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THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Name the main vessels in the circulatory system.
Blood carried by a number oI blood vessels:
Arteries
Arterioles
Capillaries
Venules
Veins
Systemic circulation is the blood Ilow through the body.
Blood is carrying O
2
and nutrients Ior the body, so arteries are carrying
oxygenated blood, O
2
concentration decreases across capillaries, and veins
carry deoxygenated blood to the heart.
In the pulmonary circulation, blood Ilow is Irom the right side oI heart to the
lungs and back again.
Upon leaving the heart, blood has high CO
2
levels, so arteries are carrying
deoxygenated blood, lung capillaries remove CO
2
and add O
2
, and
pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood back to the leIt side oI the heart.
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Compare arteries, capillaries and veins, and relate their structure to their
function.
Cross
section
Lumen size
Wall
thickness
Elastic
layer
Valves Function
Artery
Usually
round
Small
relative to
thickness oI
wall
Thick
muscular
wall
Present
(Internal
and
external)
Present
Carry blood away
Irom the heart
Vein
Usually
oval
Large
relative to
thickness oI
wall
Thin wall Absent Present
Carry blood back
to the heart
Capillary
Usually
round
~7.5m
diameter
Wall one
cell thick
Present Present
Site oI exchange
oI substances
between the
blood and the
cells (gases,
nutrients, wastes)
Describe how the specialised circulation of the liver relates to its function.
Dissect and describe the structure of the mammalian heart, name the blood
vessels entering and leaving the heart and trace the pathway of blood through
the heart.
Measure pulse.
Discuss the functions of the cardiovascular system.
Supply oI material to body tissues
nutrients
oxygen
hormones
Removal oI waste products oI metabolism
ammonia and urea Irom protein
metabolism
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toxins
carbon dioxide
Explain how blood flows through arteries and veins.
The elastic recoil oI arteries allows the blood to move through them.
elastic walls stretch during systole to accommodate blood, then recoil
during diastole to maintain pressure and keep blood moving
Veins
pumping eIIect oI heart is lost by the time blood reaches veins
pressure is low; even can be negative.
backIlow prevented by series oI valves.
blood moves through due to massaging eIIect oI skeletal muscle (i.e.
contraction and relaxation which push blood along.
Describe the mechanism of capillary exchange.
Form a network between arterial and venous circulations
Site oI exchange between blood and tissues
About 1mm (0.5-1mm) long and the width oI a red blood cell
Some so Iine that RBCs have to
distort to get through.
The capillary wall is like a Iilter (i.e. semi-
permeable membrane) allowing diIIerent
molecules to pass across.
Flow through capillaries needs to be slow to
enable good exchange oI molecules
Achieved through the large cross
sectional area oI capillaries into
which the arterioles Ieed.
Sphincters can contract blood vessel.
Nutrients and waste move across in opposite
directions by diIIusion.
Follow a concentration gradient moving Irom region oI higher
concentration to region oI lower concentration
e.g. as glucose is taken up by metabolising cells, concentration in
tissue Iluid decreases and more glucose passes in Irom the blood.
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Water moves in and out oI capillaries under two inIluences:
Pressure gradient - blood pressure is higher in capillary than pressure in
tissues so hydrostatic Iorces drive water out
Osmotic gradient - water moves along concentration gradient to region oI
highest osmotic pressure
Understand how the pressure of the blood changes as the blood flows through
the cardiovascular system.
Blood pressure: The pressure exerted by the blood against the walls oI the
arteries, maintained by the contraction oI the leIt ventricle, the resistance oI the
arterioles and capillaries, the elasticity oI the arterial walls, and by the viscosity
and volume oI the blood. (Source: Stedman's Medical Dictionary)
BP is measured in arteries (mean arterial pressure MAP) where it cycles with the
contraction oI the heart
'normal adult BP 120/80 (systolic
pressue/diastolic pressure)
Blood pressure is a hydrostatic pressure that is a
Iunction oI blood Ilow and vascular pressure:
MAP Cardiac Output x Peripheral Resistance
and since
Cardiac Output Heat Rate x Stroke Volume
then
MAP Heart Rate x Stroke Volume x Peripheral
Resistance
http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/~uzwiak/AnatPhys/BloodVessels.html
Explain how the heart functions.
