
Call Admission Control
Latency Reduction

Figure 15: eUTRAN architecture


Radio Resource Management (RRM), Radio Handover Management, and Call Admission
Control (CAC) are implemented at the eNode B. Having just eNode Bs in the eUTRAN
simplifies the architecture by having a reduced number of nodes and interfaces. This architecture
reduces the cost for the operator and reduces the latency of the system. The UE and the eNodeB
communicate using OFDMA in downlink and SC-FDMA in uplink and uses advanced antenna
techniques.
The eNode Bs are interconnected by the X2 interface. The X2 interface between eNode Bs is
new and unique to LTE. This interface is primarily used for intra-LTE handover signaling and
data forwarding during handovers.
The S1 interface is the interface between the eUTRAN and the evolved packet core. The S1
interface within the EPC is split into two components:
The signaling part for mobility signaling (S1-MME) is handled by the MME
The data part (S1-U) is handled by S-GW
A many-to-many S1 interface is provided between the eNode Bs and EPC supports
redundancy/load sharing of network nodes and enables support for the Mobile Virtual Network
Operator (MVNO) model. A many-to-many S1 interface enables multiple service operators to
share the same radio network.

3.2.10. TRACKING CONCEPT
During movement a mobile UE is covered by different eNodeBs. In active mode the network
always has full knowledge about the UEs position, because it has to manage the resources
during handover. In contrast, in idle mode, as long as the UE is principally registered with the
network, it needs to know the position only on a level of some area. If this would not be the case,
a search within the whole network would be required when terminating traffic for the UE arrives.
The concept of Tracking Areas (TA) has been developed for this purpose. This is similar to
Location Areas (LA) in GSM and Routing Areas (RA) in GPRS.
Basically the whole eUTRAN is divided into non-overlapping TAs as shown in Figure 16. Note
that cells of an eNodeB may belong to different TAs.
TA e
TA b
TA x
. . .
eNB1
eNB2
Tracking Area 2
Tracking Area 1
TA x
TA y
TA z
. . .
UE1
UE2



Figure 16: Tracking Area concept

The actual TA identifier is broadcasted within the radio cell and the UE has to register its current
TA with the network (the MME). The MME allocates a list of TAs to a UE and the UE may
move freely within the list of TAs without updating its position. This reduces the idle traffic of
TA update messages and in case of terminating traffic the MME has to search a UE only within
its assigned TA-list.
The TA-list are assigned individually to a UE and may follow e.g. usual moving patterns of a
user to further reduce and optimize the idle traffic of TA update messages.
3.2.11. REDUNDANCY AND DISTRIBUTED ARCHITECTURE
The many-to-many relationship is a further characteristic of the EPS. It enables redundancy and
load distribution on many levels as shown in Figure 17.
The EPS defines something called an MME pool area and S-GW service areas. An MME pool
area is defined as a group of tracking areas within which a UE will be able to stay attached to the
same MME. An MME pool area is served by one or more MMEs in parallel. When an MME
attaches to the network, the eNodeB performs load balancing to choose an MME from the
associated MME pool. This redundant architecture also provides fault tolerance among MMEs in
an MME pool area.
A service area is defined as a group of tracking areas within which a UE will be able to stay
attached to the same S-GW. The S-GW service area is served by one or more S-GWs in parallel.
The MME performs redundancy and fault tolerance support for S-GWs over the same service
area.

Tracking Area 1
Tracking Area 2
Tracking Area 3
Tracking Area 4
Tracking Area 5
MME 1 MME 2
MME Pool 1
S-GW 1
Service Area 1
S-GW 2
MME 3 MME 4
MME Pool 2
S-GW 3
Service Area 2
S-GW 4

Figure 17: Distributed architecture with areas and pools



3.3. EPS INTERFACES AND PROTOCOLS

The main interfaces of the EPS are shown in Figure 18.

SGi
LTE-Uu
S6a
S
1
-
U
S5 PDN
eNodeB
UE
S
1
-
M
M
E
S11
X2
S
1
-
U
S
1
-
M
M
E
S-GW
MME
HSS
P-GW

Figure 18: Main interfaces of EPS

The S1-MME is the interface defined between the eNode B and the MME. The S1-MME
interface is responsible for S1 bearer management. The interface between the MME and the
S-GW is called the S11 interface. The MME uses this interface to talk to the S-GW to manage
the EPS bearers. The interface between the S-GW and the P-GW is called the S5 interface. The
S5 bearer can be either a GTP (GPRS Tunnelling Protocol) tunnel or a GRE (Generic Routing
Encapsulation) tunnel. GTP-C
7
takes care of the S5 GTP-based bearer management. PMIPv6
8

