HESI A&P 4/16/2014 7:27:00 PM

Alimentary Canal
Digestive tube that extends from the mouth to the anus




Anatomic Position
Standing erect, facing forward, arms at sides, palms forward, legs parallel,
toes pointed forward




Anterior
Towards the front




Appendicular Skeleton
The part of the skeleton that includes the pectoral girdle and the pelvic
girdle and the upper and lower limbs




Arterioles
The smallest arteries that connect with the capillaries




Axial Skeleton
The part of the skeleton that includes the skull, spinal column, sternum and
ribs




Bolus
A term used to describe food after it has been chewed and mixed with saliva




Cell
The basic structural and functional unit of all organisms




Cerebellum
The "little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem; its functions include
processing sensory input and coordinating movement and balance




Cerebrum
The part of the brain that interprets input from the senses, controls the
movement of skeletal muscles, and carries out complex mental processes;
largest part of the brain with two hemishperes




Chyme
partially digested, semiliquid food mixed with digestive enzymes and acids in
the stomach.




Dermis
Second layer of skin, deep to the epidermis, holding blood vessels, nerve
endings, sweat glands, and hair follicles




Distal
Situated farthest from point of attachment or origin, as of a limb or bone




Epidermis
Outermost, superficial, layer of skin, composed of keratinized stratified
squamous epithelium




Erythrocytes
Red blood cells




Estrogen
Hormone produced by the ovaries; promotes female secondary sex
characteristics




External Respiration
Movement of oxygen from the lungs to the blood and of carbon dioxide from
the blood to the lungs




Hemopoiesis
Process of blood cell formation




Histology
The study of tissues




Inferior
Away from the head or toward the lower part of a structure or the body;
below




Infundibulum
Any of various funnel-shaped parts of the body; i.e. the funnel-like end to
the fallopian tube that catches the egg when it is released from the ovary or
the hypophyseal stalk connecting the pituitary gland to the hypothalamus




Internal Respiration
Exchange of gases between the blood and the cells of the body




Lateral
Lying away from the midline and sagittal plane of a body




Leukocytes
White blood cells




Medial
Toward the midline of the body




Medulla Oblongata
Part of the brainstem that controls vital life-sustaining functions such as
heartbeat, breathing, blood pressure, and digestion




Meiosis
Cell division that produces reproductive cells in sexually reproducing
organisms




Mitosis
Cell division in which the cell divides into 2 identical daughter cells
containing the same number of chromosomes




Neuroglia
Non-conducting cells of nervous tissue composed of neurons and connective
tissue that have supportive and metabolic functions




Osteoblasts
Cells that form bone




Platelets
Cell fragments that play an important part in forming blood clots




Posterior
Toward the back




Progesterone
Hormone secreted by the corpus luteum, acts with estrogen stimulate the
endometrium




Proximal
Situated nearest to point of attachment or origin




Sarcomeres
The fundamental unit of muscle contraction; composed of thin filaments of
actin and myosin; part of a larger unit of myofibrils which compose a muscle
cell




Superior
Toward the head




Synergists
Muscles that contract and assist the prime movers




Voluntary Muscles
Skeletal muscles; muscles under conscious control




Abdominopelvic
Cavity composed of the abdomen and the pelvis.




Absorption
Movement of nutrients from the digestive tube into the bloodstream.




Actin
Protein making up the I band of the Sarcomere.




Amino Acid
The building block of proteins.




Antibody
Special proteins that protect the body from foreign substances.




ATP
Abbreviation for adenosine triphosphate, which is the energy of the cell.




Atria
Upper chambers of the heart.




Bile
Product of the liver secreted into the small intestine through the gallbladder;
emulsifies fat.




Cartilage
Connective tissue composed of chondrocytes and collagen fibers; its purpose
is to that connect and support joints; three kinds: elastic, hyaline, and
fibrocartilage




Ceruminous Gland
Gland of the ear that produces earwax.




Chromosomes
Thread-like body within the nucleus of a cell composed of nucleic acids and
protein; carries genetic information in the form of genes




Cilia
Small hairlike projections on some cells.




CNS
Abbreviation for central nervous system; one of two divisions of the nervous
system that is composed of the brain and spinal cord.




Coronal Plane
Imaginary line passing through the body from head to feet that divides the
body into front and back portions.




Cranial Cavity
Body cavity containing the brain.




Diaphragm
Dome-shaped breathing muscle that separates the thoracic and abdominal
cavities.




Diffusion
Movement of materials from high to low concentration.




Digestion
The mechanical and chemical breakdown of food.




Dorsal Horn
Crescent-shaped projection of gray matter within the spinal cord where the
sensory neurons enter the spinal cord.




ECG
Abbreviation for electrocardiogram, which is a record of the electrical activity
of the heart.




Endometrium
Inner lining of the uterus.




Enzymes
Functional proteins; their names usually end in -ase.




Foramen Magnum
A passage in the skull through which the spinal cord enters the spinal
column.




Formed Elements
The blood cells.




Glucose
A simple sugar found in certain foods, especially fruits.




Homeostasis
The physiologic steady state that is naturally maintained within the body.




Hypothalamus
Portion of the brain that regulates body temperature, sleep and appetite.




Joints
Articulations between adjoining bones.




Keratin
A tough, fibrous, insoluble protein forming the primary components of skin,
hair, nails, and tooth enamel.




Keratinized Epithelium
The dead cells of the epidermis.




Lacteal Vessels
Found within the villi of the intestinal wall, where fat nutrients are absorbed.




Ligaments
Tissue connecting bone to bone.




Median Plane
An imaginary line dividing the body or a body part into right and left
portions.




Mediastinum
Space within the thoracic cavity that houses all the organs of the chest
except the lungs.




Mucous Membrane
Thin sheets of tissue cells that line body openings or canals that open to the
outside of the body.




Myosin
A protein that makes up nearly half the proteins in muscle cells.




Nucleus
The control center of the cell.




Oral Cavity
The mouth; also known as the buccal cavity.




Orbits
Cavities containing the eyes.




Organelle
A structurally discrete component of a cell that performs a specific function.




pH
Measurement associated with acids and bases.




Phagocytosis
Engulfing of materials by certain cells of the body.




Plasma
The liquid portion of blood.




Pulmonary Circulation
Blood flow through a network of vessels between the heart and the lungs for
the oxygenation of blood and the removal of carbon dioxide.




Ribosome
An organelle responsible for protein synthesis




Sagittal Plane
An imaginary line running from front to back that divides the body into right
and left portions.




Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
Organelle of the muscle fiber that stores calcium.




Sebaceous Glands
Oil glands of the skin.




Serous Membranes
Thin sheets of tissue that line body cavities not having exits to the outside.




Spinal Column
The backbone that protects the spinal cord, which runs inside of it.




Subcutaneous Tissue
Layer of tissue under the dermis that contains adipose tissue.




Sudoriferous Glands
Sweat glands.




Synovial Membranes
Loose, connective tissue that lines the joint cavity.




Systemic Circulation
The general blood circulation of the body, not including the lungs.




Thoracic Cavity
The chest cavity.




Transverse Plane
An imaginary line dividing the body or body parts into top and bottom
portions.




Vasoconstriction
A narrowing of the diameter of a blood vessel.




Vasodilation
A widening of the diameter of a blood vessel.




Ventral Horns
The anterior columns of the gray matter of the spinal cord.




Ventricles
Lower chambers of the heart.




Zygote
The fertilized egg, from the time it is fertilized until it is implanted in the
uterus.

What mineral is responsible for muscle contractions?
Calcium


In which of the following locations would the urinary bladder and internal
reproductive organs be found?
Pelvic cavity


What separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity?
Diaphragm


Which of the followingepithelial types is correctly matchedwith its major
function?
Simple columnar epithelium - secretion or absorption



A tissue examined under the microscope exhibits the following
characteristics: cells found on internal surface of stomach, no extracellular
matrix, cells tall and thin, no blood vessels in the tissue. What type of tissue
is this?
Epithelial



Nerve tissue is composed of neurons and connective tissue cells that are
referred to as which of the following?
Neuroglia



Which tissue serves as the framework of the body by providing support and
structure for the organs?
Connective


What is the basic unit of life and the building block of tissues and organs?
Cell


Which type of cell division takes place in the gonads?
Meiosis


In what area of the body would you expect to find an especially thick
stratum corneum?
Heel of the foot


What are the glands of skin that produce a thin, watery secretion?
Eccrine glands


Skin aids in maintaining the calcium and phosphate levels of the body by
participating in the production of which of the following?
Vitamin D


Which of the following are functions of the skeletal system? (Select all that
apply)
Support the body Hemopoiesis (process by which new blood cells are
formed; bone marrow) Provide protection


The orthopedic surgeon informs you that you have broken the middle region
of the humerus. What is he describing?
Diaphysis


You have been given a sample of tissue that has open spaces partially filled
by an assemblage of needlelike structures. What is the tissue?
Spongy bone


Which of the following bones is the only moveable bone of the skull?
Mandible


Which mineral is responsible for regulating fluid in the body?
Sodium


Why are skeletal muscles also called voluntary muscles?
They are under conscious control