Understand some of the homeostatic mechanisms that control blood pressure.
Body can maintain blood pressure through changes in peripheral resistance and
changes in blood volume.
Controlled by nerves (vasomotor center in medulla oblongata) and
hormones.
The Baroreceptor Reflex is one way blood pressure is controlled.
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Baroreceptors: sensory centers in blood vessel walls, which respond to
changes in blood pressure
They detect stretch in large arteries (i.e. BP) and send a message to
vasomotor and cardioregulatory centers
Changes in peripheral resistance achieved by the vasomotor center
(relating to the nerves and muscles that cause the blood vessels to constrict
or dilate):
increasing sympathetic (i.e. nervous) stimulation oI blood vessels,
causing vasoconstriction and increased BP
decreasing sympathetic stimulation oI blood vessels, causing
vasodilation and decreased BP
Hormonal Mechanisms:
FALL IN MAP
Epinephrine (Adrenaline) released by adrenal medulla in response
to a Iall in MAP
Renin released by kidney (have a huge bed oI capillaries)
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) released by the pituitary gland in the
hypothalamus
acts on kidneys, reduces blood vol.; increases urine Ilow
INCREASE IN MAP
Atrial natriuretic hormone released Irom specialised cells in the
right atrium
Describe the composition and functions of blood.
The main constituents oI blood are plasma, red blood cells (erythrocytes), white
blood cells (leukocytes) and platelets (thrombocytes).
The process oI blood cell Iormation is called hematopoiesis.
ConIined to the red bone marrow aIter birth.
There are basically 7 functions oI blood:
1. Transport oI gases, nutrients and waste products
2. Transport oI processed molecules
3. Transport oI regulatory products
4. Regulation oI pH and osmosis
5. Maintenance oI body temperature
6. Protection against Ioreign substances
7. Clot Iormation
Describe the composition of plasma.
Plasma is composed oI water, plasma proteins, salts, nutrients, wastes and
dissolved gases,
91 water, 7 proteins and 2 other.
Plasma Component Functions and Examples
Water Acts as a solvent and suspending medium Ior blood
components
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Proteins Maintain osmotic pressure (albumins), destroy Ioreign
substances (antibodies and complement), transport molecules
(globulins) and Iorm clots (Iibrinogen).
Ions/Salts Involved in osmotic pressure (Na

and Cl
-
), membrane
potentials (Na

and K

) and acid-base balance (H, OH, HCO

3
)
Nutrients Source oI energy and 'building blocks oI more complex
molecules (glucose, amino acid, triglyceride).
Waste products Breakdown products oI protein metabolism (urea and ammonia
salts), erythrocytes (bilirubin) and anaerobic respiration (lactic
acid)
Gases Involved in aerobic respiration (oxygen and carbon dioxide).
Regulatory substances Catalyse chemical reactions (enzymes) and stimulate or inhibit
many body Iunctions (hormones).
Discuss homeostasis of the formed elements of blood.
Formed elements are the cells and cell Iragments oI the blood.
Haematocrit is the term used to describe the percentage oI blood made up
oI red blood cells.
All Iormed elements arise Irom a single population oI cells called stem cells.
Homeostasis:
About 2.5 million red blood cells are destroyed every second. Fortunately,
new red blood cells are produced just as rapidly.
Red blood cell production is stimulated by low blood oxygen levels.
Erythropoietin (EPO) is a hormone released by the kidneys in response
to reduced/lowered oxygen carrying in blood. It stimulates erythrocyte
production by red bone marrow.
Some athletes seek to increase their perIormance by injecting
themselves with erythropoietin in an attempt to increase the
oxygen carrying capacity oI the circulatory system thus enabling
muscles to work aerobically under higher loads and/or Ior longer
duration. UnIortunately, this practice can be dangerous as
increasing red blood cell numbers increases the viscosity/thickness
oI blood and thereIore increases the risk oI vessel
occlusion/blockage.
