Steam Nozzles & Steam Turbines

Introduction
A steam turbine converts the energy of high-pressure, high temperature steam produced
by a steam generator into shaft work. The energy conversion is brought about in the following
ways: The highpressure, high-temperature steam first expands in the nozzles emanates as a high
velocity fluid stream.
1. The high velocity steam coming out of the nozzles impinges on the blades mounted on a
wheel. The fluid stream suffers a loss of momentum while flowing past the blades that is
absorbed by the rotating wheel entailing production of torque.
2. The moving blades move as a result of the impulse of steam (caused by the change of
momentum) and also as a result of expansion and acceleration of the steam relative to
them. In other words they also act as the nozzles.
A steam turbine is basically an assembly of nozzles fixed to a stationary casing and rotating
blades mounted on the wheels attached on a shaft in a row-wise manner. In 1878, a Swedish
engineer, Carl G. P. de Laval developed a simple impulse turbine, using a convergent-divergent
(supersonic) nozzle which ran the turbine to a maximum speed of 100,000 rpm. In 1897 he
constructed a velocity-compounded impulse turbine (a two-row axial turbine with a row of guide
vane stators between them.
Auguste Rateau in France started experiments with a de Laval turbine in 1894, and developed the
pressure compounded impulse turbine in the year 1900. In the USA , Charles G. Curtis patented
the velocity compounded de Lavel turbine in 1896 and transferred his rights to General Electric
in 1901. In England , Charles A. Parsons developed a multi-stage axial flow reaction turbine in
1884.
Steam turbines are employed as the prime movers together with the electric generators in thermal
and nuclear power plants to produce electricity. They are also used to propel large ships, ocean
liners, submarines and to drive power absorbing machines like large compressors, blowers, fans
and pumps.
Turbines can be condensing or non-condensing types depending on whether the back pressure is
below or equal to the atmosphere pressure.
Flow through Nozzles
A nozzle is a duct that increases the velocity of the flowing fluid at the expense of
pressure drop. A duct which decreases the velocity of a fluid and causes a corresponding increase
in pressure is a diffuser . The same duct may be either a nozzle or a diffuser depending upon the
end conditions across it. If the cross-section of a duct decreases gradually from inlet to exit, the
duct is said to be convergent. Conversely if the cross section increases gradually from the inlet to
exit, the duct is said to be divergent. If the cross-section initially decreases and then increases,
the duct is called a convergent-divergent nozzle. The minimum cross-section of such ducts is
known as throat. A fluid is said to be compressible if its density changes with the change in
pressure brought about by the flow. If the density does not changes or changes very little, the
fluid is said to be incompressible. Usually the gases and vapors are compressible, whereas
liquids are incompressible .
Steam Nozzles
A steam nozzle is a passage of varying resection, which converts heat energy of steam into
Kinetic Energy as the steam expands from higher pressure to lower pressure.
Purpose
to produce high velocity jet of steam to run in steam turbines.
The amount of energy so converted depends upon the pressure ratio and the type of
expansion
Isentropic expansion provides the maximum expansion
Generally nozzles are so shaped that isentropic expansion is obtained.
Types of Nozzles
(1)Convergent Nozzle
area diminishes from inlet section to at let section
useful up to a pressure ratio of 0.58 using saturated steam.
(2)Divergent Nozzle
(3)Convergent Divergent
Nozzle with divergent part in addition to the convergent part to obtain more pressure drop
acceleration is .....
divergent portion is long
T is divergent angle
Least cross section is called throat.
Two Functions of turbine nozzle
(i) a portion heat energy to kinetic energy
(ii) In Impulse turbine directs high velocity steam to turbine blades.
Reaction turbines nozzle movable
Flow of Steam Trhough Nozzle
Consider a unit mass flow of steam through a nozzle.
Applying steady flow energy equation to the sections 1 and 2.
2 2
1 2
1 2
V V 1 1
h R h W
1000 2 2 1000
+ + = + +
h = enthalpy
V = velocity
W = work transfer
Q = heat transfer
Since expansion. is isentropic and there is no external work done during the flow of steam W =
Q = O
2 2
2 1
1 2
V V 1
h h
1000 2 2
(
=
(


