Envi Final Louise

1.) Differentiate sound from noise.
Sound is the movement of energy through substances in longitudinal (compression/rarefaction)

waves.
Sound is produced when a force causes an object or substance to vibrate the energy is
transferred through the substance in a wave. Typically, the energy in sound is far less than other
forms of energy.

Noise means any unwanted sound. Noise is not necessarily random. Sounds, particularly loud
ones, that disturb people or make it difficult to hear wanted sounds, are noise. For example,
conversations of other people may be called noise by people not involved in any of them; any
unwanted sound such as domesticated dogs barking, neighbours playing loud music, portable
mechanical saws, road traffic sounds, or a distant aircraft in quiet countryside, is called noise.

How can we apply noise strategy to a specific situation?

Noise control or noise mitigation is a set of strategies to reduce noise pollution or to reduce the
impact of that noise, whether outdoors or indoors. The main areas of noise mitigation or
abatement are: transportation noise control, architectural design, urban
planning through zoning codes, and occupational noise control. Roadway noise and aircraft
noise are the most pervasive sources of environmental noise worldwide, and little change has
been effected in source control in these areas since the start of the problem, a possible
exception being the development of hybrid and electric vehicles. Social activities may generate
noise levels that consistently affect the health of populations residing in or occupying areas,
both indoor and outdoor, near entertainment venues that feature amplified sounds and music
that present significant challenges for effective noise mitigation strategies.

How do we solve problems about noise?

Noise pollution is annoying, disruptive to your emotional state, and sometimes even bad for
your health. Noise pollution can also affect animals and the environment. The effects can be
auditory and non- auditory. The auditory effect may be fatigue and deafness, while the non-
auditory effect may be physiological and psychological changes in human beings. Preventing
these can do a lot to help your mental and physical condition.

Understand what causes noise pollution. As the world becomes more advanced, noise
increases. The most common form of noise pollution now is from transportation, mainly cars,
motorbikes, and aircraft.

You can avoid noise pollution yourself. Do these tips:
Do not use car horns unnecessarily. Areas like hospitals and campuses are silence zones
and honking is prohibited there.

Avoid loud music, which hurts your ears and others' ears.

Firecrackers are extremely loud, so don't try and burn them unnecessarily.

Motors, machines and vehicles also produce loud noises when not maintained properly.
Proper maintenance should be carried out for better performance.

If you are working in an area where there are loud noises, you must wear earplugs to
prevent loss of hearing.

When going to theme parks and such, avoid riding on the rides which produce a lot of
noise. One example is the ATV, which is like a huge motorbike.

Turn off the engine of your car or motorbike when you are not using it. It stops the
annoying hum, and reduces air pollution!

Better off, walk or cycle to school! It does wonders to the environment, reduces the
amount of air pollution and noise, and makes you fit!

2.) What is the content of Clean Air Act, Clean Water Act, Ecological Solid Waste Management Act
and Plastic Pollution Control Act?
Philippine Clean Air Act
Republic Act No. 8749

It is a comprehensive air quality management policy and program, which aims to achieve and maintain
healthy air for Filipinos. Its guiding principles are the following:
1.Protect and advance the right of the people to a balance and healthful ecology in accord with the
rhythm and harmony of nature;
2.Promote and protect the global environment while recognizing the primary responsibility of LOCAL
GOVERNMENT UNITS to deal with environmental problems;
3.Recognize that the responsibility of cleaning the habitat and environment is primarily are-based;
4.Recognize that a clean and healthy environment is for the good of all and should therefore be the
concern of all.

THIS ACT PROVIDES MANAGEMENT OF QUALITY AIR THROUGH:

Designation of air sheds based on climate,weather,meteorology and topology which affect the mixture
and the diffusion of pollutants in the air,share common interests or face similar development problems.
These air sheds are to be managed by the MULTI-SECTORALGOVERNING BOARDS Chaired by the
Secretary of the DENR with representatives from the LOCAL GOVERNMENTS concerned, the private
sector,peoples organization,NGOs and concerned government agencies.

CLEAN AIR ACT COVERS THE FOLLOWING:
1.All potential sources of air pollution ( mobile,point & are sources) must comply with the provision
of the law. All emissions must be within the air quality standards.
2. Mobile sources refer to vehicles Like CARS, TRUCKS, BUSES, JEEPNEYS, MOTORCYCLES, TRICYCLES
and VANS.
3.Point sources refer to stationary sources such as industrial firms and the smokestacks of power
pants,hotels and other establishments.
4.Area sources refer to sources of emissions other than above. This include SMOKING, burning of
garbage and dust from construction,unpaved grounds , etc.

NOTE: ALSO THAT SMOKING IS BANNED BEGINNING MAY 25,2001 , IN ANY OF THESE FOLLOWING
LOCATIONS:
1. Inside a public building
2.Enclosed public places including public vehicles and other means of transport.
3.In any enclosed area outside of one's private residence , private place of work or any duly
designated area which will be enclosed.