takes care of S5 GRE-based bearer management
9
.
In the case where the S-GW is in a visited LTE network (roaming), the interface between S-GW
and P-GW is referred to as the S8 interface. The only difference between the S5 and the S8
interface is the need for additional security. Otherwise, there is no difference between the S5 and
the S8 interface.
S6a is the interface defined between the MME and the HSS. DIAMETER is the chosen protocol
to interface with the HSS. X2 is the interface defined between the two eNodeBs. X2 plays a role
in creating tunnels between source and target eNodeBs to forward packets during inter-eNodeB
mobility.
S1-U is the interface defined between the eNodeB and the S-GW. It is responsible for
forwarding the data packets across the eNodeB and the S-GW. S1-U is a user plane only
interface. The signaling required for establishing bearers between the eNodeB and the S-GW is
done using S1-MME and S11 interfaces.
S1-MME and the S11 interface are signaling only interfaces.
Between the UE and the MME the Non Access Stratum (NAS) protocol is defined. NAS
messages are carried over the LTE-Uu between the UE and the eNodeB and are carried over the

7
GTP consists of a control part (GTP-C) and a user part (GTP-U).
8
PMIPv6: Proxy Mobile IPv6 is an IETF protocol to support mobility
9
GTP was proposed by mobile operators as an all-in-one protocol for bearer management, mobility and QoS
while PMIPv6 was proposed by IETF groups who always tend to re-use existing protocols.


S1-MME interface between the eNodeB and the MME. NAS takes care of mobility management
and session management of a UE. The mobility management procedure includes registration of
the UE to the network, intra-LTE mobility and inter-system mobility. The Registration process
ends up creating a mobility context for a UE at the MME. The session management procedure
includes creation, deletion and modification of EPS bearers.



4. REGISTRATION
This chapter explains the different operations that a UE performs from power on to power off. It
shows in detail the registration procedure and describes the different steps like authentication,
default bearer establishment and the IP address allocation procedure involved during the
registration process.

4.1. AUTHENTICATION AND SECURITY
4.1.1. LIFE OF A MOBILE
To start with the big picture these are the major activities of a mobile between power on and
power off.
After powering on, a UE first completes frequency and time synchronization. Then it picks a
preferred network and establishes an RRC (Radio Resource Control) connection with the
selected cell. Now it is ready to register with the network.
The Registration process makes the UE's presence known to the network. This enables the
network to deliver incoming calls or services to the UE. It also enables the UE to start any
services. During the Registration process a default EPS (Evolved Packet System) bearer is
established for a UE. Default EPS bearers provide kind of best effort QoS.
If some services require better QoS, then service addition procedures are used to establish these
better QoS bearers called dedicated bearers. Then the UE can perform different types of mobility
procedures based on its capabilities and serving network's capabilities.
Lastly, it releases all its bearers and deregisters from the network when it is powered off.

4.1.2. HIGH LEVEL VIEW OF NETWORK ATTACHMENT
Figure 19 depicts a high level view of the network attachment procedure which includes the
following steps:
After the UE has acquired the network and has established a signaling radio bearer between the
UE and the eNodeB, it performs the initial attach procedure where it selects an MME. An S1
signaling bearer between the eNodeB and the MME is also established.
An authentication is performed during registration to make sure the UE is the right mobile
connected to the right network. The authentication in EPS is a 2- way authentication: the UE and
the network both authenticate each other. Then the MME selects the S-GW and the P-GW for a
given UE.
The always-on IP connectivity for users of the EPS is enabled by establishing a default EPS
bearer between the UE and the PDN-GW. An IP address can be allocated during or after default
bearer set up.



eNodeB UE
Network discovery
Access system selection
RRC connection establisment
Initial attach
S1 signalling bearer set up
MME selection
Authentication
S-GW and P-GW selection
Default bearer set up
IP address allocation
S-GW MME
HSS
P-GW

Figure 19: High level view of network attachment

4.1.3. INITIAL ATTACH REQUEST
Figure 20 shows some details of the initial attachment procedure.
The UE initiates the attachment procedure by the transmission of an Attach Request message
which contains the IMSI (International Mobile Subscriber Identity), UE Network Capability,
PLMN (Public Land Mobile Network) ID and PDN Address Allocation to the eNodeB.
The UE Network Capability includes security information like NAS (Non-Access Stratum)
security algorithms. The PDN Address Allocation indicates whether the UE wants to perform IP
address allocation during the execution of the procedure and, when known, it indicates the UE IP
version capability (IPv4, IPv4&IPv6, IPv6), which is the capability of the IP stack associated
with the UE. The IMSI uniquely identifies the subscriber. The PLMN ID indicates the selected
network of the subscriber.


eNodeB UE
Initial Attach Request
IMSI
UE network capability
PDN address allocation
PLMN ID
MME Pool
PLMN ID
eNodeB picks an
MME based on PLMN
ID and load
MME 1
MME 2
MME 3

Figure 20: Initial attachment and MME selection

The eNodeB then selects the MME based on the selected network and the load of MMEs in the
MME pool.