All actions of the nervous system depend on the transmission of nerve
impulses over which of the following?
Neurons


Motor or ______ neurons transmit nerve impulses away from the CNS.
Efferent


Jeff has contracted bulbar poliomyelitis, and it has affected the medulla
oblongata. The doctors warned the family that his condition is grave and
death may be imminent. What functions of the medulla oblongata have
warrated such a dire prognosis?
The medulla oblongata contains vital centers that control heart action, blood
vessel diameter, and respiration


What are chemical messengers that control growth, differentiation, and the
metabolism of specific target cells called?
Hormones


Which of the following are tropic hormones? (Select all that apply)
Somatotropin Follicle-stimulating hormone Thyroid-stimulating hormone


Which leukocytes are correctly matched with their function or description?
(Select all that apply)
Monocytes - become macrophages Lymphocytes - important in immune
response Neutrophils - phagocytize microorganisms


The heart has an intrinsic beat that is initiated by which of the following?
Sinoatrial node


Vasodilation and vasoconstriction result from which of the following?
Relaxation and contraction of smooth muscle in the arterial wall


Which of the following is the blood vessel where exchanges take place
between blood and the cells of the body?
Capillary


What is the exchange of gases between the atmosphere and the blood
through the alveoli called?
External respiration


In order for inhalation to occur, what must happen?
Contraction of the diaphragm, which enlarges the chest cavity and draws air
into the lungs


Most of the carbon dioxide in the blood does which of the following?
It is converted to bicarbonate ions by carbonic anhydrase within red blood
cells


How does the trachea remain open like a hollow tube?
Supporting cartilaginous rings keep it open


The stomach muscle churns and mixes food, turning the mass into a soupy
substance called which of the following?
Chyme


What is the function of aldosterone?
It conserves sodium in the body


All the nutrients that enter the hepatic portal vein are routed where for
decontamination?
Liver


Which are the functional units of the kidney?
Nephrons


What are the two functions of the male and female sex organs?
Production of gametes and production of hormones


In men, spermatozoa develop within the _______ of each testis.
Seminiferous tubules


Testicular activity is under the control of which hormone(s)?
Both FSH and LH


Which hormone initiates the preparation of the endometrium of the uterus
for pregnancy?
Estrogen


During pregnancy, what organ produces the hormones that maintain the
endometrium and prepare the breasts for milk production?
Placenta


Which of the following statements is anatomically correct?
The hip is proximal to the knee


If you wanted to separate the abdominal cavity from the thoracic cavity,
which plan would you use?
transverse


You have been given a sample of tissue that has pillar-shaped cells arranged
tightly together. The tissue you have is:
columnar epithelium


The epidermis is classified as a(n):
organ


The orthopedic surgeon informs you that you have broken the middle region
of the humerus. What area is he describing?
Diaphysis


Going from superior to inferior, the sequence of the vertebral column is:
cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccyx


Which of the following is true of skeletal muscle?
skeletal muscle attaches to bones by tendons muscle contraction helps
keep the body warm skeletal muscles continuously contract to maintain
posture


If an impulse is traveling from a sense receptor toward the spinal cord, it is
traveling along what type of neuron?
Sensory neuron


What does the parathyroid hormone regulate?
Calcium


Where are the pressoreceptors and chemoreceptors located?
carotid body


Bile is secreted into which organ?
small intestine


What is the role of progesterone in the female reproductive system?
Stimulates the development of the endometrium



What is compact bone?
a very ordered, tightly packed arrangement of the bony tissue




Where is compact bone is primarily found?
in the shafts of long bones, where it provides rigidity to the shaft it also lines
the outer surface of the epiphyses of long bones and the outer surface of all
other bones (i.e., short, flat, and irregular bones)




What is the outer surface of a bone is known as?
cortex or cortical surface




When a physician looks at a radiograph of a bone, he or she is examining
what?
the cortical surface for any break in the margin that would indicate a
fracture




What is compact bone composed of?
structural units that are cylindric in shape called osteons




What are osteons composed of?
a central osteonic canal in which a blood vessel is located




What is another word for osteonic canals?
Haversian canals




What is another word for perforating canals?
Volkmann's canals




What do the perforating canals connect?
the blood vessel from one osteonic canal to the blood vessel of an adjacent
osteonic canal




What are bone cells called?
osteocytes




Where do osteocytes arrange themselves>
around the osteonic canal in concentric circle




What creates the cylindric shape of an osteon?
the arrangement of osteocytes around the osteonic canal




Where do osteocytes get their nourishment from?
diffusion from the blood vessels located within the osteonic canals




What is the small chamber surronded by the matrix of bone where
osteocytes are located?
lacuna (plural: lacunae)




What are the very small canals connect one lacuna to another lacuna called?
canaliculi (singular: canaliculus)




What is the deeper of the two primary skin layers called?
dermis




Which is thicker the dermis or epidermis?
epidermis




What is the dermis composed of?
connective tissue




Are the cells of the dermis close together or far apart?
far apart, with many fibers in between




What is the dermal papillae?
The upper region of the dermis is characterized by parallel rows of peglike
projections




What does the dermal papillae form?
an important part of the dermal-epidermal junction that helps bind the skin
layers together. In addition, they form the ridges and grooves that make
possible fingerprinting as a means of identification.




What is the deeper area of the dermis is filled with?
a dense network of interlacing fibers




What is striae?
stretch marks




What does the dermis contain?
a specialized network of nerves and nerve endings to process sensory
information such as pain, pressure, touch, and temperature




What is at various levels of the dermis?
muscle fibers, hair follicles, sweat and sebaceous glands, and many blood
vessels




What connects the legs to the trunk?
The hip, or pelvic girdle




What does the hip girdle consist of?
two large coxal, or pelvic bones, one located on each side of the pelvis




What provides a strong base of support for the torso and connect the lower
extremities to the axial skeleton?
coxals, sacrum and coccyx




What are the three separate bones of the coxal in an infant?
ilium (ILL-ee-um), the ischium (IS-kee-um), and the pubis




What is the longest bone in the body?
the femur




What is the acetabulum?
a deep, cup-shaped socket




What is the patella?
knee cap




What is the tibia?
shinbone




What is the fibula?
A slender, non-weight-bearing, and rather fragile bone that lies along the
outer or lateral border of the lower leg




What is vertebroplasty?
a new, experimental orthopedic procedure that involves the injection of a
"super glue" type of bone cement to repair fractured and compressed
(collapsed) vertebrae




What is the largest tarsal bone?
calcaneus, or heel bone




How many coxal bones are there?
2




ilium
Hipbonesupper flaring part of pelvic bone




ischium
lower back part




pubic bone
lower front part




acetabulum
hip socket




symphysis pubis
joint in midline between two pubic bones




pelvic inlet
opening into true pelvis or pelvic cavity




femur
Thigh or upper leg bones




head of femur
ball-shaped upper end of bone; fits into acetabulum




Patella
Kneecap




medial malleolus
rounded projection at lower end of tibia commonly called inner anklebone;
muscles are attached to the tibial tuberosity




Tibia
Shinbone




Fibula
Long slender bone of lateral side of lower leg




lateral malleolus
rounded projection at lower end of fibula commonly called outer anklebone




Tarsal bones
Form heel and back part of foot; anatomical ankle; largest is the calcaneus




Metatarsals
Form part of foot to which toes are attached




What are the three arches in the foot?
Medial (inner) longitudinal arch Lateral (outer) longitudinal arch, which
extend from front to back of foot Transverse or metatarsal arch, which
extends across foot




Body planes
Imaginary lines used for reference, they include median plane, coronal
plane, and the transverse plane




Section
A real or imaginary cut made along a plane.





Sagittal Section
A cut along the median plane.





Frontal Section
A cut along the coronal plane.





Cross-Section
A cut through the transverse plane.




Anatomic Position
The body is erect, the feet are slightly apart, the head is held high, and the
palms of the hands are facing forward.




Superior
Above




Inferior
Below




Anterior
Facing forward,front.




Posterior
Toward the back




Medial
Toward the midline




Lateral
Away from the midline or toward the sides




Proximal
Closer to the point of attachment, limb.




Distal
Further away from the point of attachment (limb)




Dorsal Cavity
Cranial and Spinal Cavities




Ventral Cavity
Includes the orbits and the nasal, oral, thoracic, and abdominopelvic cavities




Histology
The study of tissues.




Tissue
A group of cells that act together to perform specific functions.




The Four Fundamental Tissue Types
Epithelial, Connective, Muscle, Nerve Tissues




Epithelial Tissue
Epithelial cells cover, line, and protect the body and its internal organs.





Connective Tissue
Connective tissue is the framework of the body, providing support and
structure for the organs.




Nerve Tissue
Nerve tissue is composed of neurons and connective tissue cells that are
referred to as neuroglia.




Muscle Tissue
Muscle tissues have the ability to contract or shorten. Muscle tissue is
classified as voluntary muscle,skeletal muscles, or involuntary muscle,
smooth muscle and cardiac muscle tissue.




Cell
The cell is the basic unit of life and the building blocks of tissues and organs.
Within the cell each organelle has a specific function.