THE LOCAL GOVERNMENT UNITS ARE MANDATED TO IMPLEMENT THIS PROVISION OF THE LAW.
PENALTY TO VIOLATION OF THIS PROVISION OS SIX (6) MONTHS AND ONE (1) DAY TO ONE (1) YEAR OF
IMPRISONMENT OR A FINE OF Php 10,000.00

Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004
(Republic Act No. 9275)
The Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004 (Republic Act No. 9275) aims to protect the countrys water
bodies from pollution from land-based sources (industries and commercial establishments, agriculture
and community/household activities). It provides for a comprehensive and integrated strategy to
prevent and minimize pollution through a multi-sectoral and participatory approach involving all the
stakeholders.
How will water quality be managed?
Management of water quality will either be based on watershed, river basin or water resources region.
Water quality management areas with similar hydrological, hydrogeological, meteorological or
geographic conditions which affect the reaction and diffusion of pollutants in water bodies are to be
designated by the DENR in coordination with the National Water Resources Board (NWRB).
How will discharges of wastewater be controlled?
All owners or operators of facilities that discharge wastewater are required to get a permit to discharge
from the DENR or the Laguna Lake Development Authority. Existing industries without any permit are
given 12 months from the effectivity of the implementing rules and regulations (IRR) promulgated
pursuant to this Act to secure a permit to discharge.
How will domestic wastewater be addressed?
The Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH), in coordination with local government units will
prepare a national program on sewage and septage management not later than 12 months from
effectivity of this Act. A priority list will likewise be prepared which will be the basis for the allotment of
funds on an annual basis by the national government for the construction and rehabilitation of required
facilities.
On the other hand, LGUs are to provide the land including road right of the way for the construction of
sewage and/or septage treatment facilities and raise funds for the operations and maintenance of said
facilities.
The Department of Health (DOH) will formulate guidelines and standards for the collection, treatment
and disposal of sewage as well as the guidelines for the establishment and operation of centralized
sewage treatment system. The MWSS and other agencies mandated to provide water supply and
sewerage facilities are required to connect existing sewage lines, subject to the payment of sewerage
service charges/fees within five years following effectivity of this Act.
All sources of sewage and septage are required to comply with the law.
How will the discharge of wastewater be discouraged?
Anyone discharging wastewater into a water body will have to pay a wastewater charge. This economic
instrument which will be developed in consultation with all concerned stakeholders is expected to
encourage investments in cleaner production and pollution control technologies to reduce the amount
of pollutants generated and discharged.
Effluent trading per management area will also be allowed.
Rewards will also be given to those whose wastewater discharge is better than the water quality criteria
of the receiving body of water. Fiscal and non-fiscal incentives will also be given to LGUs, water districts,
enterprise, private entities and individuals who develop and undertake outstanding and innovative
projects in water quality management.
What safeguards are provided for?
All possible dischargers are required to put up an environmental guarantee fund (EGF) as part of their
environmental management plan. The EGF will finance the conservation of watersheds and aquifers,
and the needs of emergency response, clean up or rehabilitation.
What are the prohibited acts under R.A. 9275?
Among others, the Act prohibits the following:
Discharging or depositing any water pollutant to the water body, or such which will impede
natural flow in the water body
Discharging, injecting or allowing to enter into the soil, anything that would pollute groundwater
Operating facilities that discharge regulated water pollutants without the valid required permits
Disposal of potentially infectious medical waste into sea by vessels
Unauthorized transport or dumping into waters of sewage sludge or solid waste.
Transport, dumping or discharge of prohibited chemicals, substances or pollutants listed under
Toxic Chemicals, Hazardous and Nuclear
Wastes Control Act (Republic.Act No. 6969)
Discharging regulated water pollutants without the valid required discharge permit pursuant to
this Act
Noncompliance of the LGU with the Water Quality Framework and Management Area Action Plan
Refusal to allow entry, inspection and monitoring as well as access to reports and records by the
DENR in accordance with this Act
Refusal or failure to submit reports and/or designate pollution control officers whenever required
by the DENR in accordance with this Act
Directly using booster pumps in the distribution system or tampering with the water supply in such
a way to alter or impair the water quality
Operate facilities that discharge or allow to seep, willfully or through grave negligence, prohibited
chemicals, substances, or pollutantslisted under R.A. No. 6969, into water bodies.
Undertake activities or development and expansion of projects, or operating wastewater
treatment/sewerage facilities in violation of P.D.1586 and its IRR.
What are the fines and penalties imposed on polluters?
The following are among the fines and penalties for violators of this Act and its IRR:
Upon the recommendation of the Pollution Adjudication Board (PAB), anyone who commits prohibited
acts such as discharging untreated wastewater into any water body will be fined for every day of
violation, the amount of not less than Php 10,000 but not more than Php 200,000.
Failure to undertake clean-up operations willfully shall be punished by imprisonment of not less than
two years and not more than four years. This also includes a fine of not less than Php 50,000 and not
more than Php 100,000 per day of violation. Failure or refusal to clean up which results in serious injury
or loss of life or lead to irreversible water contamination of surface, ground, coastal and marine water
shall be punished with imprisonment of not less than 6 years and 1 day and not more than 12 years and
a fine of Php 500,000/day for each day the contamination or omission continues.
In cases of gross violation, a fine of not less than Php 500,000 but not more than Php 3,000,000 will be
imposed for each day of violation. Criminal charges may also be filed.
Who should implement the Clean Water Act?
The DENR is the primary government agency responsible for the implementation and enforcement of
this Act, with the support of other government organizations, local government units, non -government
organizations and the private sector.
Towards this end, the DENR will review and set affluent standards, review and enforce water quality
guidelines, classify groundwater sources and prepare a national groundwater vulnerability map, classify
or reclassify water bodies, establish internationally accepted procedures for sampling and analysis,
prepare an integrated water quality management framework and subsequently prepare 10-year
management plans for each water management area.