4.1.4. AUTHENTICATION
Figure 21 shows the details of the authentication procedure in EPS. It uses the EPS AKA
(Authentication and Key Agreement) procedure for mutual authentication of the UE and the
network. This procedure is derived from the UMTS Authentication and Key Agreement Protocol
as also the authentication procedure in IMS.
The network initiates authentication and the key agreement procedure (AKA) during the
registration procedure. The MME contacts the HSS/AuC to request security parameters. The
HSS generates XRES, AUTN, K
ASME
(Access Security Management Entity) using a random
number and a subscriber authentication key (K) with specific authentication algorithms. K is
known to the HSS and the UE. K is never transmitted out of either the HSS or the UE. However
during authentication both the UE and the HSS generate RES, AUTN and K
ASME
. RES is used to
verify the authenticity of the UE and AUTN is used to verify the authenticity of the network.
The HSS sends the XRES, RAND, AUTN and K
ASME
to the MME over a secured link. The
MME stores the XRES and the K
ASME
and challenges the UE by forwarding AUTN and RAND
to the UE.
So at the UE side and the network side, RES and AUTN are generated using stored
authentication key and the random number. Then they are compared against each other. If it was
a rogue network or if it was a rogue UE, it wouldn't have the authentication key. In such cases,
the values generated at both ends would not match.
K
ASME
is the key parameter that is used to generate a set of parameters used for encryption and
integrity procedures.



UE
Authentication Request
(IMSI)
Authentication Response
(IMSI, RAND, XRES, AUTN
KASME)
Authentication Request
(RAND, AUTN)
Stores KASME and XRES
Generates KASME, AUTN
and RES using K and RAND
Checks if generated AUTN is
equal to received AUTN
Authentication Response
(RES)
Checks if received RES is
equal to XRES
MME HSS

Figure 21: Authentication procedure

4.1.5. SECURITY
The access security in EPS consists of integrity protection and encryption. Integrity protection
makes sure that packets in transit are not altered by anyone. Encryption ensures that only the
intended recipient knows what is being sent and unauthorized parties do not.
Within the access part of EPS we have to distinguish between the Access Stratum (messages
between UE and eNodeB) and the Non Access Stratum (messages between UE and MME).
Messages of the Access Stratum (AS) are typically the RRC messages (Radio Resource Control)
whereas messages of the Non Access Stratum (NAS) are typically handover messages.
NAS and AS messages are both integrity protected and encrypted. User plane messages are just
encrypted. The EPS uses two types of security mechanisms, one for the NAS and another one for
the AS. The selection mechanisms are shown in Figure 22.



UE
NAS Security Mode CMD
(selected algorithms)
NAS Security Mode Complete
MME selects NAS integrity
and security algorithms
eNodeB
UE stores the
selected algorithms
eNodeB selects RRC and user
plane security algorithms
AS Security Mode CMD
(selected algorithms)
AS Security Mode Complete
UE stores the
selected algorithms
MME

Figure 22: Selection of security algorithms

For the selection of the NAS security algorithms the MME selects after authentication the NAS
integrity and encryption based on the prioritized list configured at the MME and also the security
capabilities of the UE. The selected algorithms are communicated to the UE using the NAS
security mode command. This message and all the subsequent downlink NAS messages would
be integrity protected. The UE makes a note of the selected encryption and integrity algorithms.
It acknowledges the reception of the NAS security mode command by sending a NAS security
mode complete message. This message would be integrity protected. The NAS security
procedure enables encryption and integrity protection of the NAS messages.
For the selection of the AS security algorithms the eNodeB selects the RRC and user plane
integrity and the encryption algorithm to be used. Selection is done again based on the prioritized
list sent by the MME and also the security capabilities of the UE. The selected algorithms are
communicated to the UE using the AS security mode command. This message and all the
subsequent downlink AS messages would be integrity protected.
The UE makes a note of the selected encryption and integrity algorithms. It acknowledges the
reception of the AS security mode command by sending an AS security mode complete message.
This message would be integrity protected. The AS security procedure enables encryption and
integrity protection of the RRC messages and encryption on the user plane messages.