( )
2 2
2 1 1 2
V V h h 2000 = +
2
2 1 1 2
V V 2000(h h ) = +
Since V
1
<<V
2
2 1 2
V 2000(h h ) = =
d
44.72 h
This is the general energy equation irrespective of the shape of the nozzle.
Mass of steam discharged through nozzle
The flow of steam through the nozzle may be represented by an eqn of the form
Pv
n
= constant
n = 1.135 for saturated steam
= 1.3 for superheated steam
Steam performs works upon itself by accelerating itself to a high velocity.
As the steam pressure drops its enthalpy is reduced. This reduction of the enthalpy must
be equal to the increase in KE.
heat drop = work done percentage of steam during cycle.
2 2
2 1
1 1 2 2
V V n
(P V P V )
2 2 n 1
=

V
1
<<V
2
2
2
1 1 2 2
V n
(P V P V )
2 n 1
=

2 2
1 1
1 1
P V n
P V (1
n 1 P V
=

we know that
n n
1 1 2 2
PV P V =
2 1
1 2
V P
1/ n
V P
| |
=
|
\ .

2
2 2 1
1 1
1 2
V P P n
P V 1 1/ n
2 n 1 P P
| | | |
=
| |
|

\ . \ .

2
1 1
1
P n n 1
P V 1
n 1 P n
| | | | | |
=
| | |
|

\ .
\ . \ .

2
2 1 1
1
P n n 1
V 2 P V 1
n 1 P n
( | |
=
( |

\ .

Volume of steam flowing per second
= A V
2

Specific volume of steam V
2
m
3
/Kg
mass of steam discharged per second
2
Volumeof steamdisch arged per
Specific volumeof 1Kgof steant at P
=
2
2
AV
V
=
n 1
n
2
1 1
2 1
P A n
2 P V 1
V n 1 P

(
| |
(

|
(

\ .
(


1/ n
2 1
1 2
V P
V P
| |
=
|
\ .

1
2 1
2
P
V V
P
| |
=
|
\ .

1/ n
1
1 2
P 1 1
V2 V P
| |
=
|
\ .

1/ n
1 2
1 1
1 2 1
P P A n n 1
m 2 P V 1
V P n 1 P n

( | | | |
=
( | |

\ . \ .

n 1
1/ n
n
2 2
1 1
1 1 1
P P A 2n
P V 1
V P n 1 P

| |
| | | |
|
=
| |
|

\ . \ .
|
\ .

n 1
2/ n
n
1 2 2
1 1 1
P P P 2n
A 1
n 1 V P P

| |
| | | |
|
=
| |
|

\ . \ .
|
\ .

n 1
n
1 2 2
1 1 1
P P P 2n
A 2/ n
n 1 V P P
+
(
| | | |
(
=
| |
(

\ . \ .
(


Condition for Maximum Discharge through a nozzle (critical pressure ratio)
n 1
2/ n
n
1 2 2
1 1 1
P P P 2n
m A
n 1 V P P
+
(
| | | |
(
=
| |
(

\ . \ .
(


A nozzle is designed for maximum discharge by designing a certain throat pressure.
There is only one value of the ratio
2
1
P
P
, which produces maximum discharge. The
portion of the equation which contains
2
1
P
P
is differentiated and equated to zero, for maximum
discharge.
n 1
n
2 2
1 1 2
1
P P d 2
0
P n P P
d
P
+
(
| | | |
(
=
| |
(
| |
\ . \ .
(
|

\ .

2 n 1
1 1
n n
2 2
1 1
P P 2 n 1
0
n P n P
+

| | | | +
=
| |
\ . \ .

1
n
2 2
1 1
P P 2 2 n n 1
n P n n P
| | | | +
=
| |
\ . \ .

2 n
1/ n
n
2 2
1 1
P P N 1 n
P P n 2

| | | | +
=
| |
\ . \ .

1 n
n
2
1
P N 1
P 2

| | +
=
|
\ .