Philippine Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000
REPUBLIC ACT NO. 9003

REPUBLIC ACT NO. 9003 or the Philippine Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000 provides the
legal framework for the countrys systematic, comprehensive, and ecological solid waste management
program that shall ensure protection of public health and the environment. It emphasizes the need to
create the necessary mechanisms and incentives to pursue an effective solid waste management at the
local government levels.

What are the important features of the Solid Waste Management Act?

a. Creation of the National Solid Waste Management Commission (NSWMC), the National Ecology
Center (NEC), and the Solid Waste Management Board in every province, city and municipality in the
country.
The NSWMC shall be responsible in the formulation of the National Solid Waste Management
Framework (NSWMF) and other policies on solid waste, in overseeing the implementation of solid
waste management plans and the management of the solid waste management fund.
The NEC, on the other hand, shall be responsible for consulting, information, training and
networking services relative to the implementation of R.A.No. 9003.
The Solid Waste Management Board of provinces, cities, and municipalities shall be responsible for
the development of their respective solid waste management plans.
b. Formulation of the NSWMF: 10-year solid management plans by local government units;

c. Mandatory segregation of solid waste to be conducted primarily at the source such as household,
institutional, industrial, commercial and agricultural sources;

d. Setting of minimum requirements to ensure systematic collection and transport of wastes and the
proper protection of garbage collectors' health;

e. Establishment of reclamation programs and buy-back centers for recyclable and toxic materials;

f. Promotion of eco-labeling in local products and services;

g. Prohibition on non-environmentally acceptable products and packaging;

h. Establishment of Materials Recovery Facility (MRF) in every barangay or cluster of barangays;

i. Prohibition against the use of open dumps;

j. Setting of guidelines/criteria for the establishment of controlled dumps and sanitary landfills;

k. Provision of rewards, incentives both monetary and non-monetary, financial assistance, grants
and the like to encourage LGUs and the general public to undertake effective solid waste
management; and

l. Promotion of research on solid waste management and environmental education in the formal
and non-formal sectors.
Plastic Pollution Act
What would this law do?
This bill requires compostable and marine degradable plastic bags to be the only type of plastic bags
used at stores of a certain size and/or number of locations.
Why change this law?
Plastic bags can cause much harm to wildlife. According to the federal Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA), there are several major negative impacts of plastic bags and other marine debris:
Ingestionwhales and other marine mammals, sea turtles, birds, fish, crabs, and other animals
ingest debris, which can contain toxic substances, and consequently suffer injury, infection,
reproductive failure, starvation, and even death.
Entanglement animals can get entangled in debris, restricting them and causing exhaustion,
infection, suffocation, starvation, drowning, increased vulnerability to predators, and death.
Ecosystem Alteration sensitive ecosystems, and the plants and animals in them, can be
harmed by debris and also by clean-up efforts, such as beach-raking.
Introduction of Invasive Species floating debris can carry invasive species from one body of
water to another.
Prevention of problems related to pollution is critical; reduction of waste and biodegradability of
products are important. Requiring biodegradable bags would address both sides of this equation
limiting the use of plastic bags and making those that are used more environmentally friendly.

Other Philippine laws and regulations
regarding the environment

Philippine Constitution (202K)
The Philippine Constitution specifically protects
the environment.
Philippine Constitution (Excerpts) (10K)
Summarizes areas specific to environmental
protection.
Presidential Decree 704. (55K)
Covers fishery laws
Presidential Decree 705. (48K)
Covers forestry laws
Executive Order 240. (37)K
Covers Integrated Fishery Management
Local Goverment Code (Excerpts) (40K)
Presidental Decree 1151 (5K)
Covers Philippine Environmental Policy
Presidential Decree No. 1152 (50K)
The Philippine Environment Code
JOA Number 3. (4K)
Covers Implementing guidelines on the granting
of preferential treatment to small fisherfolk
relative to the 15K Muncipal Water.
Republic Act No. 7586 (NIPAS Act) (29K)
Establishment and Management of National
Integrated Protected Areas System, Defining its
scope and coverage
DENR Administrative Order No. 25 (83K)
Implementing Rules and Regulations for