4.1.6. SUBSCRIPTION INFORMATION
The next step after the mutual authentication and the selection of integrity protection and
encryption algorithms is the update of location information and the download of subscription
data between MME and HSS. This is shown in Figure 23.

Update Location
Insert Subscriber Data
(List of all APNs, Default APN)
The MME selects the P-GW that serves the default APN
The MME selects the S-GW that supports all the services of the UE
Insert Subscriber Data Ack
MME HSS

Figure 23: Exchange of f Location and Subscription Information

After authentication, the MME lets the HSS know that it is currently serving the UE by sending
an Update Location message. The HSS sends an Insert Subscriber Data message to the MME.
The subscription data contains the list of all Access Point Names (APNs) that the UE is
permitted to access and the Default APN to be used for that UE.
The APNs correspond to the networks where the UE may request access to (e.g. the IMS for
operator provided services or the Internet). Based on the APNs the P-GWs are selected. One of
the APNs is the default APN where a connection is setup after the registration. Connections to
other networks (based on the other APNs) are setup on demand only.
The MME proceeds now with establishing a default EPS beare. The MME establishes the default
bearer with a P-GW that serves the default APN. The MME also selects the S-GW that serves
the area where the UE is currently located.

4.2. DEFAULT BEARER SETUP
With default bearer establishment, the UE gets connected to the default PDN and can perform
best-effort type of services such as background downloading of e-mails. The default bearer
provides always on connectivity and accelerates setup of some services such as VoIP.
The set-up of the default EPS bearer between UE and P-GW is shown in Figure 24. We have to
distinguish three parts of the bearer:
the radio bearer between UE and eNodeB
the S1 bearer between eNodeB and S-GW
the S5-bearer between S-GW and P-GW



eNodeB UE
Store S-GW addr and TEID
Create default
bearer request
Create default
bearer request
(S-GW TEID)
Create default
bearer response
(P-GW TEID,
IP-addr of UE)
Create default
bearer response
(S-GW TEID
towards eNodeB)
S5
S1 Control msg:
S-GW addr, TEID
(Attach accept,
GUTI, IP addr)
TEID: Tunnel Endpoint Identifier
GUTI: Globally Unique Temporary Identity
RRC Control msg:
default radio-b. info
(Attach accept,
GUTI, IP addr)
RRC Control msg:
(Attach complete)
Default radio bearer
S1 Control msg:
eNodeB addr, TEID
(Attach complete)
Update bearer req.
(eNodeB addr.
and TEID)
Default S1-U bearer
Update bearer resp.
S5 Default S1-U bearer Default radio bearer
Default EPS-Bearer
MME S-GW P-GW

Figure 24: Default EPS Bearer Set-Up


The creation of the default S5 and S1 bearers is initiated by the MME by sending a create default
EPS bearer request to the S-GW. The S-GW and P-GW establish an S5 bearer by exchanging the
Create Default bearer request and response messages.
They both exchange their tunnel end point identifiers (TEID). The P-GW also generates an IP
address for the UE and forwards it to the S-GW. The S-GW indicates the successful creation of
the default S5 bearer to the MME and also indicates its tunnel end point towards the S1 bearer.
Please note that the creation of the default bearers between the S-GW and the eNodeB is
coordinated by the MME.
The MME now sends an Attach Accept message to the eNodeB which contains a new GUTI
(Globally Unique Temporary Identity) and the IP address Information
10
. The Attach Accept
message is embedded in an Sl-MME control message and sent to the eNodeB. Along with the
Attach Accept message the MME also forwards the S-GW tunnel endpoint ID (TEID) to the
eNodeB. The eNodeB makes a note of the S-GW tunnel ID and forwards the Attach Accept
message to the UE using an RRC message. The eNodeB sends then default radio bearer related
parameters in the RRC message. The UE now sends the Attach complete message embedded in
an RRC Connection message to the eNodeB. This completes the establishment of the default
radio bearer.
The last step is to establish the default S1-U Bearer and to finish up with the Attach procedure.
The eNodeB forwards the Attach Complete message to the MME in an S1-MME control
message. This S1-MME control message includes the TEID of the eNodeB used for downlink
traffic on the S1-U interface. The MME sends the tunnel ID sent by the eNod B to the S-GW.
This completes the establishment of the default S1 bearer between the eNodeB and the S-GW.
Now the end-to-end default EPS bearer is ready. The UE can use this default bearer for any
service that requires just default QoS treatment.

