ROBOTS

On the most basic level, human beings are made up of five major components:
• A body structure
• A muscle system to move the body structure
• A sensory system that receives information about the body and the surrounding environment
• A power source to activate the muscles and sensors
• A brain system that processes sensory information and tells the muscles what to do
Of course, we also have some intangible attributes, such as intelligence and morality, but on the sheer
physical level, the list above about covers it.
A robot is made up of the very same components. A typical robot has a movable physical structure, a motor of
some sort, a sensor system, a power supply and a computer "brain" that controls all of these elements. Essentially,
robots are man-made versions of animal life -- they are machines that replicate human and animal behavior.
All of these things are considered robots, at least by some people. The broadest definition around defines a
robot as anything that a lot of people recognize as a robot. Most roboticists (people who build robots) use a more
precise definition. They specify that robots have a reprogrammable brain (a computer) that moves a body.
By this definition, robots are distinct from other movable machines, such as cars, because of their computer
element. Many new cars do have an onboard computer, but it's only there to make small adjustments. You control
most elements in the car directly by way of various mechanical devices. Robots are distinct from ordinary
computers in their physical nature -- normal computers don't have a physical body attached to them.
In the next section, we'll look at the major elements found in most
robots today.
Robot Basics
The vast majority of robots do have several qualities in
common. First of all, almost all robots have a movable body. Some
only have motorized wheels, and others have dozens of movable
segments, typically made of metal or plastic. Like the bones in your
body, the individual segments are connected together with joints.
Robots spin wheels and pivot jointed segments with some sort
Photo courtesy
of actuator. Some robots use electric motors and solenoids as
A robotic hand, developed by NASA, is made
actuators; some use a hydraulic system; and some use a pneumatic
up of metal segments moved by tiny motors.
system (a system driven by compressed gases). Robots may use all
The hand is one of the most difficult
these actuator types.
structures to replicate in robotics.
A robot needs a power source to drive these actuators. Most
robots either have a battery or they plug into the wall. Hydraulic robots also need a pump to pressurize the
hydraulic fluid, and pneumatic robots need an air compressor or compressed air tanks.
The actuators are all wired to an electrical circuit. The circuit powers electrical motors and solenoids
directly, and it activates the hydraulic system by manipulating electrical valves. The valves determine the
pressurized fluid's path through the machine. To move a hydraulic leg, for example, the robot's controller would
open the valve leading from the fluid pump to a piston cylinder attached to that leg. The pressurized fluid would
extend the piston, swiveling the leg forward. Typically, in order to move their segments in two directions, robots
use pistons that can push both ways.
The robot's computer controls everything attached to the circuit. To move the robot, the computer
switches on all the necessary motors and valves. Most robots are reprogrammable -- to change the robot's
behavior, you simply write a new program to its computer.
Not all robots have sensory systems, and few have the ability to see, hear, smell or taste. The most
common robotic sense is the sense of movement -- the robot's ability to monitor its own motion. A standard
design uses slotted wheels attached to the robot's joints. An LED on one side of the wheel shines a beam of light
through the slots to a light sensor on the other side of the wheel. When the robot moves a particular joint, the
slotted wheel turns. The slots break the light beam as the wheel spins. The light sensor reads the pattern of the
flashing light and transmits the data to the computer. The computer can tell exactly how far the joint has swiveled
based on this pattern. This is the same basic system used in computer mice.
These are the basic nuts and bolts of robotics. Roboticists can combine these elements in an infinite
number of ways to create robots of unlimited complexity. In the next section, we'll look at one of the most popular
designs, the robotic arm.
The Robotic Arm
The term robot comes from the Czech word robota, generally translated as "forced labor." This describes
the majority of robots fairly well. Most robots in the world are designed for heavy, repetitive manufacturing work.
They handle tasks that are difficult, dangerous or boring to human beings.
The most common manufacturing robot is the robotic arm. A typical robotic arm is made up of seven
metal segments, joined by six joints. The computer controls the robot by rotating individual step motors
connected to each joint (some larger arms use hydraulics or pneumatics). Unlike ordinary motors, step motors
move in exact increments (check out Anaheim Automation to find out how). This allows the computer to move
the arm very precisely, repeating exactly the same movement over and over again. The robot uses motion sensors
to make sure it moves just the right amount.