( )
n n
1 n 1 n
2
1
P n 1 n 1
P 2 2

+ + + | | | |
= =
| |
\ . \ .

n
n 1 n 1
2

+ | |
=
|
\ .

n
n 1 2
n 1

| |
=
|
+
\ .

P2
P1
is called critical pressure ratio and the pressure P
2
at the throat is known as critical
pressure.
STAGNATION, SONIC PROPERTIES AND ISENTROPIC EXPANSION IN NOZZLE
The stagnation values are useful reference conditions in a compressible flow. Suppose the
properties of a flow (such as T, p, etc.) are known at a point. The stagnation properties at a
point are defined as those which are to be obtained if the local flow were imagined to cease to
zero velocity isentropically. The stagnation values are denoted by a subscript zero. Thus, the
stagnation enthalpy is defined as

For a calorically perfect gas, this yields,

which defines the stagnation temperature. It is meaningful to express the ratio of in the
form

or,
If we know the local temperature (T) and Mach number (Ma), we can fine out the stagnation
temperature . Consequently, isentropic relations can be used to obtain stagnation pressure and
stagnation density as.


In general, the stagnation properties can vary throughout the flow field.
However, if the flow is adiabatic, then is constant throughout the flow. It follows that the
and are constant throughout an adiabatic flow, even in the presence of friction. Here a
is the speed of sound and the suffix signifies the stagnation condition. It is understood that all
stagnation properties are constant along an isentropic flow. If such a flow starts from a large
reservoir where the fluid is practically at rest, then the properties in the reservoir are equal to the
stagnation properties everywhere in the flow (Fig. 1.1).

Fig 1.1 An isentropic process starting from a reservoir
There is another set of conditions of comparable usefulness where the flow is sonic, Ma=1.0.
These sonic, or critical properties are denoted by asterisks: and. . These properties
are attained if the local fluid is imagined to expand or compress isentropically until it reachers
Ma=1.
We have already discussed that the total enthalpy, hence , is conserved so long the process is
adiabatic, irrespective of frictional effects. In contrast, the stagnation pressure and density
decrease if there is friction.
From Eq.(1), we note that

or,
is the relationship between the fluid velocity and local temperature (T), in an adiabatic flow. The
flow can attain a maximum velocity of

As it has already been stated, the unity Mach number, Ma=1, condition is of special significance
in compressible flow, and we can now write from Eq.(2), (3) and (4).



For diatomic gases, like air , the numerical values are

The fluid velocity and acoustic speed are equal at sonic condition and is

or,
We shall employ both stagnation conditions and critical conditions as reference conditions in a
variety of one dimensional compressible flows.
Effect of Area Variation on Flow Properties in Isentropic Flow
In considering the effect of area variation on flow properties in isentropic flow, we shall concern
ourselves primarily with the velocity and pressure. We shall determine the effect of change in
area, A, on the velocity V, and the pressure p.
From Bernoulli's equation, we can write

or,
Dividing by , we obtain
---- 1.1
A convenient differential form of the continuity equation as

Substituting from Eq. (1.1)

-----1.2
Invoking the relation ( ) for isentropic process in Eq. (1.2), we get
-----1.3
From Eq. (1.3), we see that for Ma<1 an area change causes a pressure change of the
same sign, i.e. positive dA means positive dp for Ma<1. For Ma>1, an area change causes a
pressure change of opposite sign.
Again, substituting from Eq.(1.1) into Eq. (1.3), we obtain
-------1.4
From Eq. (1.4), we see that Ma<1 an area change causes a velocity change of opposite
sign, i.e. positive dA means negative dV for Ma<1. For Ma>1, an area change causes a velocity
change of same sign.
These results are summarized in Fig.1.1, and the relations (1.3) and (1.4) lead to the
following important conclusions about compressible flows:
1. At subsonic speeds (Ma<1) a decrease in area increases the speed of flow. A subsonic
nozzle should have a convergent profile and a subsonic diffuser should possess a
divergent profile. The flow behaviour in the regime of Ma<1 is therefore qualitatively the
same as in incompressible flows.
2. In supersonic flows (Ma>1), the effect of area changes are different. According to Eq.
(1.4), a supersonic nozzle must be built with an increasing area in the flow direction. A
supersonic diffuser must be a converging channel. Divergent nozzles are used to produce
supersonic flow in missiles and launch vehicles.