10
A UE is identified at the MME by its GUTI. It helps protect the user identity. The IMSI is rarely transmitted over
the air. Instead the GUTI is used to identify the UE.


5. SERVICE DATA FLOWS AND QOS
Besides offering a default bearer service with a default QoS a main target of EPS is to also offer
dedicated bearers with specific QoS. A main term in this area is the Service Data Flow (SDF).
The following chapters explain
how Service Data Flow are defined
how Service Data Flows are mapped to EPS bearers
how a dedicated bearer is created for a specific service
how QoS classes are defined within EPS

5.1. INTRODUCTION TO SERVICE DATA FLOW AND EPS BEARER
5.1.1. HIGH LEVEL VIEW
The Evolved Packet System (EPS) allows a user to connect to external IP networks. The public
Internet is the most common IP network, but there may also be a need for a user or group of
users to connect to private networks such as corporate networks or to an IMS services network.
In general, then the EPS provides a PDN connectivity service which allows a user to connect to
multiple external IP networks perhaps simultaneously. This situation is shown in Figure 25.

UE
EPS
PDN 1
PDN 2
PDN 3
IP addresses
- A user may subscribe to multiple PDN connections
- PDNs are identified by an APN (e.g. Internet)
- a default APN is part of the user subscription information in HSS
P-GW 1
P-GW 2

Figure 25: Multiple PDN connections

A user subscription may allow the user to connect to two or more PDNs. A PDN can host one or
more applications. For each of the subscribed PDNs, the user's profile in the HSS contains an
Access Point Name (APN) which identifies the PDN. This APN can be used to choose a suitable
PDN GW for the user's PDN connectivity service.
At the initial connection to the EPS, a default APN, identified in the subscription data, is used
during the Attach procedure for default PDN connection. Subsequently the user may establish
connectivity with another PDN by specifying the APN to which it wants to connect.
The UE may use different IP addresses per PDN connection.


5.1.2. SERVICES AND SERVICE DATA FLOW
A service in the context of EPS is an application that runs between the UE and the Application
Server. An application or a service is identified by the IP address of the UE and the IP Address
of the Application Server and also the UDP/TCP port numbers used by the UE and the
Application Server. Three networks can be distinguished which are responsible for the
connectivity and the QoS of a service as shown in Figure 26.

UE
EPS
QoS ?
Backhaul
Network
QoS ?
PDN
QoS ?
Application
Server
P-GW
Service Data Flow

Figure 26: Service Data Flow

The end-to-end logical connection between the UE and the Application Server is called the
Service Data Flow (SDF). A packet filter is used to identify a SDF. The Packet filter definition
includes the source IP address, the destination IP address and the ports used at the source and
destination nodes. The packets for that service pass through different networks like EPS,
backhaul networks and the PDN which is hosting the service.
QoS (Quality of Service) is defined for an application or for a Service Data Flow. QoS require-
ments for a service must be met at all three networks to get an overall satisfaction. The EPS is
only responsible for meeting QoS goals within the EPS.

5.1.3. SERVICE DATA FLOW AND EPS BEARERS
A Service Data Flow (SDF) is an end-to-end application level packet flow between a UE and a
device in an external Packet Data Network (PDN). QoS is defined at the SDF level. It is however
controlled or enforced at the EPS bearer level. This means that two SDFs with the same QoS
requirements can be supported by a single EPS bearer provided they are hosted on the same
PDN. This situation is shown in Figure 27 for SDF 1 and SDF 2.
Figure 27 further shows that the different service data flows are be mapped to certain EPS
bearers. Where is this mapping done?
The mapping of SDFs to the EPS bearer happens at the UE and the P-GW. One or more packet
filters are associated with an EPS bearer. The packet filters that define the association between
SDFs and an EPS bearer are called the Traffic Flow Template.