Nucleus
Contains DNA, and ribosomes which are especially important in the synthesis
of proteins. Proteins include the enzymes that regulate all chemical reactions
within the body.




Mitosis
It is necessary for growth and repair. In this process, the DNA is duplicated
and distributed evenly into two daughter cells.





Meiosis
The special cell division that takes place in the gonads, that is, the ovaries
and the testes. In the process of meiosis, the chromosome number is
reduced from 46 to 23.




What is the largest organ in the body?
The skin. The skin consists of two layers. The epidermis and the dermis.




Epidermis
The outermost protective layer of dead keratinized epithelial cells.




Dermis
The underlying layer of connective tissue with blood vessels, nerve endings,
and the associated skin structures. The dermis rests on the subcutaneous
tissue that connects the skin to the superficial muscles.




The layers of the epidermis Superficial to Deep
Stratum corneum, stratum lucidum, stratum granulosum, and stratum
germinativum, includes stratum basale and stratum spinosum.




Where does mitosis occur?
Stratum Germinativum (Stratum Basale & Stratum Spinosum)




What do epidermal cells contain?
The protein pigment called melanin, which protects against radiation from
the sun.




Dermis (the inner layer of the skin)
Composed of fibrous connective tissue with blood vessels, sensory nerve
endings, hair follicles, and glands.




What are the two types of sweat glands?
Eccrine & Apocrine




Eccrine Glands
It is the most widely distributed sweat gland that regulates body
temperature by releasing a watery secretion that evaporates from the
surface of the skin.




Apocrine
The other sweat glands, mainly in the armpits and the groin area display
apocrine secretion. This secretion contains bits of cytoplasm from the
secreting cells. This cell debris attracts bacteria and the presence of the
bacteria on the skin results in body odor.




Sebaceous Glands
Release an oily secretion (sebum) through the hair follicles that lubricate the
skin and prevent drying. Oil is produced by holocrine secretion, in which
whole cells of the gland are part of the secretion. These glands are
susceptible to becoming clogged and attracting bacteria, particularly during
adolescence.




What are the appendages of the skin?
Hair & nails. Both are composed of a strong protein called keratin. Hair,
nails, and skin may show changes in disease that may be used in the
diagnosis of clinical conditions.




The body framework
Consists of bone, cartilage, ligaments, and joints.




Skeletal System Functions
Functions include support, movement, blood cell formation, hemopoiesis,
protection of internal organs, detoxification, removal of poison, provision for
muscle attachment, and mineral storage, particularly calcium and
phosphorus.




Hemopoiesis
Blood Cell Formation




Detoxification
Removal of poisons




Bone Classification
Bones are classified by shape, long bones, short bones, flat bones, irregular
bones, and sesamoid boned




Long Bones
A typical long bone has an irregular epiphysis at each end, composed mainly
of spongy, cancellous bone, and a shaft or diaphysis, composed mainly of
compact bone.




What is the epiphysis made of?
Cancellous (spongy) bone




What is the diaphysis, shaft, made of?
Compact bone




What are osteoblasts?
They form the compact bone; when they become fixed in the dense bone
matrix, they stop dividing but continue to maintain bone tissue as
osteocytes.




Axial Skeleton
Consists of the 28 bones of the skull, the 33 bones of the vertebral column,
and the bones of the thorax, sternum, and the 12 pairs of ribs.




How many bones are in the skull?
28, 14 facial and 14 cranium.




What are the facial bones of the skull?
The facial bones are two nasal bones, two maxillary bones, two zygomatic
bones, one mandible (the only moveable bone of the skull), two palatine
bones, one vomer, two lacrimal bones, and two inferial nasal conchae.




What are the cranial bones of the skull?
The bones of the cranium are the single occipital, frontal, ethmoid, and
spehoid, and the paired parietal, temporal, and ossicles of the ear malleus,
incus, ant stapes.




How many bones are in the vertebral column?
33




What are the bones of the vertebrae?
7 cervical vertebrae, 12 thoracic vertebrae, 5 lumbar vertebrae, five sacral
vertebrae, fused to form the sacrum, and the coccygeal vertebrae, known as
the tailbone.




Appendicular Skeleton
Include the girdles and the limbs.




What does the upper portion of the appendicular skeleton consist of?
The upper portion consists of the pectoral or shoulder girdle, the clavicle and
scapula, and the upper extremity. The bones of the arm are the humerus
radius and ulna, the carpals, wrist bones, the metacarpals, bones of the
hand, and the phalanges,bones of the fingers.




What does the lower portion of the appendicular skeleton consist of?
The pelvic girdle or os coxae. Each of the os coxae consists of a fused ilium,
ischium, and pubis. Bones of the lower extremity include the femur
(thighbone), the tibia and fibula, the tarsals (ankle bones), the metatarsals
(bones of the foot), and the phalanges.




Muscles
Produce movement by contracting in response to nervous stimulation.
Muscle contraction results from the sliding together of actin and myosin
filaments within the muscle cell or fiber.




Muscle Cells
Each muscle cell consists of myofibrils, which in turn are made up of still
smaller units called sarcomeres.




What must be present for a muscle cell to contract?
Calcium and ATP




How do muscles work?
Nervous stimulation from motor neurons causes the release of calcium ions
from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Calcium ions attach to inhibitory proteins
on the actin filaments within the cell, moving them aside so that cross-
bridges can form between actin and myosin filaments. Using energy supplied
by ATP, the filaments slide together to produce contraction.




What are the skeletal muscles also called?
Voluntary Muscles, because they are under conscious control. Skeletal
muscles must work in pairs: the muscle that executes a given movement is
the prime mover, whereas the muscle that produces the opposite movement
is the antagonists. Other muscles known as synergists may work in
cooperation with the prime mover.




Flexors
Reduce the angle at the joint




Extensors
Increase the angle at the joint




Abductors
Draw a limb away from the midline




Adductors
Draw a limb back toward the body





The nervous system
Consists essentially of the brain, the spinal cord, and the nerves. It enables
us to perceive many of the changes that take place in our external and
internal environments and to respond to those changes (seeing, hearing,
tasting, smelling, and touching are examples of perception). It works losely
with the endocrin glands, correlating and integrating body functions such as
digestion and reproduction.




Nerve Impulses
All actions of the nervous system depend on the transmission of nerve
impulses over neurons, or nerve cells, the functional units of the nervous
system.





What are the main parts of a neuron?
Dentrits (transmit the impulse toward the cell body), Cell body, and axons
(transmit the impulse away from the cell body).




What is the nervous system divided into structurally?
Central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS).





What does the PNS consist of?
All the nerves that transmit information to and from the CNS.




What are sensory,afferent, neurons?
transmit nerve impulses toward the CNS.




What are motor (efferent) neurons?
transmit nerve impulses away from the CNS toward the effector organs such
as muscles, glands, and digestive organs.




What are the major parts of the brain?
the cerebrum, the cerebellum, and the medulla oblangata




Cerebrum
Associated with movement and sensory input.




Cerebellum
Responsible for muscle coordination




Medulla Oblongata
Controls many vital functions such as respiration and heart rate




The Spinal Cord
Is approximately 18" long and extends from the base of the skull, foramen
magnum, to the first or second lumbar vertebra. Thirty one pairs of spinal
nerves exit the spinal cord. Simple spinal reflexes are those in which nerve
impulses travel through the spinal cord only, and do not reach the brain.




Sensory and motor impulses
Sensory impulses enter the dorsal horns of the spinal cord, and motor
impulses leave through the ventral horns of the spinal cord.




The Endocrine System
Assists the nervous system in homeostasis and plays important roles in
growth and sexual maturation. These two systems meet at the
hypothalamus and pituitary gland. The nervous and endocrine systems
coordinate and control the body, but the endocrine system has more long-
lasting and wide-spread effects.




The hypothalamus
Governs the pituitary gland and is in turn controlled by the feedback of
hormones in the blood.




Hormones
Chemical messengers that control the growth, differentiation, and
metabolism of specific cell targets. Most hormones affect cell activity by
altering the rate of protein synthesis.




What are the two types of hormones?
Steroid and nonsteroid hormones.




Steroid hormones
Enter the target cells and have a direct effect on the DNA of the nucleus.




Nonsteroid hormones
Some nonsteroid hormones are protein hormones. Many protein hormones
remain at the cell surface and act through a second messenger, usually a
substance called AMP,adenosine monophosphate.




What is the main function of each gland?
the production of hormones. Other organs such as stomach, small intestines,
and kidneys produce hormones as well.




Where are hormones released?
Multiple hormones are released during stress from the adrenal cortex, the
hypothalamus, and the posterior and anterior pituitary. The cortisol released
from the adrenal cortex reduces inflammation, raises the blood sugar level,
and inhibits the release of histamine.




Pituitary Gland
It is nicknamed the master gland. It is attached to the hyhpothalamus by a
stalk called the infundibulum. It has two major portions: the anterior
lobe,adenohypophysis, and the posterior lobe, neurohypophysis.