Establishing an Environmental Impact
Statement System, including other
environmental management related measures.
Republic Act No. 7942 (Philippine Mining Act of
1995) (99K)
An Act instituting a new system of Mineral
Resources Exploration, Development, utilization
and conservation
DENR Administrative Order No. 96-40 Series of
1996 (429K)
Revised Implementing Rules and Regulations of
Republic Act No. 7907 (33K)
An Act Amending Republic Act No. 3844, as
amended, otherwise known as the "Code of
Agrarian Reform in the Philippines".
Republic Act No. 6657 (99K)
The Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law of
1998.
Providing for the Revision of Republic Act No.
3931, commonly known as the Pollution Control
Law.
Executive Order No. 542 (17K)
Covers the creation of the Task Force Pawikan
Executive Order No. 263(17K)
Adopts Community-Based Forest Management
as the National Strategy to ensure the
sustainable development of the country's forst
lands.
City of Manila Ordinance 7695 (2K)
Covers proper garbage disposal.
Amends Ordinace 7695 to provide stiffer
penalties for improper garbage disposal.
An Ordinace requiring that all Public Utility
Vehicles provide trash receptacles in their
vehicles.
Fisheries Administrative Order No. 76
Regulations regarding the collecting and
gathering of marine turtles
Regulations for the Conservation of Turtle,
Turtle Eggs and Turtle Shells in the Philippines
Bureau of Forest Development Circular No. 8
Regulations for the Conservation of Marine
Turtles in the Philippines
DANR General Administrative Order No. 2
Transferring the Administration and Control of
Turtles to the Parks and Wildlife Office and for
Other Purposes.
DENR Administrative Order No. 3, Series of
1995
Procedural and/or Documentary Requirements,
Guidelines and/or Criteria to be observed
and/or followed in the Selection of Local
Government Units (LGUs). Non-Government
Organizations (NGOs) and People's
Organizations (POs) to the Protected Area
Management Board (PAMB)
1995
Guidelines in the selection, awards, monitoring
and evaluationof host Non-Government
Organization in the Conservation of Protected
Areas Project
DENR Administrative Order No. 7, February 17,
1994
Revised Guidelines Governing the Issuance of
Certificate of Origin for Logs, Timber, Lumber
and Non- timber Forest Products.
1992
Regulation governing the establishment of
buffer zone within forest lands.
1989
Guidelines on the Disposition of Confiscated
Wildlife Species.
DENR Administrative Order No. 30, September
30, 1994
Implementing Guidelines for Non-Government
Organization Assisted Community-Based
Mangrove Forest Management (NGO- Assisted
CBMFM) for the DENR.
DENR Memorandum Order No. 95-08
Clarification on the Provisions of the NIPAS Law
regarding the modification of boundary of the
Protected Area and its Buffer Zone.
DENR Administrative Order No. 08, February 17,
1994
Additional Requirements in the Issuance of New
Sawmill Permits and Certificates of Registration
as Lumber Dealers, Including Renewals Thereof.
07, 1994
Creation of an Office to Coordinate DENR
Commitments to Inter-Agency Committees,
Commission, Task Force and Special Projects.
DENR Administrative Order No.34, September
16, 1994
Amending Section 13 of DAO 58, Series of 1983,
Providing for the Rules and Regulations
Governing Narra Resources.
19, 1994
Guidelines Governing the Implementation and
Monitoring of the DENR National Crime
Reporting System.
DENR Administrative Order No.36, Series of
1991
Guidelines governing the confiscation, seizure,
and disposition of wilf flora and fauna illegally
collected, gathered, acquired, transported, and
imported including paraphernalia.
1996
Revising DENR Administrative Order No. 21,
Series of 1992, to further strengthen the
implementation of the Environmental Impact
Statement System
DENR Administrative Order No.55, Series of
1991
Declaring Dugong or sea cow (Dugong dugon) as
Protected Marine Mammal of the Philippines
DENR Memorandum Circular No. 16, Series of
1993
Guidelines on the Establishment and
Management of Buffer Zones for Protected
Areas
DENR Memorandum Circular No.04, January 26,
1994
Implementing Guidelines for the Selection,
Contracting, Monitoring and Evaluation of
NGOs Under the ENR-SECAL Program.
DENR Memorandum Circular No. 01, January
18, 1994
Guidelines for the Prosecution of Illegal Logging
and Related Cases
1990
Guidelines on the Restoration of Open and
Denuded Areas within National Parks and Other
Protected Areas within National Parks and
Other Protected Areas for the Enhancement of
Biological Diversity.
1995
Implementing Guidelines of DENR
Administrative Order No. 95-9, Series of 1995,
Regulation on Forest Tree Seed Production,
Collection and Disposition.
DENR Memorandum Circular No. 21, June 22,
1994
Supplementary Guidelines and Instructions on
the Implementation of DAO No. 07, S. 1994.
Anent Issuance of Certificates of Origin for
Forest Products.
DENR Memorandum Circular No. 22, October 7,
1994
Delegation of Authority Regarding the
Implementation of Foreign Assisted Integrated
Protected Area Projects (IPAS), etc.
DENR Memorandum Circular No. 25, July 13,
1994
Guidelines on the Partial Turn-over of Contract
Reforestation (CREF) Projects Qualified for
Forestland Management Agreement (FLMA)
Issuance
1994
Flagship Program for the Indigenous Cultural
Communities under the Social Reform Agenda.
DENR Memorandum Circular No. 32, September
06, 1994
DENR Divers Who Could Assist in the Conduct of
Coral and Fish Survey and Assessment.
DENR Memorandum Circular No. 34, September
22, 1994
General Outline for the Formulation of Initial
Protected Area Plan.
DENR Memorandum Circular No. 38, October
18, 1994
Amending DENR Memorandum Circular No. 29,
Series of 1993. Otherwise Known as"Guidelines
and Procedures in the Cancellation of
Reforestation Contracts and Recovery
Proceedings."
DENR Memorandum Circular No. 45, December
22, 1994
Clarifications on Some Provisions of R.A. 7586,
DAO No. 25, Series of 1992 and Other Related
Guidelines.
DENR Memorandum Order No. 01, February 17,
1994
Adoption of Revised Procedures on the Issuance
of Certificate of Origin Forms
DENR Memorandum Order No. 04, February 02,
1995
Creation and Constitution of the National
Federation of Multisectoral Forest Protection
Committees (NFMFPC)
Executive Order No. 192, June 10, 1987
Providing for the Reorganization of the
Department of Environment, Energy and
Natural Resources, Renaming it as the
Department of Environment and Natural
Resources, and for other Purposes
Executive Order No. 192
Authorizing the Establishment of the Clark
International Airport Corporation to operate
and manage the Clark Aviation Complex
Mandating the Phase-out of Leaded Gasoline as
one of the means of solving air pollution.
Reorganizing the Office of the President and
Creating the Office of the Prime Minister
pursuant to the 1981 amendments to the
Constitution.
Ban on the taking or catching, selling,
possessing, transporting Sabalo (full -grown
bangus or milkfish)
Rules and regulations governing conversion of
ordinary fishpond permits and ten (10) year
fishpond lease agreements into twenty-five (25)
year fishpond lease agreements and other
related matters.
Rules and regulations on commercial fishing.
Adopting all existing rules and regulations on
fisheries
Regulating the use of fine meshed nets in
fishing
Guidelines and procedure in the effective
implementation of LOI No. 1328
Prohibiting the operation of "Muro-Ami" and
"Kayakas" in all Philippine waters.
Rules and Regulations governing the operation
of "Hulbot-Hulbot" in the Philippine waters.
Banning the exportation of bangus fingerlings
(hatirin)
Covers the protection and conservation of
turtles in the San Miguel Islands, comprising the
Manuc-manucan, Bancauan, and Bancoran
Islets in the Sulu Sea
Guideline on the experimental collection of
precious and semi-precious corals of the
Philippine waters.
Ban on the taking or catching, selling,
purchasing and possessing, transporting and
exporting of Dolphins.
Regulations governing the operation of
commercial fishing boats in Philippine waters
using Tuna Purse Seine Nets.
Regulations establishing a closed season period
for the conservation of turtles, turtle eggs, and
turtle shells in the Turtle Islands.
Rules and regulations governing the gathering
of aquatic turtle eggs.
Fisheries Administrative Order No. 29-1
Amending Sections 8 and 9 of Fisheries
Administrative Order No. 29
To establish a closed season period for the
gathering or killing of marine turtles, turtle
eggs, or turtle shell.
Forestry Sector Administrative Order No. 15,
May 10, 1995
Revised General Guidelines in the
Implementation of the Sub-classification of
Forestlands and Other Inalienable Lands of the
Public Domain.
Forestry Sector Administrative Order No. 17,
May 20, 1995
Institutionalization of the Multi-Sectoral Forest
Protection Communities Within The DENR
System.
DENR Administrative Order No. 97-39
Covers chemical control order for cyanide and
cyanide compounds.