Fig 1.2 Shapes of nozzles and diffusersin subsonic and supersonic regimes
Suppose a nozzle is used to obtain a supersonic stream staring from low speeds at the
inlet (Fig.1.2). Then the Mach number should increase from Ma=0 near the inlet to Ma>1 at the
exit. It is clear that the nozzle must converge in the subsonic portion and diverge in the
supersonic portion. Such a nozzle is called a convergent-divergent nozzle. A convergent-
divergent nozzle is also called a de Laval nozzle, after Carl G.P. de Laval who first used such a
configuration in his steam turbines in late nineteenth century (this has already been mentioned in
the introductory note). From Fig.1.2 it is clear that the Mach number must be unity at the throat,
where the area is neither increasing nor decreasing. This is consistent with Eq. (1.4) which shows
that dV can be non-zero at the throat only if Ma=1. It also follows that the sonic velocity can be
achieved only at the throat of a nozzle or a diffuser.

Fig 1.3 A convergent-divergent nozzle
The condition, however, does not restrict that Ma must necessarily be unity at the throat,
According to Eq. (1.4), a situation is possible where at the throat if dV=0 there. For an
example, the flow in a convergent-divergent duct may be subsonic everywhere with Ma
increasing in the convergent portion and decreasing in the divergent portion with at the
throat (see Fig.1.3). The first part of the duct is acting as a nozzle, whereas the second part is
acting as a diffuser. Alternatively, we may have a convergent-divergent duct in which the flow is
supersonic everywhere with Ma decreasing in the convergent part and increasing in the divergent
part and again at the throat (see Fig. 1.4).


Fig 1.3 Convergent-divergent duct with at throat

Fig 1.4
Convergent-divergent duct with at throat
Isentropic Flow of a vapor or gas through a nozzle



First law of thermodynamics:

(if )
where is enthalpy drop across the nozzle
Again we know, Tds = dh - dp
For the isentropic flow, dh = dp
or,
or,
Assuming that the pressure and volume of steam during expansion obey the law p
n
= constant,
where n is the isentropic index





Now, mass flow rate


Therefore, the mass flow rate at the exit of the nozzle

=
The exit pressure, p
2
determines the for a given inlet condition. The mass flow rate is
maximum when,


For maximum ,

n = 1.4, for diatomic gases


for super saturated steam


for dry saturated steam


for wet steam with dryness fraction x
For , (50%drop in inlet pressure)

If we compare this with the results of sonic properties, as described in the earlier section,
we shall observe that the critical pressure occurs at the throat for Ma = 1. The critical pressure
ratio is defined as the ratio of pressure at the throat to the inlet pressure, for checked flow when
Ma = 1
Expansion of Steam in a Nozzle


Figure 1.5 Super Saturated Expansion of Steam in a Nozzle

- The process 1-2 is the isentropic expansion. The change of phase will begin to occur at
point 2
- vapour continues to expand in a dry state
- Steam remains in this unnatural superheated state untit its density is about eight times that
of the saturated vapour density at the same pressure
- When this limit is reached, the steam will suddenly condense
- Point 3 is achieved by extension of the curvature of constant pressure line from the
superheated region which strikes the vertical expansion line at 3 and through which
Wilson line also passes. The point 3 corresponds to a metastable equilibrium state of the
vapour.
- The process 2-3 shows expansion under super-saturation condition which is not in
thermal equilibrium
- It is also called under cooling
- At any pressure between and i.e., within the superheated zone, the temperature of
the vapous is lower than the saturation temperature corresponding to that pressure
- Since at 3, the limit of supersaturation is reached, the steam will now condense
instantaneously to its normal state at the constant pressure, and constant enthalpy which
is shown by the horizontal line where is on normal wet area pressure line of the
same pressure .
- is again isentropic, expansion in thermal equilibrium.
- To be noted that 4 and are on the same pressure line.
Thus the effect of supersaturation is to reduce the enthalpy drop slightly during the
expansion and consequently a corresponding reduction in final velocity. The final dryness
fraction and entropy are also increased and the measured discharge is greater than that
theoretically calculated.
Degree of super heat =
= limiting saturation pressure
= saturation pressure at temperature shown on T-s diagram
degree of undercooling - -
is the saturation temperature at
= Supersaturated steam temperature at point 3 which is the limit of supersaturation.


