What is RRA?

RRA can be defined as 'a qualitative survey methodology using a multi-discipline

team to formulate problems for agricultural research and development'. This
definition has been adapted from Ison and Ampt (1!" and #on$ay (1%&".
'ome of the terms used are e(panded upon belo$)
Qualitative refers to the descriptive type of data collected and is concerned $ith
the quality of an observation or idea. 'uch data may involve an assembly of
insights rather than numbers. This is a challenge to the conventional scientific
vie$ that everything can be measured and an assertion that human
consciousness is valid *no$ledge.
Survey is used loosely in the sense that data is gathered from people in the field
and filtered through the perceptions of the research team. The concept of a
sample is also loosely applied+ in that data is gathered until patterns and
understanding begins to emerge. 'ampling of a range of e(periences and people
ta*es place+ but not necessarily in a statistical or representative sense. The term
'purposeful' is often used to sho$ that data is sought in a deliberate $ay to
provide rich detail and insight.
Methodology means that a rigorous process of research has been adhered to.
RRA is not a recipe $here each step has to be precisely follo$ed+ but provides a
refined set of principles $hich requires *no$ledge and s*ill to apply. It also
invites researchers to modify and adapt the 'rules' to fit the research situation.
A multi-disciplinary team of up to ten people from diverse disciplines and or
bac*grounds should be recruited to provide a range of perspectives and
perceptions through $hich data can be analysed and interpreted. Researchers
are encouraged to *eep an open mind about potential research questions and
$here the solutions could lie.
To formulate means to define or describe problems from a range of perspectives+
including recognition of the importance of local *no$ledge.
Local people have a claim on the information collected and should be involved in
determining any action $hich emerges.
Research and development aims to improve conditions for the people and the
land.
,n a philosophical level RRA opens up many questions about $ho has relevant
*no$ledge and ho$ it can be acquired and used. It also has the potential to
involve all interested people in the research and development process and in this
$ay it challenges traditional institutional structures and methods.
RRA embraces an holistic approach to the processes of defining a research
conte(t and selecting a team. #ommonly RRA teams are multi-disciplinary+
gender balanced and try to e(plore problems $ithin their conte(t. RRA is more
'naturalistic' in its scientific approach. It does not attempt to control the research
setting and is therefore not e(perimental or reductionist.
The phenomenological philosophy sits more comfortably $ith RRA than a
positivist stance. The former places more emphasis on the mental processes of
the observer (e(periencing and reasoning" $hile the latter emphasi-es
e(perimental evidence (detachment of the observer from the data" as the main
$ay of accumulating *no$ledge.
The need for RRA
RRA emerged in the late 1&.s+ partly from the /arming 'ystems Research (see
belo$" movement in developing countries. Agricultural developers had become
disillusioned $ith their efforts and $ere loo*ing for $ays to interact more
effectively $ith local rural people. There $as dissatisfaction $ith the $ay e(perts
got an overvie$ of the research conte(t. A typical research process $ould have
involved the follo$ing)
villages and special farms $ith e(periments (near main cities" $ere
visited
poor villages and the people in them $ere avoided) diplomacy $as
maintained by not as*ing to see poor conditions or meet poor people
visits occurred only in the dry season
a form of 'development tourism' $as practised) brief rural visits by
urban professionals and e(perts.
There $as disillusionment $ith structured questionnaires and surveys. These
$ere often time consuming+ complicated+ difficult to do and a nightmare to
process+ analy-e and report upon. ,ften data $as misleading+ difficult to use+
ignored or never $ritten-up.
There $as also a lac* of recognition of local *no$ledge+ especially $here
problems touched the locals' lives. The concept of 'indigenous technical
*no$ledge' $as adopted from anthropology (/arrington 0 1artin+ 1%%". Its value
$as soon recogni-ed in the $ay it could uncover the richness and value of rural
*no$ledge and culture $ithin $hich development $as ta*ing place.