An industrial robot with six joints closely resembles a human arm -- it has the equivalent of a shoulder, an
elbow and a wrist. Typically, the shoulder is mounted to a stationary base structure rather than to a movable body.
This type of robot has six degrees of freedom, meaning it can pivot in six different ways. A human arm, by
comparison, has seven degrees of freedom.
Mobile Robots
Robotic arms are relatively easy to build and program because they only operate within a confined area.
Things get a bit trickier when you send a robot out into the world.
The first obstacle is to give the robot a working locomotion system. If the robot will only need to move
over smooth ground, wheels or tracks are the best option. Wheels and tracks can also work on rougher terrain if
they are big enough. But robot designers often look to legs instead, because they are more adaptable. Building
legged robots also helps researchers understand natural locomotion -- it's a useful exercise in biological research.
Typically, hydraulic or pneumatic pistons move robot legs back and forth. The pistons attach to different
leg segments just like muscles attach to different bones. It's a real trick getting all these pistons to work together
properly. As a baby, your brain had to figure out exactly the right combination of muscle contractions to walk
upright without falling over. Similarly, a robot designer has to figure out the right combination of piston
movements involved in walking and program this information into the robot's computer. Many mobile robots
have a built-in balance system (a collection of gyroscopes, for example) that tells the computer when it needs to
correct its movements.
Bipedal locomotion (walking on two legs) is inherently unstable, which makes it very difficult to
implement in robots. To create more stable robot walkers, designers commonly look to the animal world,
specifically insects. Six-legged insects have exceptionally good balance, and they adapt well to a wide variety of
terrain.
Some mobile robots are controlled by remote -- a human tells them what to do and when to do it. The
remote control might communicate with the robot through an attached wire, or using radio or infrared signals.
Remote robots, often called puppet robots, are useful for exploring dangerous or inaccessible environments, such
as the deep sea or inside a volcano. Some robots are only partially controlled by remote. For example, the
operator might direct the robot to go to a certain spot, but not steer it there -- the robot would find its own way.
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 Your arm's job is to move your hand from place to place. Similarly, the robotic arm's job is to move an
end effector from place to place. You can outfit robotic arms with all sorts of end effectors, which are suited to a
particular application. One common end effector is a simplified version of the hand, which can grasp and carry
different objects. Robotic hands often have built-in pressure sensors that tell the computer how hard the robot is
gripping a particular object. This keeps the robot from dropping or breaking whatever it's carrying. Other end
effectors include blowtorches, drills and spray painters.
Industrial robots are designed to do exactly the same thing, in a controlled environment, over and over
again. For example, a robot might twist the caps onto peanut butter jars coming down an assembly line. To teach a
robot how to do its job, the programmer guides the arm through the motions using a handheld controller. The
robot stores the exact sequence of movements in its memory, and does it again and again every time a new unit
comes down the assembly line.
Most industrial robots work in auto assembly lines, putting cars together. Robots can do a lot of
this work more efficiently than human beings because they are so precise. They always drill in the
exactly the same place, and they always tighten bolts with the same amount of force, no matter how
many hours they've been working. Manufacturing robots are also very important in the computer
industry. It takes an incredibly precise hand to put together a tiny microchip.

Autonomous Robots
Autonomous robots can act on their own, independent of any controller. The basic idea is to program the
robot to respond a certain way to outside stimuli. The very simple bump-and-go robot is a good illustration of
how this works.
This sort of robot has a bumper sensor to detect obstacles. When you turn the robot on, it zips along in a
straight line. When it finally hits an obstacle, the impact pushes in its bumper sensor. The robot's programming
tells it to back up, turn to the right and move forward again, in response to every bump. In this way, the robot
changes direction any time it encounters an obstacle.
Advanced robots use more elaborate versions of this same idea. Roboticists create new programs and
sensor systems to make robots smarter and more perceptive. Today, robots can effectively navigate a variety of
environments.