Covers chemical control order for mercury and
mercury compounds.
Procedures in the retention of areas within
certain distances along the banks of rivers,
streams, and shore of seas, lakes and oceans for
environmental protection.
Bureau of Forestry Administrative Order No. 1
Regulations Governing the collecting, gathering
and/or disposing marine turtles, turtle eggs and
its by-products
Ministry of Natural Resources Special Order No.
357
Created a council of deputy conservation
officers in the province of Tawi-Tawi
Ministry of Natural Resources Special Order No.
201
Covers the creation of an implementing
organization of the Pawikan Task Force to
implement the pawikan conservation program
of the Philippines.
Ministry of Natural Resources Memorandum
Order No. 06
Declares a total ban on exploitation activities
related to marine turtles.
Ministry of Natural Resources Memorandum,
September 1, 1982
Management Authority over Marine Turtles.
Ministry of Natural Resources Administrative
Order No. 34
Declare the municipality of Caluya as marine
turtle sanctuary.
Order No. 33
Regulations governing the collection of marine
turtle eggs in the province of Tawi-Tawi and
reiterating the duties and responsibilities of
deputy conservation officers and deputy game
wardens.
Order No. 10
Deputizing the Governor and Vice-Governor of
Tawi-Tawi, Municipal Mayor and Barangay
Captain of the Municipality of Taganak of the
Province of Tawi-Tawi as Deputized
Conservation Officers.
Order No. 08
Establishment of Certain Islands in the Province
of Tawi-Tawi, Palawan and Antique Marine
Turtle Sanctuaries.
Order No. 01
Deputizing the Provincial Governors, Vice-
Governors and Municipal Mayors, areas critical
for the protection of Marine Turtles in the
Philippines, as Conservation Officers
Amends Section 2 of Fisheries Administrative
Order No. 36.
Revised Fisheries Administrative Order No. 60
Regulations governing the issuance of fishpond
permits and/or leases on public forest lands.
Forestry Sector Administrative Order No. 03
Bans use of Highlead Yarding Systems in the
Dipterocarp Forests
DENR Administrative Order No. 20, June 1, 1992
Created the Organizational and Management
Structure for the implementation of the ENR
Sector Adjustment Loan (SECAL) Program.
DENR Administrative Order No.02, January 13,
1992
Deals with the Annual Allowable Cut
Determination to Second Growth Forest.
DENR Administrative Order No.12, April 01,
1992
Deals with the annual allowable cut
computation and tree marking goal
determination in the second growth
dipterocarp forests
DENR Administrative Order No.34, July 14, 1992
Covers the rules and regulations to implement
Republic Act No. 7076.
DENR Administrative Order No.16, April 20,
1992
Addendum to DAO 42 which provides the
regulations and guidelines governing the
establishment and development of IFPs
Presidential Decree 1067
The Water Code of the Philippines
Republic Act 8371
The Indigenous Peoples Rights Act of 1997,
provides for the recognition, protection and
promotion of the rights of indigenous cultural
communities / indigenous people.
Republic Act 8435
Agriculture and Fisheries Modernization Act of
1997
1992
Amending DENR Administrative Order No. 14,
Series of 1991 "Establishing The El Nido Marine
Reserves".
Republic Act 8550
The Philippine Fisheries Code of 1998
DENR Administrative Order No.96-12
Prescribes organizational and Management
Arrangement of the Pasig River Rehabilitation
Program
Institutionalizes the Master Plan for Forestry
Development within DENR and Defines
Functions of Offices for the purpose.
Covers the Management of Mossy Forests
Guidelines for the Transfer and Implementation
of DENR Functions Devolved to the Local
Government Units
Rules and Regulations to Implement Republic
Act No. 7076 Otherwise Known as "Peoples
Small Scale Mining Act of 1991".
Prescribes the Guidelines for Community
Reforestation Contract Under the Low Income
Upland Communities Project (LIUCP)
Covers the Assignment and Supervision of the
DENR-Non-Governmental/Peoples'
Organization (NG/PO) Desk.
Amending certain provisions of DENR
Administrative Order No. 30, Series of 1992
Department of Agriculture Administrative Order
No.98-03
Implementing Rules and Regulations Pursuant
to Republic Act No. 8550
Guidelines on the Disposition of Confiscated
Logs, Lumber and Other Forest Products for
Public Infrastructure Projects.
Rules and Regulations Governing the Industrial
Forest Management Program
Rules and Regulations Governing the Socialized
Industrial Forest Management Program
Revised Regulations and Guidelines Governing
the Establishment and Management of
Industrial Forest Plantations (IFPs) and
Management of Residual Natural Forests for
Production Purposes
Amendment to DAO No. 60, Series of 1993
Revised Guidelines for Community Forestry
Program