Substances Irom the breakdown oI haemoglobin in RBCs are reused:
Globin broken down into amino acids that are reused to make more
proteins.
Heme converted to bilirubin, a yellow pigment molecule.
Bilirubin taken up by liver and released into small intestine
as part oI bile.
Substances derived Irom bilirubin in the small intestine
give Iaeces and urine their respective colours.
Explain how anaemia may occur.
Anaemia blood disease in which red blood cell count is low
Results Irom a number oI causes
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decrease in haemoglobin content oI RBCs
e.g. 'Aplastic anaemia is bone marrow damage due to
disease, some drugs, radiation, toxic chemicals
e.g. 'Pernicious anaemia
normally stomach produces intrinsic Iactor that
combines with vit. B12 so it can be absorbed
not enough intrinsic Iactor --- inability to absorb
enough vit. B12, so Iewer RBCs
can be treated by injecting vitamin B12
decrease in RBC numbers i.e. haemoglobin content
depleted iron stores - called 'iron deIiciency anaemia
usually nutritional
Iemales need double the amount oI iron in the diet
poor iron absorption, or repeated blood losses as in
heavy menstrual Ilow
production oI abnormal RBCs
e.g.'Sickle cell anaemia
deIective haemoglobin molecule due to a gene
mutation
RBCs distort aIter O
2
is released, are Iragile and
have a reduced liIespan
The heart rate increases and there is a lack oI energy and Iatigue as a result
oI the decreased oxygen transport.
Understand the mechanisms of clotting.
Clot Iormation is a complex process involving many chemical reactions but it can
be summarised into 3 main stages:
Stage 1: The chemical reactions are started.
Can be started by inactive clotting Iactors coming into contact with
exposed connective tissue resulting in them being activated.
Or, started by the release oI chemicals (e.g. thomboplastin) which
can activate the clotting Iactors.
AIter initial clotting Iactors are activated they activate more
clotting Iactors in a series oI reactions until the clotting Iact
prothrombinase is Iormed.
Stage 2: Prothrombinase acts on the inactive clotting Iactor prothrombin
to convert it to its active Iorm called thrombin
Occurs in the presence oI Ca
2
ions, Vit K also needed.
Stage 3: Thrombin is an enzyme that converts the inactive clotting Iactor
fibrinogen into its active Iorm fibrin.
Fibrin is a threadlike protein which Iorms a network oI threads
trapping blood cells and platelets thus Iorming a clot.
Without control, clotting would spread Irom the point oI initiation throughout the
circulatory system.
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Blood has several anticoagulants which prevent clotting Iactors Irom
Iorming clots.
e.g. Antithrombin and heparin inactivate thrombin.
Fibrinolysis is the process oI clot dissolution or breakdown.
The inactive plasminogen plasma protein is converted to its active Iorm
called plasmin.
This conversion is stimulated by thrombin and other clotting
Iactors activated during clot Iormation.
Plasmin slowly breaks down Iibrin over a Iew days.
Blood groups.
SurIaces oI red cells have molecules called antigens
Plasma has proteins called antibodies
Antibodies are speciIic and bind with certain antigens
When antibodies bind with red cell antigens they Iorm bridges joining red cells
and Iorming an agglutination or clumping oI red cells
Antibodies react with Ioreign antigens, but each person tolerates their own
antigens
SpeciIic blood type antigens (agglutinogens) are Iound in the cell membrane oI
RBCs
Determine the individual blood groups
Many blood group systems
ABO and Rh are most commonly used to categorize human group blood
ABO blood group is determined by the presence or absence oI antigens A and B
on RBCs
Blood group A person has A
antigens
Blood group B person has B
antigens
AB has both
Blood group O has neither
Blood group O is the
most common; AB is
the rarest
Plasma antibodies (agglutinins) called
anti-A and anti-B recognise (and stick to) A and B antigens on RBCs
ABO antibodies are naturally
occurring
Responsible Ior RBC agglutination in
mismatched blood transIusions