Adenohypophysis, Anterior Lobe of the Pituitary Gland.
Hormones of the adenohypophysis are called tropic hormones because they
act mainly on other endocrine glands. They include the following: -
Somatotropin hormone (STH) or growth hormone (GH) -
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) -Thyroid-stimulating hormone
(TSH) -Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) -Luteinizing hormone (LH)




Neurohypophysis, Posterior Lobe of the Pituitary Gland.
Releases oxytocin,the labor hormone, and the antidiuretic hormone,ADH.




Other important endorine glands
the thyroid, parathyroids, adrenals, pancreas, and gonads (the ovaries and
testes)




What does whole blood consist of?
55% plasma and 45% formed elements produced from stem cells in red
bone marrow




Eythrocytes
Red Blood Cells. modified to transport oxygen, most of this oxygen is bound
to the pigmented protein hemoglobin




Leukocytes
White Blood Cells are active in phagocytosis (neutrophils and monocytes)
and antibody formation (lymphocytes). the five types can be distinguished
on the basis of size, appearance of the nucleus, staining properties, and
presence or absense of visible cytoplasmic granules.




Platelets
active in the process of blood clotting.




Blood
Serves to transport oxygen and nutrients to body cells and to carry away
carbon dioxide and metabolic wastes.




The heart
A double pump that sends blood to the lungs for oxygenation through the
pulmonary circuit and to the remainder of the body through the systemic
circuit. It has an intrinsic beat initiated by the sinoatrial node and
transmitted along a conduction system through the myocardium.




The systemic circuit
Blood is received by the atria and is pumped into circulation by the
ventricles. Valves between the atria and ventricles include the tricuspid right
side of the heart and the bicuspid on the left. Semilunar valves are found at
the entrances of the pulmonary trunk and the aorta. Blood is supplied to the
heart muscle (the myocardium) by the coronary arteries. Blood draings from
the myocardium directly into the right atrium through the coronary sinus.




The Cardiac Cycle
The period from the end of one ventricular contraction to the end of the next
ventricular contraction. The contraction phase of the cycles is systole. The
relaxation phase is diastole.




The vascular system
Includes arteries that carry blood away from the heart, veins that carry
blood toward the heart, and the capillaries.




Capillaries
The smallest of vessels and where the exchanges take place between the
blood and surrounding tissues, exchanging water, nurtients, and waste
products.




The systemic arteries
begin with the aorta which sends branches to all parts of the body. As the
arteries get farther away from the heart, they become thinner and thinner.




Arterioles
The smallest arteries.




Superior and inferior vena cava
The large veins that empty into the right atrium of the heart.




Arteries
The walls of the arteries are thick and elastic, and they carry blood under
high pressure. Vasoconstriction and vasodilation result from contraction and
relaxation of smooth muscle in the arterial walls. These changes influence
blood pressure and blood distribution to the tissues. The walls of the veins
are thiknner and less elastic than those of the arteries and they carry blood
under lower pressure.




Action potential
Deflections of the ECG do not represent the systole and diastole of the heart
champers. Instead, they represent the electrical activity that precedes the
contraction-relaxation events of the myocardium. An analogy for this can be
at a track meet when the starter's gun is fired before the runner start to run.
The sound initiates the action. In the heart, the action potential is similar to
firing the gun. The contraction starts just after the action potential passes
over the muscle cells.




Respiratory System
the components of the respiratory system include the nose, pharynx, larynx,
trachea, bronchi, lungs with their alveoli, diaphragm, and muscles
surrounding the ribs. It supplies oxygen to the body and eliminates carbon
dioxide.




Respiration
is controlled by the respiratory control center in the medulla of the brain.




External Respiration
Refers to the exchange of gases between the atmosphere and the blood
through the alveoli.




Internal Respiration
The exchange of gases between the blood and the body cells.




Upper Passageways
Are between the nasal cavities and the alveoli and conduct gases to and
from the lungs. The upper passageways also serve to warm, filter, and
moisten incoming air. The upper respiratory tubules are lined with cilia that
help to trap debris and keep foreign substances from entering the lungs.




Inhalation
Require the contraction of the diaphragm to enlarge the thoracic cavity and
draw air into the lungs.




Exhalation
A passive process during which the lungs recoil as the respiratory muscles
relax and the thorax decreases in size.




Oxygen during respiration
Most of the oxygen carried in the blood is bound to hemoglibin and red blood
cells. Oxygen is released from hemoglobin as the concentration oxygen
drops in the tissues. Some carbon dioxide is carried in solution or bound to
blood proteins, but most is converted to bicarbonate ion by carbonic
anhydrase within red blood cells. Because this reaction also releases
hydrogen ions, carbon dioxide is a regulator of blood pH.




Alimentary Canal,Digestive Tube.
Consists of the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large
intestine, rectum, and anus. The accessory organs of digestion include the
liver, pancreas, and gallbladder.




Mouth
Food is ingested in the mouth where it is mechanically broken down by teeth
and tongue in the process of mastication(chewing). Saliva. produced by the
three pairs of salivary glands, lubricates and dilute the chewed food. Saliva
contains an enzyme called amylase that starts the digestion of complex
carbohydrates.




Mastication
Chewing




Amylase
An enzyme in saliva that starts the digestion of complex carbohydrates.




Bolus
A ball of food formed by saliva




Pharynx
Constrictive muscles of the pharynx force the food into the upper portion of
the esophagus, and the food is swallowed.




Esophagus
The esophagus is a narrow tube leading from the pharynx to the stomach.
The digestive tract has four main layers, from innermost to outer: mucous
membrane, the submucous layer, the muscular layer, and the serous layer.




Stomach
Food enters the stomach where gastric glands secrete hydrochloric acid that
breaks down foods. The stomach muscle churns and mixes the bolus of food,
turning the mass into a soupy substance called chyme. The stomach also
stores food and regulates the movement of food into the small intestine.




Small Intestine
Digestion and absorption of food occurs in the small intestine. Here, food is
acted on by various enzymes from the small intestine and pancreas and by
bile from the liver.




Pancreas
It also contributes water to dilute the chyme and bicarbonate ions to
neutralize the acid from the stomach.




Small Intestine
Consists of three major regions: the duodenum, the jejunum, and the ileum.
Nutrients are absorbed through the walls of the small intestine. The amino
acids and simple sugars derived from proteins and carbohydrates are
absorbed directly into the blood.




Fats
Most of the fats absorbed into the lymph by the lacteals, which eventually
are added to the bloodstream.




Nutrients
All nutrients then enter the hepatic portal vein to be routed to the liver for
decontamination. Small fingerlike projections called villi greatly increase the
surface area of the intestinal wall.




Large Intestine
Reabsorbs water and stores and eliminates undigested food. Here also are
abundant bacteria. the intestinal flora. The large intestine is arranged into
five portions: the ascending colon, the transverse colon, the descending
colon, the sigmoid colon, and the rectum. The opening for defecation
(expelling of stool) is the anus.





Urinary System
Consists of two kidneys, two ureters, a urinary bladder, and the urethra.





Kidneys
Filter the blood. The central role o the kidneys is to serve as regulators of
our internal environment. Most chemical exchanges with blood occur in the
kidneys, where they filter and process the blood to produce urine.





Ureters
Tubes that transport urine to the urinary bladder, where urine is stored
before urination through the urethra to the outside.




Nephrons
The functional units of the kidneys. They are small coiled tubes that filter
waste material out of the blood brought by the renal artery. The actual
filtration process occurs through the glomerulus in Bowman's capsule of the
nephron.




Filtration of the Blood
Occurs through the glomerulus under the force of blood pressure. As the
glomerular filtrate passes through the nephron, components needed by the
body, such as water, glucose, and ions, leave the nephron by diffusion and
reenter the blood. Water is reabsorbed at the tubules of the nephron. The
final product produced by the millions of nephrons per kidney is urine.




Reproductive System
The male and female sex organs (testest and ovaries) have two functions :
production of gametes (sex cells) and production of hormones. These
activities are under the control of tropic hormones from the pituitary gland.
Reproduction activity is cyclic in women but continuous in men. The gametes
are formed by meiosis.




Testes
Male sex organs




Ovaries
Female sex organs




Gametes
Sex Cells




Spermatozoa
Develop within the seminiferous tubules of each testis.The interstitial cells
between the seminiferous tubules produce testosterone.




Testosterone
This male hormone influences sperm cell development and also produces the
male secondary sex characteristics such as body hair and deep voice. Once
produced, the sperm are matured and stored in the epididymis of each
testis.




Pathway for Sperm
During ejaculation the pathway for the sperm includes the vas deferens,
ejaculatory duct, and urethra. Along the pathway are glands that produce
the transport medium or semem.




Glands that produce semen
Seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbourethral (cowper's) glands.




Testicular Activity
is under the control of two anterior pituitary hormones, FSH regulates sperm
production. Interstitial cell stimulating hormone ICSH or LH stimulates the
interstitial cells to produce testosterone.




Female Reproductive System
In women, each month, under the influence of FSH, several eggs ripen
within the ovarian follicles in the ovary. The estrogen produced by the follicle
initiates the preparation of the endometrium of the uterus for pregnancy. At
approximately day 14 of the cycle, a surge of LH is released form the
pituitary, which stimulates ovulation and the conversion of the follicle to the
corpus luteum.