Supersaturated vapour behaves like supersaturated steam and the index to expansion
Problems
Qn.1. Steam is expanded in a set of nozzles from 10 bar and 2000C to 5 bar. What type of
nozzle is it? Neglecting the initial velocity find minimum area of the nozzle required to allow a
flow of 3 kg/s under the given conditions. Assume that expansion of steam to be isentropic.
Solution. Steam pressure at the entry to the steam nozzles,
p
1
= 10 bar, 200
o
C
Steam exit pressure, p
1
= 5 bar
We know that,
( )
13
n
0.3
n 1
2
1
p 2 2
p n 1 1.3 1

(
| |
= =
(
|
+ +
\ .



4.333
2
0.5457
2.3
| |
= =
|
\ .

2 1
p p 0.5457 10 0.5457 5.5 bar = =
Since throat pressure (p
2
) is greater than the exit pressure, the nozzle used is convergent
divergent nozzle. The minimum area will be at throat, where the pressure is 5.5 bar.
From Mollier chart,
1 2
h h 120 kJ / kg
Specific volume,
3
u 0.345 m / kg
Velocity at the throat,
2
C 44.72 120 489.88 m/ s = =
Throat area,
2
2
2
mv 3 0.345
A 0.0021 m
C 489.88

= = =
Qn.2. Steam having pressure of 10.5 bar and 0.95 dryness is expanded through convergent-
divergent nozzle and the pressure of steam leaving the nozzle is 0.85 bar. Find the velocity at the
throat for maximum discharge conditions. Index of expansion may be assumed as 135. Calculate
mass rate of flow of steam through the nozzle.
Solution. The pressure at throat for maximum discharge,
n 1.135
n 1 1.135 1
2 1
2 2
p p 10.5
n 1 1.135 1

| | | |
= =
| |
+ +
\ . \ .

8.41
2
10.5 6.06 bar
2.135
| |
= =
|
\ .

The velocity C
2
at throat for maximum discharge is given by (eqn. 11)
( )
5
2 1 1
n 1.135
C 2 p v 2 10.5 10 0.95 0.185
n 1 1.135 1
= =
+ +
443 m/ s
[C
2
can also be obtained with the help of steam tables or Mollier chart also]
n n
1 1 2 2
p v p v =
( )
1.135
1.135
2
10.5 0.95 0.185 6.06 v =
3
2
v 0.285 m / kg =
Mass flow rate,
2 2
2
A C 1 443
m
u 0.285

= =
2
1554.4 kg / m of throat area =
Qn. 3 A convergent-divergent nozzle is to be designed in which steam initially at 14 bar and
800C of superheat is to be expanded down to a back pressure of 1.05 bar. Determine the
necessary throat and exit diameters of the nozzle for a steam discharge of 500 kg/hour, assuming
that the expansion is in thermal equilibrium throughout and friction reheat amounting to 12% of
the total isentropic enthalpy drop to be effective in the divergent part of the nozzle.
Solution.
o
1 sup s
p 14 bar, t t 80 C = =
o
sup s 3
t t 80 195 80 275 C; p 1.05bar = + = + = =


We know that,
n 1.3
n 1 1.3 1
2
1
p 2 2
0.546
p n 1 1.3 1

| | | |
= = =
| |
+ +
\ . \ .