EPS
P-GW
UE
EPS bearer 1
SDF 2
SDF 1
EPS bearer 2
SDF 3
AS1
AS2
AS3
- A PDN connection may support more then one bearer
- A Service Data Flow has a defined QoS charcteristic
- An EPS bearer is the level where QoS is enforced
- SDFs may be aggregated into the same bearer

Figure 27: Service Data Flows an EPS bearers

5.1.4. EPS BEARER
As already mentioned in chapter 4.2 an EPS bearer consists of three traffic paths:
- the radio bearer
- the S2 bearer
- the S5 bearer
But this partition is only true if Generic Tunneling Protocol (GTP) is used. This is the case when
only 3GPP based access networks are used. In case of non 3GPP based access networks the EPS
bearer concept is different (see chapter 5.4).
In the case of GTP-based S5 connections, an EPS bearer is composed of the three traffic paths
mentioned above. The S5 interface carries the traffic of an EPS bearer in a GTP tunnel. Similarly
the S1 interface between the S-GW and eNodeB carries the traffic of an EPS bearer in another
GTP tunnel. The third leg is the air interface component known as the radio bearer. There is a
one-to-one mapping between the EPS bearer and all three component paths.
On initial connection to the EPS, a default APN, identified in the subscription data, is used
during the Attach procedure for PDN connection. With the attach procedure a default EPS bearer
is established for a default APN. But after attachment further EPS bearers may be established.
The user may e.g. wish to activate a service that requires a better QoS than what the default EPS
bearer is supporting. In that case a dedicated EPS bearer is established. Before establishing a
dedicated bearer to a new PDN other than the default APN, a default EPS bearer is established
for the new PDN.
5.1.5. DOWNSTREAM AND UPSTREAM PACKET CLASSIFICATION
Which network elements are responsible for classifying packets and mapping SDFs to EPS
bearer?
Taking into consideration the three parts of an EPS bearer we have the situation shown in Figure
28 which also explains what happens at each node.


UE
S1 Bearer Radio Bearer S5 Bearer
Upstream:
UE maps SDF to
Radio Bearer
eNodeB maps
Radio Bearer to
S1 Bearer and
vice versa
S-GW maps
S1 Bearer to
S5 Bearer and
vice versa
Downstream:
P-GW maps SDF
to S5 Bearer
S-GW P-GW
eNodeB

Figure 28: Downstream and Upstream packet classification

The PDN-GW is responsible for mapping IP packets in the downlink to the appropriate GTP
tunnel before it is forwarded to an S-GW. The packets arriving from an external Packet Data
Network do not contain any explicit information on the service data flows to which they belong.
Therefore the PDN-GW must use IP network layer and transport layer header information to
classify incoming traffic and detect to which SDF it belongs. The PDN-GW will know which
EPS bearer the SDF is associated with and therefore the GTP tunnel.
Since there is a GTP tunnel for each EPS bearer, the PDN-GW must classify and map the
incoming packets from the PDN (downstream) to the correct tunnels.
The task at the S-GW is simpler. Since there is a one-to-one mapping between the S5 tunnel and
the corresponding S1 tunnel the S-GW does not need to perform classification of packets. At the
eNodeB there is also a one-to-one mapping of the S1 tunnel with the radio bearer. So here there
is no need to perform a classification of packets.
In the upstream direction it is the UE which classifies upstream packets to s certain SDF and
maps theses packets to the corresponding radio bearers in the uplink direction.

5.2. QOS
Resources in networks are not available in abundance. This is in particular true for the radio part
of EPS. Imagine users clogging the network with viewing YouTube videos while others try to
setup an emergency call. Therefore the control of QoS is an important aspect of the EPS.

5.2.1. BEARER CLASSES

In EPS two bearer classes in respect to QoS are defined as shown in Figure 29.
EPS bearers are divided into two classes: Guaranteed Bit Rate (GBR) bearers and non-
Guaranteed Bit Rate (non-GBR) bearers. As the names suggests the GBR bearer, when
established, will be guaranteed a specific bit rate. For non-GBR bearers, there are no guarantees
under congestion conditions that any specific bit rate will be allotted to the service.



QCI
ARP
GBR
MBR
AMBR
GBR bearers Non-GBR bearers
QCI QoS Class Identifier
ARP Allocation and Retention Priority
GBR Guaranteed Bitrate
MBR Maximum Bitrate
AMBR Aggregate Maximum Bitrate

Figure 29: Bearer classes in EPS
For these two bearer classes 9 QoS classes are defined. They are broadly divided into GBR and
Non-GBR types. The key QoS parameters associated with a service data flow are QoS Class
Identifier (QCI) and Allocation and Retention Priority (ARP). QCI defines the general class of
the service. For GBR bearers Guaranteed Bit Rate (GBR) and Maximum Bit Rate (MBR)
parameters are specified. The GBR specifies the expected bit rate whereas the MBR puts a limit
on the maximum bit rate allowed.
For Non-GBR bearers the Aggregate Maximum Bit Rate (AMBR) parameter is specified. The
AMBR is the aggregate bit rate across all non-GBR bearers of a UE going towards the same
PDN. The ARP (Allocation and Retention Priority) parameter will be used in congestion
situations when not all users and their services can be accommodated. The ARP will be used by
the admission control function in the eNodeB. In case of congestion the ARP bit indicates which
EPS bearer needs to be retained.