Corpus Luteum
Secretes the hormones progesterone and estrogen, which further stimulates
development of the endometrium. If fertilization occurs, the corpus luteum
remains functional. If fertilization doesn't occur, the corpus luteum
degenerates and menstruation begins.




After Ovulation
The egg is swept into the oviduct, or fallopian tube. If fertilization occurs, it
occurs while the egg is in the oviduct. The fertilized egg or zygote travels to
the uterus and implants itself within the endometrium. In the uterus, the
developing embryo is nourished by the placenta, which is formed by
maternal and embryonic tissues.




During Pregnancy
Hormones from the placenta maintain the endometrium and prepare the
breasts for milk production.


Histology
the study of tissues





Mitosis and Meiosis
Mitosis and meiosis are the ways that cells reproduce. During mitosis, a cell
duplicates its DNA and divides into two identical cells called daughter cells.
Meiosis, on the other hand, produces four daughter cells that have only half
of the chromosomes that the parent cell has. Meiosis is the form of cell
duplication that produces eggs and sperm.




Skin
membrane because it covers the body ; organ because it contains several
kinds of tissues.




skeletal system
Functions to support, permit movement, form blood cells (homeopoiesis),
protect internal organs, detoxify, point for muscle attachment, mineral
storage (particularly phosphorous and calcium)





Muscular System
Consists of skeletal muscles and tendons that connect muscles to bone, and
ligaments which attach bones to each other to form joints. Cardiac and
smooth muscles are not included in this organ system.





Nervous System
Composed of neurons (cell, axon, dendrite), central nervous system (brain,
spinal cord), peripheral nervous system (nerves of the body). Recieves,
interpretes and transmits impulses and responses. Responsible for sight,
smell, taste, touch, hearing (five senses), heart rate, breathing, speech,
movement




Endocrine system
Consists of a group of ductless glands that secrete substances called
hormones directly into the bloodstream. Hormones are powerful chemical
substances that have a profound effect on many body processes such as
metabolism, growth and development, reproduction, personality, and the
ability of the body to react to stress and disease.




Circulatory system
The human body system that contains the heart, blood, and all of the blood
vessels. It delivers all the nutrients to the cells




Respiratory System
A system of organs, functioning in the process of gas exchange between the
body and the environment, consisting especially of the nose, nasal passages,
nasopharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs.




Digestive System
3 main functions - break down food mechanically & chemically, absorb
important molcules for the body needs, & eliminates wastes




Urinary System
Composed of kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. Removes waster
material (urine) from the body, regulates fluid volume, and maintains
electrolyte concentration.




Reproductive system
(testes, epididymis, vas deferens, urethra, penis, ovaries, Fallopian tubes,
uterus, vagina) produces reproductive cells, nurtures and protects
developing embryo in females




Alimentary Canal
Also known as the gastrointestinal (GI) tract of the digestive tract, the
alimentary canal is the long muscular "tube" that includes the mouth
esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine.




anatomic position
The position with the body erect with the arms at the sides and the palms
forward. The anatomic position is of importance in anatomy because it is the
position of reference for anatomic nomenclature. Anatomic terms such as
anterior and posterior, medial and lateral, and abduction and adduction
apply to the body when it is in the anatomic position.




Anterior
Front or Ventral




appendicular skeleton
126 bones that make up the shoulder girdle, arms, hands, pelvic girdle, legs,
and hands.




arterioles
Extremely small arteries that result from multiple branching of major
arteries. Function to direct and control blood flow and to reduce blood
pressure




Axial Skelton
rts the central axis of the body. Consists of the sku




bolus
A term used to describe food after it has been chewed and mixed with
saliva.food is swallowed and passed from the esophagus into the stomach,
where digestion continues with the mixing of chyme with hydrochloric acid,
enzyme action, and intrinsic factor.




Cell
Collection of living matter enclosed by a barrier that separates the cell from
its surroundings; basic unit of all forms of life.




Cerebellum
BALANCE, physical, emotional, cognitive, social;the "little brain" attached to
the rear of the brainstem; its functions include processing sensory input and
coordinating movement output and balance




Chyme
A pulpy mixture of food and gastric juices. Produced in the stomach, from
which it passes to the small intestine




Dermis
- the layer of the skin just below the epidermis, contains bundles of collogen,
nerve fibres, blood vessels, sweat glands, sebaceous glands & hair follicles




Distal
opposite of proximal; a particular body part is farther from the trunk or
farther from another specified point of reference than another part




Epidermis
Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium containing 4 distinct types of
cells, melanocytes(pigment)merkel cells(touch
receptors)ketatinocytes(produce keratin) and langerhans cells(police outer
body surface/immune response cells) and either 4 or 5 layers depending on
whether thin(everywhere on body except) or thick(soles and palms) skin.
Avasulcar but innervated, reproduces quickly -entirely new epidermis every
35-45 days.




Estrogen
What hormone stimulates uterine growth, increases blood flow to uterine
vessels, and stimulates breast ducts to prepare for lactation?




External Respiration
Exchange of gases in the lungs (between the air in the alveoli and the blood
in the pulmonary capillaries)




Hemopoiesis
the formation of blood cells in the living body (especially in the bone
marrow)




Histology
(tissues) microscopic study of structures of tissues (tissues -groups of
specialized cells and cell products)




Inferior
-INDICATES THAT A BODY PART IS BELOW ANOTHER OR LOWER SURFACE
OF AN ORGAN OR A STRUCTURE (DOWN TOWARDS THE FEET)




infundibulum
A stalk that attaches the pituitary gland to the hypothalamus.




Internal Respiration
Exchange of gases between cells of the body and the blood




Lateral
Refers to a position relatively farther away from the midline or toward the
ouside of the body




Leukocytes
HELP TO FIGHT DISEASES; THERE ARE TWO MAIN TYPES OF THIS CELL
AGRANULOCYTES AND GRANULOCYTES BUT THERE ARE 5 DIFFERENT TYPES
OF THESE CELLS: NEUTROPHILS; EOSINOPHILS; BASOPHILS;
LYMPHOCYTES; MONOCYTES




Medial
relates to an imaginary midline dividing the body into equal right and left
halves




Medulla oblongata
Most inferior portion of the brainstem and is continuous inferiorly with the
spinal cord. Contains nuclei that regulate heart rate and blood vessel
diameter, breathing, swallowing, vomiting, coughing, and sneezing.




Meiosis
"special" cell division used to produce gametes (sperm and eggs), each cell
produced contains HALF the normal amount of genetic material




Mitosis
A process of nuclear division in eukaryotic cells conventionally divided into
five stages: prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
Mitosis conserves chromosome number by equally allocating replicated
chromosomes to each of the daughter nuclei.




Neuroglia
comprise the general classification of cells that support the neurons of the
CNS. Make up half total brain & spinal cord volume. 5x -10x more numerous
than neurons. List: astrocytes, oligodendroglia, microglia, ependymal cells.




osteoblasts
Bone-forming cells




platelets
are vital to coagulation of the blood to prevent excessive bleeding. Elevated
levels suggest dehydration or stimulation of the bone marrow where the
cells are produced and decreased levels may indicate an immune system
failure, drug reactions, B12, or folic acid deficiency.




Posterior
Dorsal, back side of the body




Progesterone
A steroid hormone produced by the corpus luteum in the ovary during the
second half of the menstrual cycle Progesterone maintains and enhances the
uterine lining for the possible implantation of a fertilized ovum. It is the
primary hormone secreted during pregnancy.




proximal
Closer to the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to
the body trunk




Sarcomeres
Basic structural & functional unit of skeletal muscle because it is the smallest
portion of skeletal muscle capable of contracting.




Superior
Above; at a higher level (in the human body, toward the head)




Synergist
-assists the prime mover in performing its action. It may do this in number
of ways




Voluntary Muscles
Muscles that you are able to control




Frontal Muscle
Function: Raises eyebrows. Insertion: Skin of eyebrow. Origin: Occipital
bone.