2y the late 1&.s professionals had developed a range of quic*+ cost-effective
surveys $hich embraced such concerns+ but $ere reluctant to $rite about them
as they $ere seen to lac* disciplinary respectability and rigor. 3eer pressure
constrained professional researchers to be conservative in their methods and to
produce 'valid numbers' and careful statements.
RRA filled the need for a multi-disciplinary approach to research that could see*
out and assimilate information about rural life and conditions in a time-efficient
but rigorous manner. In the 1%.s RRA investigations flourished. 4arly accounts
listed RRAs in 1! African countries+ % in 'outh 4ast Asia+ 5 in 6atin America+ 5 in
Australasia and the 3acific and 1 in 4urope. In 1%7 the 8hon 8aen 9niversity in
Thailand sponsored a conference on RRA and published ! definitive volumes of
papers and case studies (8hon 8aen 9niversity+ 1%7".
Intellectual origins of RRA
A number of sources and parallel methodologies stand out as constituting the
intellectual and conceptaul origins of the RRA methodology (#hambers+ 1!")
Activist participatory research
This approach is based on the $or* of 3aulo /reire $hose activities in 'outh
America are recogni-ed in e(tension literature: the $or* of the late ;r /red
<ollo$s seems comparable. In this tradition the poor and e(ploited are urged and
empo$ered to ta*e control of their o$n destiny. There has been a $ide range of
political and ideological positions amongst $or*ers from those committed to
action and social change at almost any cost to those $ho pursue 'softer' action.
In all cases three imperatives stand out (#hambers+ 1!")
poor people are creative and capable enough to manage their o$n
change
the outsiders role is a facilitator
the poor and e(ploited should be empo$ered.
Agroecosystem analysis
=ordon #on$ay+ $or*ing in Thailand+ dre$ on thin*ing from ecology and
systems disciplines to analy-e units of agriculture and ecosystems in terms of
properties $hich 'measured' performance and trends using the fconcepts of
productivity+ stability+ sustainability and equitability. The resulting system $as
called 'agro ecosystem analysis'. It made use of RRA as a data collection
methodology and utili-ed analytical techniques such as pattern analysis+ maps+
time sequences calendars+ flo$ diagrams and decision trees. ,ver time agro
ecosystem analysis and RRA became closely ent$ined and complementary
methodologies (#on$ay+ 1%>".
Farming systems research (FSR)
#hambers calls this process 'field research on farming systems' but in the
literature it is more commonly *no$n as 'farming systems research' or /'R
('immonds+ 1%7". /'R includes attempts by multi- disciplinary teams or
separate individuals to appreciate the comple(ity+ diversity and rationality of
much apparently untidy and unsystematic farm practice. 'cientists $ho
recogni-ed the importance of $hat farmers did and tried to understand 'the
system' began the /'R process. The interaction bet$een researchers ($ho left
their research stations" and local rural people pre-empted the careless
introduction of technology and began to inform the research process.
There are numerous models of /'R but the main features $hich mesh $ith RRA
and 3RA! are those that incorporate the follo$ing features ('pedding+ 1%%:
#hambers+ 1!")
/armer e(perience is the best $ay to inform research that aims to
produce practical outcomes.
/armers can usefully contribute to research done in their farm
environment.
Researchers begin to appreciate the diversity+ comple(ity and ris*-
prone nature of many farming systems.
Researchers begin to recognise the *no$ledge and rationality of
small and poor farmers.
/armers can conduct their o$n analysis of research in $hich they
participate.