Simpler mobile robots use infrared or ultrasound sensors to see obstacles. These sensors work the same
way as animal echolocation: The robot sends out a sound signal or a beam of infrared light and detects the signal's
reflection. The robot locates the distance to obstacles based on how long it takes the signal to bounce back.
More advanced robots use stereo vision to see the world around them. Two cameras give these robots
depth perception, and image-recognition software gives them the ability to locate and classify various objects.
Robots might also use microphones and smell sensors to analyze the world around them.
Some autonomous robots can only work in a familiar, constrained environment. Lawn-mowing robots, for
example, depend on buried border markers to define the limits of their yard. An office-cleaning robot might need
a map of the building in order to maneuver from point to point.
More advanced robots can analyze and adapt to unfamiliar environments, even to areas with rough
terrain. These robots may associate certain terrain patterns with certain actions. A rover robot, for example, might
construct a map of the land in front of it based on its visual sensors. If the map shows a very bumpy terrain
pattern, the robot knows to travel another way. This sort of system is very useful for exploratory robots that
operate on other planets (check out JPL Robotics to learn more).
An alternative robot design takes a less structured approach -- randomness. When this type of robot gets
stuck, it moves its appendages every which way until something works. Force sensors work very closely with the
actuators, instead of the computer directing everything based on a program. This is something like an ant trying to
get over an obstacle -- it doesn't seem to make a decision when it needs to get over an obstacle, it just keeps trying
things until it gets over it.
Homebrew Robots
In the last couple of sections, we looked at the most prominent fields in the world of robots -- industry
robotics and research robotics. Professionals in these fields have made most of the major advancements in
robotics over the years, but they aren't the only ones making robots. For decades, a small but passionate band of
hobbyists has been creating robots in garages and basements all over the world.
Homebrew robotics is a rapidly expanding subculture with a sizable Web presence. Amateur roboticists
cobble together their creations using commercial robot kits, mail order components, toys and even old VCRs.
Homebrew robots are as varied as professional robots. Some weekend roboticists tinker with elaborate
walking machines, some design their own service bots and others create competitive robots. The most familiar
competitive robots are remote control fighters like you might see on "BattleBots." These machines aren't
considered "true robots" because they don't have reprogrammable computer brains. They're basically souped-up
remote control cars.
More advanced competitive robots are controlled by computer. Soccer robots, for example, play
miniaturized soccer with no human input at all. A standard soccer bot team includes several individual robots that
communicate with a central computer. The computer "sees" the entire soccer field with a video camera and picks
out its own team members, the opponent's members, the ball and the goal based on their color. The computer
processes this information at every second and decides how to direct its own team.
Adaptable and Universal
The personal computer revolution has been marked by extraordinary adaptability. Standardized hardware
and programming languages let computer engineers and amateur programmers mold computers to their own
particular purposes. Computer components are sort of like art supplies -- they have an infinite number of uses.
Most robots to date have been more like kitchen appliances. Roboticists build them from the ground up
for a fairly specific purpose. They don't adapt well to radically new applications.
This situation may be changing. A company called Evolution Robotics is pioneering the world of
adaptable robotics hardware and software. The company hopes to carve out a niche for itself with easy-to-use
"robot developer kits."
The kits come with an open software platform tailored to a range of common robotic functions. For
example, roboticists can easily give their creations the ability to follow a target, listen to voice commands and
maneuver around obstacles. None of these capabilities are revolutionary from a technology standpoint, but it's
unusual that you would find them in one simple package.
The kits also come with common robotics hardware that connects easily with the software. The standard
kit comes with infrared sensors, motors, a microphone and a video camera. Roboticists put all these pieces
together with a souped-up erector set -- a collection of aluminum body pieces and sturdy wheels.
These kits aren't your run-of-the-mill construction sets, of course. At upwards of $700, they're not cheap
toys. But they are a big step toward a new sort of robotics. In the near future, creating a new robot to clean your
house or take care of your pets while you're away might be as simple as writing a BASIC program to balance your
checkbook.