Orbicularis oculi Muscle
Function: closes eye, Insertion: Maxilla and frontal bone, Origin: Maxilla and
frontal bone (encircles eye)




Orbicularis oris Muscle
Function: Draws lips together, Insertion: Encircles lips, Orgin: Encircles lips




Zygomaticus Muscle
Function: Elevates corners of mouth and lips, Insertion: Angle of mouth and
upper lip, Origin: Zygomatic




Masseter Muscle
Function: Closes jaws, Insertion: Mandible, Origin: Zygomatic arch




Temporal Muscle
Function: Closes jaw, Insertion: Mandible, Origin: Temporal region of the
skull




Sternocleidomastoid Muscle
Function: Rotates and flexes head and neck, Insertion: Scapula,
Origin:Sternum and clavicle




Trapezius Muscle
Function: Extends head and neck, Insertion: Scapula, Origin: Skull and
upper vertebrae




Pectoralis Major Muscle
Function:Flexes and helps adduct upper arm, Insertion: Humerus, Origin:
Sternum,clavicle and upper rib cartilages




Latissimus Dorsi Muscle
Function: Extends and helps adduct upper arm, Insertion: Humerus, Origin:
Vertebrae and illium




Deltoid Muscle
Function:Abducts upper arm, Insertion: Humerus, Origin: Clavicle and
scapula




Biceps Brachii Muscle
Function: Flexes elbow, Insertion: Radius, Origin: Scapula




Triceps Brachii Muscle
Function: extends elbow, Insertion: ulna, Origin: Scapula and Humerus




External Oblique Muscle
Function: Compresses abdomen, Insertion: Midline of abdomen, Origin:
Lower thoracic cage




Internal Oblique Muscle
Function: Compresses abdomen, Insertion: Midline of abdomen,
Origin:Pelvis




Transversus Abdominis Muscle
Function: Compresses abdomen, Insertion: Midline of abdomen, Origin:
Ribs, vertebrae and pelvis




Rectus Abdominis Muscle
Function: Flexes trunk, Insertion: lower rib cage, Origin:Pubis




Iliopsoas Muscle
Function: Flexes thigh or trunk, Insertion: Femur,Origin: Ilium and vertebrae




Sartorius Muscle
Function: Flexes thigh and rotates lower leg, Insertion: Tibia, Origin: Ilium




Gluteus Maximus Muscle
Function: Extends thigh, Insertion: Femur, Origin: llium, sacrum, and coccyx




Adductor longus Muscle
Function: Adducts thigh, Insertion: Femur, Origin: Pubis




Gracilis Muscle
Function: Adducts thigh, Insertion: Tibia, Origin: Pubis




Pectineus Muscle
Function: Adducts thigh, Insertion: Femur, Origin: Pubis




Semimembranosus Muscle
Function: Flexes Knee, Insertion: Tibia, Origin: Ischium




Semitendinosus Muscle
Function: Flexes Knee, Insertion: Tibia, Origin: Ischium




Biceps Femoris Muscle
Function: Flexes Knee, Insertion: fibula, Origin: Ischium and Femur




Rectus Femoris Muscle
Function: Extends knee, Insertion: Tibia, Origin: Ilium




Vastus lateralis, intermedius and medialis Muscles
Function: Extends knee, Insertion:Tibia, Origin: Femur




Tibialis Anterior Muscle
Function: Dorsiflexes ankle, Insertion: Metatarsals(Foot), Origin: Tibia




Gastrocnemius Muscle
Function: Plantar flexes ankle, Insertion: Calcaneus (heel), Origin: Femur




Soleus Muscle
Function: Plantar flexes ankle, Insertion: Calcaneus (heel), Origin: Tibia and
fibula




Peroneus longus and brevis Muscles
Function: Plantar flex ankle, Insertion: Tarsal and Metatarsals (ankle and
foot), Origin: Tibia and fibula




Flexion
A motion described when adjacent body parts approach each other, thereby
decreasing the angle between them. More simply states, it is the act of
folding, bending or withdrawing a body part.




Median plane/Sagittal plane
A vertical plane dividing the body into right and left halves. Situated in the
middle.A cut along a median plane is a sagittal section.




cornal/frontal plane
is a vertical plane that divides the body into front and back sections. A cut
along a cornal plane is a frontal section.




transverse plane
makes a division into upper (superior) and lower (inferior) portions. A cut
along the transverse plane is a cross section.




Superior
Above




Dorsal Cavity
Includes cranial and spinal cavities




Ventral cavity
includes orbits, nasal, oral,thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities.




Four fundamental tissues
Epithelial, Connective, Muscle, and Nerve tissues.




Epithelial tissue
A sheet of closely adhering cells. Covers the body surface, lines body
cavities. forms the external and internal linings of many organs, and
constitutes most gland tissue. Two types: Simple and Stratified.




Connective tissue
1. Connects, binds, protects and supports the body and its organs. 2. Is the
most abundant tissue in the body. 3. Found almost everywhere within the
body; bones, cartilage, mucous membranes, muscles, skin and all internal
organs.




Muscle Tissue
1. Is specialized to produce movement in response to nerve impulses 2.
There are three types smooth, skeletal, and cardiac.. 3. Classified according
to both structure (striated or smooth) and function (voluntary or
involuntary)




Nerve tissue
This tissue consists of nerve cells (neurons) and supporting cells called
neuroglia; controls and coordinates the activities of the body.




epithelial cells
Skin cells that cover the external body surface and line the internal surfaces
of the organs.




Types of muscle
3 types: skeletal, cardiac, smooth; each served by one nerve, an artery, and
one or more veins




parts of a cell
Cell membrane, cell wall, centriole, chloroplasts, chromatin, cytoplasm,
endoplasmic reticulum, flagella, golgi complex/apparatus, lysosome,
mitochondria, nucleolus, nucleus, ribosomes, vacuole




organelle
A differentiated structure within a cell, such as a mitochondrion, vacuole, or
chloroplast, that performs a specific function.




Nucleus
A cell structure that contains nucleic acids, the chemical instructions that
direct all the cell's activities.It also contains DNA and rNA




Ribosomes
Composed of protein and RNA molecules. Also provide enzymes as well as a
structural support for the RNA molecules that come together as the cell
synthesizes proteins from amino acids




layers of the epidermis
(deepest to most outermost)Stratum Basale, Startum spinosum, stratum
granulosum, stratum lucidum (absent in thin skin), and stratum corneum.




eccrine gland
Glands that produce sweat which cools through evaporation, found over
most of the body. are important physiologically. Are more numorous than
the apocrine glands and are found chiefly on the palms, soles, and forehead.




Apocrine gland
Sweat glands in the pubic and underarm areas that secrete thicker sweat,
that produce odor when come in contact with bacteria on the skin




sebaceous gland
located in the dermal layer of the skin over the entire body, expect for palm
of hands and soles of feet. Secrete oily substance called SEBUM. SEBUM
CONTAINS LIPIDS THAT HELP LUBRICATE THE SKIN & MINIMIZE WATER
LOSS. It is the overproduction of sebum during puberty that contributes to
acne in some people




hemopoiesis
the formation of blood cells in the living body (especially in the bone
marrow)




Types of bones
Long, Short, Flat, Irregular, Sesamoid(round)




long bones
A type of bone that is longer than it is wide. Shaft is called the diaphysis and
the ends are knows as epiphysis. Examples include the femur, humerus, and
phalanges.




axial skeleton
Consists of the bony and cartilaginous parts that support and protect the
organs of the head, neck, and trunk. 33 bones vertebral column, Bones of
the thorax, the sternum and the 12 pairs of ribs.




Bones of the skull
28 bones of the skull, Separated into 14 facial bones and 14 cranium bones.




Facial bones
2 Nasal Bones, 2 Maxillary Bones, 2 Zygomatic Bones, 1 Mandible (only
moveable bone of skull, 2 Palatine Bones, 1 Vomer, 2 Lacrimal Bones and 2
Inferior Nasal Conchae.




cranium bones
Single occipital, frontal,ethmoid and sphenoid and the paired parietal,
temporal and ossicles of the ear (malleus, incus and stapes)




synergists
A muscle that assists the prime mover (agonist) in performing it's action Ex .
Teres Major Muscles assisting th latissimus dorsi in moving the arm.




Flexors and extensors
Flexors- reduce the angle at the joint whereas extensors increase the angle




Abductors and adductors
Abductors-draw a limb away from the midline Adductors-return the limb
back toward the body




Nervous system
Composed of neurons (cell, axon, dendrite), central nervous system (brain,
spinal cord), peripheral nervous system (nerves of the body). Recieves,
interpretes and transmits impulses and responses. Responsible for sight,
smell, taste, touch, hearing (five senses), heart rate, breatiing, speech,
movement. 45 miles long.




Parts of neuron
Dendrites, cell body, nucleus, myelin sheath, axon, node of ranvier,
schwann's cell, axon terminal, and dendrites.




Dendrites and axons
Dendrites-transmit the impulse toward the cell body Axons-transmit the
impulse away from the body




CNS
Abbreviation for central nervous system, which is made up of the brain and
spinal cord.




PNS
All nervous tissue outside the CNS. Cranial nerves and their branches, spinal
nerves and their branches, ganglia, and sensory receptors. Subdivided into
SNS, ANS, and ENS.




Sensory (Afferent) Motor (efferent)
Sensory (afferent) neurons transmit neurons impluses toward the CNS.
Motor (efferent) neurons transmit neurons away from the CNS toward the
effector organs such as muscles glands and digestive organs




Parts of the brain
Cerebrum-movement and sensory input, cerebellum-responsible for
muscular coordination, medulla oblongata- controls many vital functions
such as respiration and heart rate




Spinal cord
31 pairs of spinal nerves: contain both sensory and motor fibers.