Applied anthropology
This discipline is concerned $ith understanding culture and place. It began to
contribute to 'development agriculture' $hen anthropologists $ere included in
research teams alongside agriculturalists+ biologists and economists. Instead of
ta*ing years to 'get their data' anthropologists' s*ills $ere used in a multi-
disciplinary team in structured and relatively rapid surveys of local cultures+ land
resources and practices. A team of scientists could thus share their perceptions
of local conditions+ collect data+ and construct 'patterns' of ho$ a local system
$or*ed before an aid or technology $as introduced. This avoided the problems
of ho$ to use the vast reports of economic surveys and anthropology studies
$hich often came too late to be useful. The contributions of anthropologists in an
interdisciplinary team are $ell documented in $or* done in a potato research
pro?ect (Rhoades 0 2ooth+ 1%!" at the International 3otato #entre (#I3" 6ima+
3eru.
The development of RRA and 3RA methodologies dra$ on particular principles
of social anthropology such as)
field learning and residence
participant observation
appropriate attitudes+ behavior and rapport
value and validity of indigenous technical *no$ledge
Key features and advantages of RRA
It is difficult to establish a strict set of procedures for conducting an RRA because
every field situation has a different conte(t. Those $hich $e have found useful at
#'9 are listed belo$)
Key features
RRA begins with the assembly and building of a team $hich agrees
on some common ob?ectives that $ill enable individuals to $or* together.
Team training is a crucial step to achieve a consistent set of
approaches to data collection. It may include training in techniques such
as semi-structured intervie$ing+ active listening and the formulation of
ob?ectives and protocols.
A project protocol provides a blueprint for all team members to
follo$. This document should provide a $ay of introducing members to the
public+ stating the purpose of the RRA+ ho$ it $ill be conducted and $hat
the outcomes $ill be.
The methodology must be adapted to particular resources and field
situations.
Local !ey informants should be used to establish the conte(t of
each study.
Qualitative data techni"ues must be learnt.
#ata is fed bac! to the community rather than 'e(tracted' for
researchers' benefit only.
$articular variation is sought not averages. This means that
'sampling' is dependent on the data not the intervie$ees. The number of
people intervie$ed is often determined by the amount of team learning
and time available.
Accepting the notion of appropriate imprecision ensures that
resources are not $asted on 'accuracy' $hen its not clear $hat the
problem is.
The idea of optimal ignorance reminds the research team of the
importance of '*no$ing $hat's not $orth *no$ing'.
Triangulation refers to the process of cross-chec*ing data by
collecting it from more than one source.
RRA is e%ploratory and iterative& <ypotheses and research
questions can be rapidly changed as learning occurs.
Advantages
The conte%t of the data is as important as the data itself. 8ey
variables and questions of interest e(ist in an environment $hich is itself
important to observe.
Learning ta!es place in the field - as you go and it comes as much
from $hat local people *no$ and do as from physical and biological
phenomena. It also happens $hen the research teams e(presses $hat
they have observed and compare it $ith other peoples' perceptions.
RRA avoids the problems of development tourism and '$indscreen
surveys' - superficial surveys and forays into the field.
RRA provides a rural briefing for the increasingly urban non-farm
bac*ground agricultural scientists - a cultural orientation and reminder that
agricultural *no$ledge also resides in the local people+ their history and
methods.
RRA generates "ualitative data $hich requires special techniques
for collection+ analysis and interpretation. 'uch data should not be
underrated in comparison $ith quantitative data - development of insights
not numbers is the aim of the game.
Learning from and with the community is stressed: listening s*ills
are stressed over telling s*ills.
'omple% problems involving people and the land are not ignored or
'controlled out' by e(perimental and problem solving investigations.
It is also important to recogni-e that RRA has some drawbac!s+ not the least of
$hich is that teams can be difficult to organi-e. 1ost people $ho are dra$n to
the idea 'donate' their time and often their car. Team training is an essential
feature in $hich each member must refrain from their usual role and ta*e on the
role of a team member $hich has its o$n goals and intervie$ protocol. This all
requires time and e(pertise. /inally the analysis of qualitative data is often ne$
and difficult to most agriculturally trained people $ho have come from natural
science traditions.