ie,
2 1
p p 0.546 14 0.546 7.64 bar = = =
From Mollier chart, h
1
= 2980 kJ/kg, h
2
= 2850 kJ/kg
h
3
= 2490 kJ/kg,
3
x 0.921
'
=
u
2
= 0.287 m
3
/kg (From Mollier chart)

d 1 2
h h h 2980 2850 130 kJ / kg = = =

d 1 3
h h h 2980 2490 490 kJ / kg
'
= = =
For throat:
2 d
C 44.72 h 44.72 130 509.8 m/ s = = =
Now,
2 2 2
2
A C A 509.8
m
u 0.287

= =

6 2
2
m 0.287 500 0.287
A 7.82 10 m
509.8 3600 509.8


= = =

ie,
2 5
2
D 7.82 10
4

t
=
or
1/ 2
5
2
7.82 10 4
D 0.009978 m or 9.9 mm

| |

= =
|
|
t
\ .

ie, Throat diameter = 9.9 mm.
At exit:
( )
3 d
C 44.72 kh 44.72 1 0.12 490 928.6m/ s
' '
= = =
3
3
3 3 g
u x u 0.921 1.69 1.556 m / kg
' '
= = =
2 3
3
3
m u 500 1.556
A 0.0002327 m
3600 928.6
c
'

= = =
'

ie,
2
3
D 0.0002327
4
t
=
or,
1/ 2
3
0.0002327 4
D 0.0172m or 17.2 mm
| |
= =
|
t
\ .

Qn. 4 Dry saturated steam enters the Steam nozzle at a pressure of 15 bar and is discharged at a
pressure of 2.0 bar. If the dryness fraction of discharge steam is 0.96, what will be the final
velocity of steam? Neglect initial velocity of steam.
If 10% of heat drop is lost in friction, find the percentage reduction in the final velocity.

Solution: Initial pressure of steam, p
1
= 16 bar, x
1
= 1.
Final pressure of steam, p
2
= 2.0 bar, x
2
= 0.96

From steam tables:
At p
1
= 15 bar, x
1
= 1 : h
1
= h
g
= 2789.9 kJ/kg.
At p
2
= 2 bar:
2
f
h 504.7 kJ / kg = ,
2
fg
h 2201.6 kJ / kg =
2 2
2 f 2 f
h h x h 504.7 0.96 2201.6 2618.2kJ / kg + + = + =
The velocity of steam at discharge from nozzle in S.I. units is given by:
( )
2 d 1 2
C 44.72 h 44.72 h h = =

( ) 44.72 2789.9 2618.2 585.9 m/ s = =
ie, Final velocity of steam = 585.9 m/s.
In case 10% of heat drop is lost in friction, nozzle co-efficient.
= 1.0 0.1 = 0.9
Hence the velocity of steam =
d
44.72 kh

( ) 44.72 0.9 2789.9 2618.2 555.9 m/ s = =
Percentage reduction in velocity =
585.9 555.9
100 5.12%
585.9

=
Qn. 5. Steam initially dry and saturated is expanded in a nozzle from 15 bar at 3000C to 1.0 bar.
If the frictional loss in the nozzle is 12% of the total heat drop calculate the mass of steam
discharged when exit diameter of the nozzle is 15 mm.
Solution: Pressure,
p
1 = 15 bar, 300
o
C
Pressure, p
2
= 1.0 bar
Frictional loss in nozzle = 12%
-efficient, k = 1 0.12 = 0.88.
Exit diameter of nozzle, d
2
=15 mm

Neglecting the velocity of steam at inlet to the nozzle, the velocity of steam at exit from
the nozzle is given by
( )
2 d 1 2
C 44.72 kh 44.72 0.88 h h
'
= =
( ) 44.72 0.88 3037 2515 958.5 m/ s = =
Dryness fraction of steam at discharge pressure,
2
x 0.93
'
=
Specific volume of dry saturated steam at 1.0 bar,
2
3
g
v 1.694 m / kg = .
Hence mass of steam discharged through nozzle per hour
( )
2
2
2 2
2 g
/ 4 15/1000 A C
3600 3600 387 kg / h
x u 0.93 1.694
'
t
= = =