5.2.2. QCI CLASSES
Figure 30 shows the different QCI classes in EPS.
There are 9 different QCI classes in LTE. Each QCI value has a priority, which will be used by
EPS traffic nodes during congestion. If packet queues are close to overflow then Service Data
Flows (SDF) with lower priority than others will have their packets discarded first. Note that
IMS signaling packets have the highest priority while QCI 9 is equivalent to best effort service.
The Packet Delay Budget (PDB) associated with an SDF will be one of the inputs used by the
scheduler in the eNodeB. It is used to determine when to deliver packets of the SDF. The PDB
values given in the table are a measure of the maximum time allowed for packet delivery from
the P-GW to the UE. The packet loss rate from the P-GW to the eNodeB is assumed to be zero in
non-congestion situations. The PLR (Packet Loss Rate) in the table refers to non-congestion
related losses over-the-air. It is used in an eNodeB to help decide how to set up the radio bearer
for a particular SDF.



QCI Bearer
Type
Application Example Packet
Delay
Packet
Loss
Prio
rity
1

GBR
Conversational VoIP 100 ms 10
-2
2
2 Conversational Video (Life Streaming) 150 ms 10
-3
4
3 Non-Conversational Video (Buffered Streaming) 300 ms 10
-6
5
4 Real Time Gaming 50 ms 10
-3
3
5

Non-
GBR
IMS Signalling 100 ms 10
-6
1
6 Voice, Video, Interactive Games 100 ms 10
-3
7
7
Video (Buffered Streaming)
TCP Apps (web, e-mail, FTP)
Platinum vs. Gold User
300 ms 10
-6
6
8 8
9 9
Figure 30: QCI classes in EPS

5.2.3. DIFFERENTIATED SERVICE
Which mechanisms can be used to transport IP traffic of EPS bearers with different QoS
requirements? This is of particular importance for the backhaul network which is the part of the
network from the transceiver stations (eNodeB) back to the core network.
There are two approaches for QoS support in IP networks today, Integrated Service and
Differentiated Service (see Figure 31 ).
QoS in IP Networks
Integrated Service
(IntServ)
Differentiated Service
(DiffServ)
Reserve resources throughout the
network for every user
Used with RSVP signalling
Optional in EPS
Classify user packets into a small set
of classes
Mandatory in EPS

Figure 31: QoS methods in IP networks

With the Integrated Service solution, the user requests a particular QoS for a session and submits
this request to the network. The network carries signalling, typically Resource Reservation
Protocol signaling (RSVP) through the relevant nodes in the network that will carry the traffic.
Each node in the network analyzes the request and sets aside the necessary resources to satisfy
the request.
On the other hand the Differentiated Service solution is a class-based approach and is a highly
scalable solution. Its name stems from the fact that traffic is treated differently in the network


based on its class. Each packet is individually marked with a DiffServ Code Point (DSCP) that
indicates how it should be treated relative to other traffic. DiffServ requires no state to be
maintained in the routers and no reservation is done in the routers. It is suitable for use in large
IP networks such as backbones.
Support of Differentiated Service in EPS nodes and the backhaul network is mandatory. Support
of Integrated Service is optional in EPS.

5.3. SERVICE ADDITION AND DEDICATED BEARER SETUP
Besides the default bearer which is setup during initial attachment the main focus is on adding
additional dedicated bearer channels on request of a service invoked by the user. This chapter
gives an overview how this is done based on IMS.
5.3.1. SERVICE ADDITION EXAMPLE
From the view of the IMS the EPS is nothing more then an access network. This is shown in

EPS
P-GW
PDN
CSCF
AS
INVITE INVITE
SDP negotiation SDP negotiation
EPS Bearer Creation
UE

Figure 32: Service based bearer creation

SIP signaling and the supporting IMS network are used initially to create an Service Data Flow
for a UE. Using SIP signaling, the UE and the session partner or in above figure an Application
Server (AS) negotiate the media types, codecs, and QoS parameters of the service like a pay per
view movie hosted on the IMS network. The Call Session Control Function (CSCF) plays a key
role in the session establishment.
When both the UE and the Application Service have negotiated the bearer requirements of the
service, a dedicated EPS bearer needs to be created in LTE.