Endocrine System
Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth,
reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells, Assists the
Nervous system in homeostasis and plays important roles in growth and
sexual maturation. These two systems meet at the hypothalamus and
pituitary gland. Has more long lasting and widespread effects then the
Nervous system.




location of endocrine glands
Examples include pituitary gland at base of brain, pineal gland in brain,
thyroid and parathyroid glands near larynx (voice box), adrenal glands
superior to kidneys, pancreas near stomach, ovaries in pelvic cavity, testes
in scrotum, thymus in thoracic cavity.




steroid hormones
Diffuse directly through the cell membrane and bind to a receptor inside the
nucleus that triggers the cell's response.




nonsteroid hormones
Some are protein hormones. Many of which remain at the cell surface and
act through a second messenger usually a substance called adenosine
monophosphate (AMP). Most hormones affect the cell activity by altering the
rate of protein synthesis




Pituitary gland
Nicknamed the "master gland". Attached to the hypothalamus by the
infundibulum. The pituitary gland has two major portions the anterior lobe
and the posterior lobe. Releases tropic hormones from the
anterior/adenohypophysis such as STH/GH, ACTH, TSH, FSH, and LH as well
as oxytocin, and ADH from the posterior/neurohypophysis.




Thyroid
A two-lobed endocrine gland located in front of and on either side of the
trachea and producing various hormones, such as calcitonin




parathyroids
4 TINY GLANDS ATTACHED TO THE THYROID THAT FUNCTION TOGETHER,
RELEASE PARATHYROID HORMONE, REGULATES LEVEL OF CALCIUM IN THE
BLOOD WITH HELP OF CALCITONIN, PRODUCED BY THYROID




adrenals
Arouse body, regulate salt balance, adjust body to stress, regulate sexual
functioning; located on top of kidneys




pancreas
An organs in the abdominal cavity with two roles. The first is an exocrine
role: to produce digestive enzymes and bicarbonate, which are delivered to
the small intestine via the pancreatic duct. The second is an endocrine role:
to secrete insulin and glucagon into the bloodstream to help regulate blood
glucose levels.




gonads
Female and male sex glands. It's released from pituitary gland gonadotropic
hormone stimulation




STH
Somatotropin Hormone AKA Growth Hormone




ACTH
Adrenocorticotrophic hormone; stimulates adrenal cortex to syntesize and
secrete glucocorticoids; regulated by releasing hormone corticotrophin-
releasing factor (CRF).Fight or flight hormone




TSH
(Thyroid stimulating hormone) it stimulates normal development and
secretory activity of the thyroid gland., (thyroid stimulating hormone)
peptide hormone of the anterior pituitary that stimulates the thyroid to
release T3 and T4




FSH
A tropic hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland that targets the
gonads. In females, FSH stimulates the ovaries to develop follicles
(oogenesis) and secrete estrogen; in males, FSH stimulates
spermatogenesis.




LH
Luteinizing hormone, ovulation and egg release, maturation of egg, release
of testosterone in males.




oxytocin
A hormone released by the posterior pituitary that stimulates uterine
contractions during childbirth and milk ejection during breastfeeding.




Antidiuretic hormone ADH
Also called vasopressin, this hormone is produced in the hypothalamus and
secreted by the posterior pituitary gland. It targes the kidney tubules,
increasing their permeability to water, and thus increasing water retention
by the body. Also raises blood pressure by inducing moderate
vasoconstriction.




Blood componets
55% is made up of plasma which is 92% water.45% is red blood
cells(erythrocytes), White blood cells (Leukocytes),Platelets(thrombocytes)




erythrocytes/red blood cells
Picks up oxygen in the capillary beds of the lungs and releases it to tissue
cells across other capillaries throughout the body. Transports 20% of carbon
dioxide released by tissue cells back to the lungs. These do not consume
oxygen when transporting.




thrombocytes/platelets
(platelets) primary function is to aid in coagulation, the body's major method
of preventing excessive loss of blood when the vessel walls are broken or cut
open.




blood pathway through heart
Deoxygenated blood enters R atrium through superior vena cava and inferior
vena cava; then the deoygenated blood drains into the R ventricle through
the R AV valve; as the ventricle contracts, it forces the deoxygenated blood
through the pulmonary artery carries the blood that is very low in oxygen to
the lungs, where it becomes oxygenated




valves of the heart
tricuspid valve, pulmonary semilunar valve, bicuspid or mitral valve, aortic
semilunar valve




systole
(contracting) ventricular contraction/depolarization causes the blood to be
pushed up against the atria, semilunar valves open and the AV valves close




Diastole
'Filling Phase', atria and ventricles all relax, blood from atria flows to
ventricles, and from major veins into atria.




External respiration
Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the air in the lungs and the
blood in the pulmonary capillaries




inhalation
An active process in which the intercostal muscles and the diaphragm
contract, expanding the size of the chest cavity and causing air to flow into
the lungs.




exhalation
(expiration) Air flows out of lungs, occurs when alveolar pressure is grater
then atmospheric pressure. Size of thoracic cavity decreases. Thoracic cavity
& lungs decrease in volume. Air flows out of lungs until alveolar pressure =
atmospheric pressure




hemoglobin
A four-subunit protein found in red blood cells that binds oxygen. Each
subunit contains a heme group, a large multi-ring molecule with an iron
atom at its center. One hemoglobin molecule can bind four oxygen
molecules in a cooperative manner.




nephrons
Filter waste and water from urea allowing nutrients to be reabsorbed into
blood. Waste travels through urea allowing nutrients to be reabsorbed into
blood. Waste travels through ureter and bladder into urine.
Conversions 4/16/2014 7:27:00 PM
0 Degrees Celsius = ____ Degrees Fahrenheit
32




100 Degrees Celsius = ____ Degrees Fahrenheit
212




1 kilometer = ____ meters
1000




1 meter = ____ centimeters
100




1 inch = ____ centimeters
2.54




1 mile = ____ feet
5280




1 mile = ____ yards
1760




1 yard = ____ feet
3




1 foot = ____ inches
12




1 liter = ____ milliliters
1000




1 milliliter = ____ cubic centimeter
1




1 gallon = ____ quarts
4




1 gallon = ____ ounces
128




1 quart = ____ pints
2




1 pint = ____ cups
2




1 cup = ____ ounces
8




1 ounce = ____ milliliters
30




1 kilogram = ____ grams
1000




1 gram = ____ milligrams
1000




1 ton = ____ pounds
2000




1 pound = ____ ounces
16




1 pound = ____ kilograms
2.2




Roman Numeral I = ____
1




Roman Numeral V = ____
5




Roman Numeral X = ____
10




Roman Numeral L = ____
50




Roman Numeral C = ____
100




Roman Numeral D = ____
500




Roman Numeral M = ____
1000




What is the decimal equation to convert Celsius to Fahrenheit?
F = (C*1.8)+32




What is the decimal equation to convert Fahrenheit to Celsius?
C = F-32/1.8




1 quart = ____ ounces
32




1 pint = ____ ounces
16


I
Roman Numeral 1




II
Roman Numeral 2




III
Roman Numeral 3




IV
Roman Numeral 4




V
Roman Numeral 5




VI
Roman Numeral 6




VII
Roman Numeral 7




VIII
Roman Numeral 8




IX
Roman Numeral 9




X
Roman Numeral 10




XI
Roman Numeral 11




XX
Roman Numeral 20




XXX
Roman Numeral 30




XL
Roman Numeral 40




L
Roman Numeral 50




LX
Roman Numeral 60




LXX
Roman Numeral 70




LXXX
Roman Numeral 80




XC
Roman Numeral 90




C
Roman Numeral 100




D
Roman Numeral 500




M
Roman Numeral 1,000




V with a line
Roman Numeral 5,000




X with a line
Roman Numeral 10,000




L with a line
Roman Numeral 50,000




C with a line
100,000




D with a line
500,000




M with a line
1,000,000




32
0 degree celsius = ______ fahrenheit




212
100 degree celsius = ______ fahrenheit




1000
1 kilometer = ______ meters




100
1 meter = ______ centimeters




10
1 centimeter = ______ millimeters




1760
1 mile = ______ yards




5280
1 mile = ______ feet




3
1 yard = ______ feet




12
1 foot = ______ inches




1000
1 liter = ______ milliliters




Cubic Centimeter
1 milliliter = 1 ___________




4
1 gallon = ______ quarts




128
1 gallon = ______ ounces




2
1 quart = ______ pints




2
1 pint = ______ cups




8
1 cup = ______ ounces




30
1 ounce = ______ milliliters




1000
1 kilogram = ______ grams




1000
1 gram = ______ milligrams




2000
1 ton = ______ pounds




16
1 pound = ______ ounces




(1.8)(X)+32
Celsius ------> Fahrenheit




(X-32)/1.8
Fahrenheit ------> Celsius




2.54
1 inch = ______ centimeters




2.2
1 kilogram = ______ pounds




10
The metric system is based on what multiplication factor?




1
2 tbsp = _______ ounce

VOCABULARY 4/16/2014 7:27:00 PM
Abrupt
Sudden




Abstain
To voluntarily refrain from something




Access
A means to obtain entry or a means of approach




Accountable
Responsible




Adhere
To hold fast or stick together




Adverse
Undesired, possibly harmful




Affect
Appearance of observable emotions




Annual
Occurring every year




Apply
To place, put on, or spread something




Audible
Able to be heard




Bilateral
Present on two sides




Cardiac
Of or relating to the heart




Cast
Hard protective device applied to protect a broken bone while the bone heals