Guidelines on the Implementation of the
Forestry Sector Project
Designation of Pagbilao Mangrove Swamp
Experimental Forest as Genetic Resources Area
and National Training Site for Mangrove
DENR & DILG Joint Memorandum Circular No.
98-01
Designation of Pagbilao Mangrove Swamp
Experimental Forest as Genetic Resources Area
and National Training Site for Mangrove
An Act to Address the National Water Crisis
Amends PD 705 by increasing the Forest
Charges on Timber and other Forest Products.
An Act Declaring Certain Places in the Province
of Lanao Del Sur as National Parks
An Act which prohibits destroying growing
trees, flowering plants and other plants of
scenic value in public areas
Quezon Proclamation No. 02, series of 1913
Sets apart a forest reserve in Atimonan, Quezon
Covers the establishment of the Quezon
National Park
Modifies the boundaries of Quezon National
Park
Proclamation No. 2146
Proclaiming Certain Areas and Types of Projects
as Environmentally Critical and Within the
Scope of the Environmental Impact Statement
System Established under Presidential Decree
No. 1586.
Presidential Decree No. 979
The Marine Pollution Decree of 1976
Code on Sanitation in the Philippines
Provides penalties for improper disposal of
garbage and other forms of uncleanliness.
The Revised Coast Guard Law of 1974
Established a program phasing-out tetraethyl
lead (TEL) in gasoline.
Establishes small-scale mining as a new
dimension in mineral development
Amends section eighty of the Revised Philippine
Forestry Code (PD 705)
Gives authority to Barangay Captains to enforce
Pollution and Environmental Control Laws
Covers the creation of the National
Environmental Protection Council
DENR Memorandum Circular No. 06, June 4,
1992
Covers the implementation of Project CARE
Activities After Species Adoption by Each
Barangay, Municipality, City and Province
Letter of Instruction No. 549
Instructs the National Environment Protection
Council to establish an administrative system
for the evaluation of environmental impact of
projects.
Letter of Instructions No.1179
Instructions authorizing the National
Environment Protection Council to issue
Environmental Compliance Certificates.
Sets guidelines for the prospecting of biological
and genetic resources
Created the Philippine Council for Sustainable
Development
DENR Memorandum Order No. 10, series of
1991
Guidelines for the conduct of Resources Basic
Inventory (RBI) within Protected Areas.
DENR Memorandum Circular No. 35, November
17, 1993
Criteria and guidelines for the Categorization of
the Protected Areas under the National
Integrated Protected Areas System (NIPAS)
DENR Memorandum Circular No. 17, May 13,
1993
Guidelines on the conduct of Protected Area
Suitability Assessment (PASA).
1992
Guidelines on the preparation and submission
of maps of areas covered by the National
Integrated Protected Areas System.
DENR Memorandum Circular No. 17, October
15, 1992
Covers the delineation of functions and
implementation of the Integrated Social
Forestry Program after the Devolution of
Functions to the Local Government Units (LGUs)
DENR Memorandum Circular No. 09, August 03,
1992
Requires Timber License Agreement/Timber
Production Sharing Agreement holders to
prepare and submit a Medium Term Forest
Management Plan.
Forestry Sector Administrative Order No. 09
Covers the regulation of forest tree seed
production, collection and disposition.
DENR Administrative Order No. 68, December
16, 1993
Amendment to DAO No. 60, Series of 1993, to
encourage more investors in the IFP program of
the government and to accelerate the
establishment of industrial forest plantations.
DENR Administrative Order No. 62, October 15,
1993
Institutionalizes community organizing as an
approach and atrategy in the planning and
pImplementation of programs and projects in
theDENR.
DENR Administrative Order No. 38, August 11,
1992
Prescribes Conditions for the Operation of
Sawmills and Mini-Sawmills.
DENR Administrative Order No. 42, August 22,
1991
Revised Regulations and Guidelines Governing
the Establishment and Development of
Industrial Forest Plantations (IFPs)
13, 1991
Establishment of a national list of rare,
endangered, threatened, vulnerable,
indeterminate, and iInsufficiently known
species of Philippine Wild Birds, Mammals, and
Reptiles.
Parks and Wildlife Office Administrative Order
No. 1, Series of 1964
Rules and Regulation for the Protection and
Conservation of Flora in Public Grounds
1994
Implementing Guidelines for the Conversion of
Timber License Agreements (TLAs) to Industrial
Forest Management Agreements (IFMAs).
An Act to Regulate the Practice of Forestry
Profession in the Philippines
DENR Administrative Order 96-26, September
10, 1996
Revised Guidelines Governing the Harvest and
Transport of Planted Trees and Non-Timber
Products within Social Forestry Areas