5.3.2. PCRF LINKS SDF AND EPS BEARERS

Before creating a dedicated EPS bearer for e.g. a pay per view application, EPS needs to know
the QoS and media related information. SIP signaling that took place was transparent to the EPS
nodes. EPS is the access network and IMS is the services network. The PCRF (Policy and
Charging Rules Function) is the node that takes the media type and QoS negotiated for a service
and communicates it to the EPS access network. This is shown in Figure 33.

EPS
P-GW
PDN
CSCF
Video
streaming
server
PCRF
Rules required to create the
EPS bearers for the video
streaming service
Session information
based on SDP
UE

Figure 33: PCRF links SDF and EPS bearers

Once the session is established the P-CSCF in the IMS domain informs the PCRF. Based on the
information sent by the PCRF and the subscription information of the UE, the PCRF forms a set
of rules. These rules are sent to the P-GW. The P-GW takes the responsibility of establishing the
dedicated EPS bearer.
5.3.3. DEDICATED BEARER CREATION

Figure 34 shows in an overview the creation of a dedicated EPS bearer which is very similar to
default bearer creation.

The P-GW initiates the establishment of the dedicated bearer setup procedure for e.g. the video
streaming application. It sends the QoS info, IMSI and the P-GW TEID for the S5/S8 bearer to
the S-GW. The S-GW in turn forwards it to the MME. The MME requests the eNodeB to create
a dedicated radio bearer towards the UE and also to send information to setup an S1-U bearer
between the eNodeB and the S-GW. The eNodeB does admission control and establishes a
dedicated radio bearer. The eNodeB indicates the successful establishment of the radio bearer to
the MME. It also passes on the TEID required to establish the S1-U dedicated bearer.
The MME passes on this eNodeB tunnel ID information to the S-GW. The S-GW replies to the
P-GW with the S-GW TEID required for the S5/S8 dedicated bearer. Thus the whole EPS bearer
comprising three parts is finally (Radio, S1- and S5 - bearer) set up.



UE S-GW P-GW
AS
QoS policy
Application level signalling and media negotiation
eNodeB
MME
PCRF
Apply policies
Create new bearer request
Apply admission control
RRC procedures
Create new bearer response
S1 - bearer Radio bearer S5 - bearer

Figure 34: Creation of a dedicated bearer



5.4. PMIPV6-BASED EPS BEARER
As already mentioned in chapter 3.3 two solutions for signalling at the S5 interface have been
defined: GTP and PMIPv6.
If a PMIPv6 based S5-bearer is used the notion of EPS bearer is reduced to the sections between
UE and S-GW. The section between S-GW and P-GW is GRE-based and not bearer aware.

If a PMIPv6 based S5-bearer is used the scope of an EPS bearer stops at the S-GW. An EPS
bearer here consists only of the two sections of the radio bearer and the S1 bearer. All the EPS
bearers for a UE going out to a PDN network use a common GRE S5 tunnel.
For a PMIPv6-based S5-bearer, only one GRE tunnel exists between the S-GW and a P-GW for
PDN connectivity of a UE.
Usually multiple services are hosted on the PDN and the UE is using all of them currently and
they all have different QoS requirements. Even in that case only a single GRE tunnel exits for a
UE for that PDN, but multiple EPS bearers exist between the UE and the S-GW.
For a packet in download direction the P-GW maps the external packet filters to the common
GRE tunnel. The detailed packet filtering and the SDF to EPS bearer mapping in this case is
done by the S-GW.
EPS bearer
UE
S1 Bearer Radio Bearer
S-GW
P-GW
eNodeB
GRE tunnel
to P-GW
S-GW maps SDF
to/from S1-bearer
P-GW maps SDF
to/from GRE tunnel
SDF

Figure 35: EPS bearer in case of PMIPv6 based signalling


6. EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS
After studying this part of the lecture you should be able to answer the following questions:

to be added



7. REFERENCES
7.1. BOOKS

Magnus Olsson: System Architecture Evolution (SAE):
Evolved Packet Core for LTE, Fixed and other Wireless Accesses
Gebundene Ausgabe: 464 Seiten
Verlag: Academic Press (24. August 2009)
Sprache: Englisch
ISBN-10: 0123748267
ISBN-13: 978-0123748263

Gottfried Punz: Evolution of 3G Networks:
The Concept, Architecture and Realization of Mobile Networks Beyond
UMTS
Gebundene Ausgabe: 306 Seiten
Verlag: Springer, Wien; Auflage: 1., st Edition. (14. Februar 2010)
Sprache: Englisch
ISBN-10: 3211094393
ISBN13: 978-3211094396

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