What RRA can and cannot do
RRA can
$or* $ith people in the problem or study conte(t
define problems $hen there is uncertainty or debate about issues
see* out local *no$ledge or 'indigenous technical *no$ledge'
stimulate ne$ thin*ing about agriculture+ the environment+ their
interactions and conflicting goals
provide ideas and pointers for the application of 'hard science'
approaches to agricultural and environmental problems
enable the assembly and operation of multi-disciplinary teams for
research and e(tension
involves people and gives them a sense of direction) a form of
'action research' in $hich the research team interact $ith local people in a
co-researching relationship
RRA can not
replace the 'normal' processes of hard science li*e those used in
physical+ biological and agricultural research
solve problems but it is a problem definer
RRA action research and agricultural e!tension
3otentially every intervention (such as a survey" has an 'e(tension effect'.
3rofessionals have reali-ed this but underestimated its significance. @hile the
*no$ledge incorporated in survey 'results' or 'findings' is seen to be paramount in
bringing about change+ the effect of the survey process itself may be greater.
It is thus important to address the interactive effect of the research process
particularly $here people are embraced in the research. #hec*land (1!" notes
a big difference bet$een research in the social and the physical sciences) in the
former+ the research process itself al$ays has an effect on the data. @hile
#opernicus and 3tolemy had different theories about the solar system+ it did not
alter the reality of $hat $as being studied. 2ut 1ar('s theory of history $as so
po$erful in its predictions of revolution that it changed the course of history itself.
2ased on this distinction+ #hec*land (1!" recommends a process of 'action
research' that is people and action focused. The researcher does not remain an
outside observer but becomes a participant in the relevant human group. The
researcher becomes a participant in the action and the process of change itself
becomes the sub?ect of research.
The evolution of RRA in developing agriculture and its import into a developed
agriculture conte(t opens the $ay for e(tension and research $or*ers to improve
the $ay they interact $ith farmers and local communities. The follo$ing points
illustrate some potential advantages of the application of RRA methodologies.
Why e!tension might need RRA
Top do$n e(tension is no longer sufficient for the type of e(tension
problems being faced in Australian agriculture. /armers and rural
communities face comple( problems li*e land and resource degradation+
disease and pest control+ conservation farming techniques and farmer
driven mar*eting activity. The traditional e(tension approach of 'diffusion
of innovations' may not apply to many of these comple( long term
problems.
/armers often find it difficult to understand research
recommendations because they cannot see the relevance in the conte(t of
their o$n farms.
It is increasingly important for researchers and e(tension $or*ers to
understand $hy $ays in $hich farmers perceive problems. The $ays to do
this collaboratively are slo$ to develop and require s*ills and
determination.
/armers often adapt and improve research findings to suit their
particular conditions+ but often researchers are not a$are of+ and so do
not benefit from+ such feedbac*.
@hile most farmers face a problem of too much information+ the
$idening gap bet$een research results and adoption must be addressed.
Research and development (R0 ;" funds are scarce and the R0 ;
corporations $ish their findings to be more effectively communicated.
RRA in the Australian conte!t
,ne of the first documented e(amples of RRA in Australia is the $or* of Ison and
Ampt (1!" in the /orbes area of A'@. They endeavored to discover and
include local farmers' concerns in the activities of a ne$ research station to be
established in the area by the 9niversity of 'ydney. The RRA uncovered a $hole
array of agronomic problems and issues that farmers $ere concerned about
$hich although une(pected+ provided an important conte(t for the original
ob?ective. A *ey outcome of Ison and Ampt's $or* $as the pooling of local
*no$ledge to solveBimprove farm pasture problems. /or instance a local branch
of the =rassland 'ociety $as formed in the /orbes area.
This e(perience is similar to that described by Robert #hambers+ a *een
proponent of RRA in developing countries. In his e(perience specialist e(tension
and research people $ere constantly surprised by $hat they learnt about the
diversity+ comple(ity and rationality of farming people and agricultural practice
(#hambers 1!".