3. What is Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)? What are the different methods and
principles of EIA?

Definition of EIA

An Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a process that involves predicting and evaluating the
likely impacts of a project (including cumulative impacts) on the environment during construction,
commissioning, operation and abandonment. It also includes designing appropriate preventive,
mitigating and enhancement measures addressing these consequences to protect the environment and
the communitys welfare.

Purpose of the EIA Process

As a basic principle, EIA is used to enhance planning and guide decision-making. EIA is primarily
presented in the context of a requirement to integrate environmental concerns in the planning process
of projects at the feasibility stage. Through the EIA Process, adverse environmental impacts of proposed
actions are considerably reduced through a reiterative review process of project setting, design and
other alternatives, and the subsequent formulation of environmental management and monitoring
plans. A positive determination by the DENR-EMB results to the issuance of an Environmental
Compliance Commitment (ECC) document, to be conformed to by the Proponent and represents the
projects Environmental Compliance Certificate. The release of the ECC allows the project to proceed to
the next stage of project planning, which is the acquisition of approvals from other government agencies
and LGUs, after which the project can start implementation.

What are the different concepts in solving environmental problems in the Philippines?

General and industry specific assessment methods are available including:
Industrial products - Product environmental life cycle analysis (LCA) is used for identifying and
measuring the impact of industrial products on the environment. These EIAs consider activities
related to extraction of raw materials, ancillary materials, equipment; production, use, disposal and
ancillary equipment.
Genetically modified plants - Specific methods available to perform EIAs of genetically modified
organisms include GMP-RAM and INOVA.
Fuzzy logic - EIA methods need measurement data to estimate values of impact indicators.
However many of the environment impacts cannot be quantified, e.g. landscape quality, lifestyle
quality and social acceptance. Instead information from similar EIAs, expert judgment and
community sentiment are employed. Approximate reasoning methods known as fuzzy logic can be
used.

What are the different principles of EIA?

Principle One: Proactive Planning and Decision Tool- the EIA process is a proactive planning tool to
avoid and pre-empt adverse environmental impacts that might be caused or experienced by the
proposed development. An EIA should be linked to the decision making process.

Principle Two: Avoidance, Pre-emption and Prevention of Adverse Environmental Consequences- the
aim of the EIA process is to avoid and prevent adverse environmental consequences of the proposed
project; if adverse environmental impacts cannot be fully avoided, measures should be considered to
reduce and control the possible adverse environmental impacts to within established limits or criteria.

Principle Three: Making Positive Influence on Decision Making at the Earliest Possible Opportunity
and Thinking Proactively about Options and Alternatives- it is important to facilitate any effort to
enhance the environmental performance of the proposed development at the beginning of the project
planning stage rather than at the later stage of the project development. It is often better to pre-empt
adverse impacts at the early stage of the project implementation. Options and alternatives should be
considered when adverse environmental impacts are expected, and in considering alternatives, the
primary consideration is whether applying the precautionary principle, the project is shown to be
environmentally acceptable.

Principle Four: Living Process Throughout the Project Cycle- the EIA process should involve a course of
dynamic actions throughout the project cycle to identify and predict the possible adverse environmental
impacts from the proposed development, to develop measures to avoid, pre-empt, prevent and reduce
environmental problems, and to manage and control environmental impacts to within established limits
or criteria.

Principle Five: Making EIA Recommendations Enforceable - the EIA recommendations should be
sensible, practical and effective, with information about the 5 Ws (ie. what mitigation measures would
be implemented, by whom, when, where and to what requirements) and with clear definition of the
responsibility for implementing the recommended mitigation measures. The recommended measures
should be easy to enforce and can prevent environmental problems from occurring, rather than relying
on remedial measures after problems occur.

Principle Six: Flexibility Amidst Robustness and Transparency, with Public Participation and with the
Ability to Adapt to Changes- the EIA process should be transparent and take into account public
participation, but should be flexible to adapt to changing circumstances without compromising the
environmental requirements.