Cavity
An opening or an empty area




Cease
Come to an end or bring to an end




Compensatory
Offsetting or making up for something




Complication
An undesired problem that is the result of some other event




Comply
Do as directed




Concave
Rounded inward




Concise
Brief, to the point




Consistency
Degree of viscosity; how thick or thin a fluid is




Constrict
To draw together or become smaller




Contingent
Dependent




Contour
Shape or outline of a shape




Contract
To draw together, to reduce in size




Contraindication
A reason why something is not advisable or why it should not be done




Defecate
Expel feces




Deficit
A deficiency or lack of something




Depress
Press downward




Depth
Downward measurement from a surface




Deteriorating
Worsening




Device
Tool or piece of equipment




Diagnosis
Identification of an injury or disease




Diameter
The distance across the center of an object




Dilate
To enlarge or expand




Dilute
To make a liquid less concentrated




Discrete
Distinct, separate




Distended
Enlarged or expanded from pressure




Dysfunction
Impaired or abnormal functioning




Elevate
To lift up or place in a higher position




Endogenous
Produced within the body




Exacerbate
To make worse or more severe




Excess
More than what is needed or usual




Exogenous
Produced outside the body




Expand
To increase in size or amount




Exposure
Contact




External
Located outside the body




Fatal
Resulting in death




Fatigue
Extreme tiredness, exhaustion




Flaccid
Limp, lacking tone




Flushed
Reddened or ruddy appearance




Gaping
Wide open




Gastrointestinal
Of or relating to the stomach and the intestines




Gender
Sex of an individual, as in male or female




Hematologic
Of or relating to blood




Hydration
Maintenance of body fluid balance




Hygiene
Measures contributing to cleanliness and good health




Impaired
Diminished or lacking some usual quality or level




Impending
Likely to occur soon




Incidence
Occurrence




Infection
Contamination or invasion of body tissue by pathogenic organisms




Inflamed
Reddened, swollen, warm, and often tender




Ingest
To swallow for digestion




Initiate
To begin or put into practice




Insidious
So gradual as to not become apparent for a long time




Intact
In place, unharmed




Internal
Located within the body




Invasive
Inserting or entering into a body part




Labile
Changing rapidly and often




Laceration
Cut; tear




Latent
Present but not active or visible




Lethargic
Difficult to arouse




Manifestation
An indication or sign of a condition




Musculoskeletal
Of or relating to muscle and skeleton




Neurologic
Of or relating to the nervous system




Neurovascular
Of or relating to the nervous system and blood vessels




Nutrient
Substance or ingredient that provides nourishment




Occluded
Closed or obstructed




Ominous
Significantly important and dangerous




Ongoing
Continuous




Oral
Given through or affecting the mouth




Overt
Obvious, easily observed




Parameter
A characteristic or constant factor, limit




Paroxysmal
Beginning suddenly or abruptly; convulsive




Patent
Open




Pathogenic
Causing or able to cause disease




Pathology
Processes, causes, and effects of a disease; abnormality




Posterior
Located behind; in the back




Potent
Producing a strong effect




Potential
Capable of occurring or likely to occur




Precaution
Preventive measure




Precipitous
Rapid, uncontrolled




Predispose
To make more susceptible or more likely to occur




Preexisting
Already present




Primary
First or most significant




Priority
Of great importance




Prognosis
The anticipated or expected course or outcome




Rationale
The underlying reason




Recur
To occur again




Renal
Of or relating to the kidneys




Respiration
Inhalation and exhalation of air




Restrict
To limit




Retain
To hold or keep




Site
Location




Status
Condition




Strict
Stringent, exact, complete




Sublingual
Under the tongue




Supplement
To take in addition to or to complete




Suppress
To stop or subdue




Symmetric (symmetrical)
Being equal or the same in size, shape, and relative position




Symptom
An indication of a problem




Syndrome
Group of symptoms that, when occurring together, reflect a specific disease
or disorder




Therapeutic
Of or relating to the treatment of a disease or a disorder




Transdermal
Crossing through the skin




Transmission
Transfer, such as of a disease, from one person to another




Trauma
Injury, wound




Triage
Process used to determine the priority of treatment for patients according to
the severity of a patient's condition and likelihood of benefit from the
treatment




Untoward
Adverse or negative




Urinate
Excrete or expel urine




Vascular
Of or relating to blood vessels




Verbal
Spoken, using words




Virus
Microscopic infectious agent capable of replicating only in living cells, usually
causing infectious disease




Vital
Essential




Void
Excrete, or expel urine




Volume
Amount of space occupied by a fluid



Aide
Someone who assists




Aid
the work of caring for or attending to someone or something




Among
Use to show a relationship involving more than two persons or things. (ex.
The professor will distribute the textbooks _________ the students.)




Between
refers to two people or things





Breach
to break an agreement





Breech birth
Baby is delivered feet or buttocks first.




convulsion
to pull together; type of seizure that causes a series of sudden, involuntary
contractions of muscles, SPASM




distal
Part of the body farther from the injury




expectorate
Cough or spit out phlegm from the throat or lungs




febrile
pertaining to fever




Degenerate
to deteriorate or decline having lost normal/ desirable qualities




ilium
lateral portion of the hip bone




implement
case to happen




indolent
wanting to avoid activity or exertion LAZY




Laid
to place, past tense of lay




Lain
the manner, relative position or direction in which something lies, past tense
of lies




lay
to place something somewhere




Lysis
The gradual recession of a disease




metabolism
processing reaction, organic functing or operating




milieu
a person social environment





GRAMMAR 4/16/2014 7:27:00 PM

Context Clues
The information provided in the words or sentences surrounding the
unknown word or words.




Synonym
A word that means the same thing as another word.




Antonym
A word that means the opposite of another word.




Connotation
The emotions or feelings that the reader attaches to words.




Tone
The attitude or feelings the author has about the topic.




Assumption
A set of beliefs the writer has about a subject.




Inference
An educated guess or conclusion drawn by the reader based on the available
facts and information.




Adjective
A word, phrase, or clause that modifies a noun (the biology book) or
pronoun (he is nice).




Adverb
A word, phrase, or clause that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another
adverb.




Clause
A group of words that has a subject and a predicate.




Independent Clause
A clause that expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a
sentence.




Dependent Clause
A dependent clause begins with a subordinating conjunction and does not
express a complete thought and therefore cannot stand alone as a sentence.




Clich
Expressions or ideas that have lost their originality or impact over time
because of excessive use.




Compound Sentence
A sentence that has two or more independent clauses. Each independent
clause has a subject and a predicate and can stand alone as a sentence.




Conjunction
A word that joins words, phrases, or clauses.




Direct Object
The person or thing that is directly affected by the action of the verb.




Euphemism
A mild, indirect, or vague term that has been substituted for one that is
considered harsh, blunt, or offensive.




Indirect Object
The person or thing that is indirectly affected by the action of the verb.




Interjection
A word or phrase that expresses emotion or exclamation.




Misplaced Modifier
A word or group of words that are not located properly in relation to the
words they modify.




Noun
A word or group of words that names a person, place, thing, or idea.




Common Noun
The general, not the particular name, of a person, place, or thing (e.g.,
nurse, hospital, syringe).




Proper Noun
The official name of a person, place, or thing (e.g., Fred, Paris, Washington
University). Proper nouns are capitalized.




Abstract Noun
The name of a quality or general idea. (e.g., persistence, democracy)




Collective Noun
A noun that represents a group of persons, animals, or things (e.g., family,
flock, furniture).




Participial Phrase
A phrase that is formed by a participle, it's object, and the object's
modifiers; the phrase functions as an adjective.




Participle
A type of verb that functions as an adjective.




Phrase
A group of two or more words that act as a single part of speech in a
sentence.




Predicate
That part of the sentence that tells what the subject does or what is done to
the subject.




Predicate Adjective
An adjective that follows a linking verb and helps to explain the subject.




Predicate Nominative
A noun or pronoun that follows a linking verb and helps to explain or rename
the subject.




Preposition
A word that shows the relationship of the noun or pronoun to some other
word in the sentence.




Personal Pronoun
A pronoun that refers to a specific person, place, thing, or idea by indicating
the person speaking (first person), the person or people being spoken to
(second person), or any other person, place, thing, or idea being talked
about (third person).




Possessive Pronoun
A form of personal pronoun that shows possession or ownership.




Sentence
A group of words that expresses a complete thought.




Run-On Sentence
Two or more complete sentences written as though they were one sentence.




Declarative Sentence
A sentence that makes a statement.




Interrogative Sentence
A sentence that asks a question.




Imperative Sentence
A sentence that makes a command or request.




Exclamatory Sentence
A sentence that expresses strong feelings or makes and exclamation.




Sentence Fragment
Incomplete sentence.




Sexist Langauge
Spoken or written styles that do not satisfactorily reflect the presence of
women in our society.




Subject
A word, phrase, or clause that names whom or what the sentence is about.




Verb
A word or phrase that is used to express an action or a state of being.




Pronoun
A word that takes the place of a noun, another pronoun, or a group of words
acting as a noun.




Antecedent
The word or group of words to which a pronoun refers.