At the #'9 'chool of Agriculture a similar outcome has been e(perienced as a
result of an RRA conducted in the small to$nship of The Roc*. @e $ere invited
to $or* for the local 6and care group $ho $ere concerned about a '$ater run-off
problem' in the to$n. ,ur approach $as to cast a broad net to identify the many
perceptions and interests in and around the perceived problem. The ob?ect $as
to then share these ideas among all the people and interest groups in the hope
that local efforts could be harnessed to $or* cooperatively on the problem (;unn
et al+ 1!".
RRA studies at "S#
'even RRAs have been conducted from #harles 'turt 9niversity since 11 by
research teams made up of undergraduate students and research and e(tension
staff. /ive RRAs have investigated 6andcare activities. 'tudy documents have
reported the aims+ team selection and training and outcomes (;unn+ 15a".
1ost studies also provide a report for those intervie$ed and some also run a
public meeting $here the $ider community can participate and ta*e action from
the research (3RA Team+ 11". In this $ay some of the RRAs are verging on
3articipatory Rural Appraisals (3RAs". Another type of RRA ta*es a topical
approach to ans$er the specific needs of a sponsoring organi-ation (;unn+
15b".
The RRA e(perience often has a far reaching effect on individual team members
$ho learn from one another and from the local people. /or the professional+
learning from local e(perience can initially be difficult but something $hich is
achieved by a carefully planned training session. To reflect on a variety of
listening and observing e(periences is both po$erful and cathartic. 2y
comparison $ith the data collected and the actions $hich the study may
stimulate+ the change and learning by individual team members is often
overloo*ed+ ho$ever+ this is no$ being documented in separate reports (;unn+
forthcoming".
"onclusion
There is a need to study and research the 'culture' in agriculture: to recogni-e the
importance of people in the system because as sure as they are part of the
problems that must be addressed: they must also be part of the improvements
that are needed.
Rapid Rural Appraisal is a relatively ne$ methodology $hich recogni-es the
central role of people in rural localities and agricultural pursuits. Its chief claim is
to train and s*ill a team of li*e-minded researchers to interact $ith one another in
a rural conte(t to learn from the e(perience+ to use the qualitative data collected
and help all interest groups to plan and act for the future.
RRAs need to be carefully planned+ trained for and logistically controlled. There
are important principles to be understood and sponsors or clients must be a$are
and accepting partners. The participating communities are also *ey sta*eholders
in the process $hose claim on the outcomes is as legitimate as any of the
initiators. The responsibility for action should be ?ointly shared $ith the ma?ority
role resting in the community.
The potential for learning by team members is immense but at the same time it
can be elusive and apparently trite. It is important not to be deceived by
descriptive and richly detailed data nor is it to be confused $ith informal
observations $hich usually lac* the rigor of an RRA.
@hile insights cannot be generali-ed from a particular study they can inform
future action both of a community and a research type. This has been the case at
#harles 'turt 9niversity over the last 5 years and the informal learning and
confidence gained by individual team members is an added benefit.
$otes
1. I $ould li*e to than* 3rofessor =eoff 6a$rence for his helpful comments
on this paper and for his encouragement to publish it.
2. The 3articipatory Rural Appraisal (3RA" methodology is a development of
RRA $hich gives local people more of an involvement $ith the research
process and also e(pects more action from them. @hile 'e(ploratory'
RRAs aim to elicit local people's definitions of their problems+ there is a
temptation for a research team to 'e(tract' the data from the community+
analy-e it and $rite it up for their peer group. /or the community+ the data
and the e(perience has been lost and so too has the opportunity to ta*e
action or ma*e changes. To avoid this preoccupation $ith the data
#hambers and others no$ use the term '3articipatory Rural Appraisal' to
stress the process of continued community involvement and o$nership of
the data and the process. In these cases the data and feedbac* process
are an integral part of the research and change (local action" occurs and is
promoted by the research team. The rest of the article uses the terms
RRA and 3RA interchangeably.