Principle Seven: Seeking Practical Environmental Outcomes for the Environment and Community- one
of the objectives of the EIA process is to deliver and communicate practical environmental outcomes for
the environment and the community.

Principle Eight: Avoidance of any Late Focus- early focus on major adverse environmental
consequences could save a large amount of efforts or costs that may otherwise arise from expensive or
time-consuming remedial works at a later stage.

Principle Nine: Efficiency Amidst Effectiveness- an effective and efficient approach in carrying out EIA
studies step by step would enhance the productivity of the EIA process.

Principle Ten: Transparent Agreement among Relevant Parties, Clear Expectations of what need to be
done and what the Performance will be, and Explicit Resolution of any Conflicts- agreements,
expectations, performance requirements and any conflict resolutions etc. should be fully communicated
among relevant parties in an open and frank manner to avoid misunderstanding and to enhance better
management of EIA follow up works.

PD 1586 (1978): Philippine EIA System
Establishing an Environmental Impact Statement System including Other Environmental Management
related Measures and for Other Purposes
Centralized the EIS System under the (then) National Environmental Protection Council (NEPC), and
authorized the President and the NEPC to proclaim projects and activities subject to the EIS system;
placed the Pollution Adjudication Board (PAB) (created by PD 984) under NEPC

4. What are the major nutritional requirements?

Nutrition is the selection of foods and preparation of foods, and their ingestion to be assimilated by the
body. By practicing a healthy diet, many of the known health issues can be avoided.
[1]
The diet of an
organism is what it eats, which is largely determined by the perceivedpalatability of foods.

There are seven major classes of nutrients: carbohydrates, fats, dietary fiber , minerals , proteins,
vitamins, and water.
These nutrient classes can be categorized as either macronutrients (needed in relatively large amounts)
or micronutrients (needed in smaller quantities). The macronutrients are carbohydrates, fats, fiber,
proteins, and water. The micronutrients are minerals and vitamins.
The macronutrients (excluding fiber and water) provide structural material (amino acids from which
proteins are built, and lipids from which cell membranes and some signaling molecules are built),energy.
Some of the structural material can be used to generate energy internally, and in either case it is
measured Joules or kilocalories (often called "Calories" and written with a capital C to distinguish them
from little 'c' calories). Carbohydrates and proteins provide 17 kJ approximately (4 kcal) of energy per
gram, while fats provide 37 kJ (9 kcal) per gram,
[3]
though the net energy from either depends on such
factors as absorption and digestive effort, which vary substantially from instance to instance. Vitamins,
minerals, fiber, and water do not provide energy, but are required for other reasons. A third class of
dietary material, fiber (i.e., non-digestible material such as cellulose), seems also to be required, for
both mechanical and biochemical reasons, though the exact reasons remain unclear.
Molecules of carbohydrates and fats consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. Carbohydrates
range from simple monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, galactose) to complexpolysaccharides (starch).
Fats are triglycerides, made of assorted fatty acid monomers bound to a glycerol backbone. Some fatty
acids, but not all, are essential in the diet: they cannot be synthesized in the body. Protein molecules
contain nitrogen atoms in addition to carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. The fundamental components of
protein are nitrogen-containing amino acids, some of which are essential in the sense that humans
cannot make them internally. Some of the amino acids are convertible (with the expenditure of energy)
to glucose and can be used for energy production just as ordinary glucose. By breaking down existing
protein, some glucose can be produced internally; the remaining amino acids are discarded, primarily as
urea in urine. This occurs naturally when atrophy takes place, or during periods of starvation.
Other micronutrients include antioxidants and phytochemicals which are said to influence (or protect)
some body systems. Their necessity is not as well established as in the case of, for instance, vitamins.
Most foods contain a mix of some or all of the nutrient classes, together with other substances. Some
nutrients can be stored internally (e.g., the fat soluble vitamins), while others are required more or less
continuously. Poor health can be caused by a lack of required nutrients or, in extreme cases, too much
of a required nutrient. For example, both salt and water (both absolutely required) will cause illness or
even death in too large amounts.

CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates may be classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on
the number of monomer (sugar) units they contain. They constitute a large part of foods such
as rice, noodles, bread, and other grain-based products.
Monosaccharides contain one sugar unit, disaccharides two, and polysaccharides three or more.
Polysaccharides are often referred to as complexcarbohydrates because they are typically long multiple
branched chains of sugar units. The difference is that complex carbohydrates take longer to digest and
absorb since their sugar units must be separated from the chain before absorption. The spike in blood
glucose levels after ingestion of simple sugars is thought to be related to some of the heart and vascular
diseases which have become more frequent in recent times. Simple sugars form a greater part of
modern diets than formerly, perhaps leading to more cardiovascular disease. The degree of causation is
still not clear, however.
Simple carbohydrates are absorbed quickly, and therefore raise blood-sugar levels more rapidly than
other nutrients. However, the most important plant carbohydrate nutrient, starch, varies in its
absorption. Gelatinized starch (starch heated for a few minutes in the presence of water) is far more
digestible than plain starch. And starch which has been divided into fine particles is also more
absorbable during digestion. The increased effort and decreased availability reduces the available
energy from starchy foods substantially and can be seen experimentally in rats and anecdotally in
humans. Additionally, up to a third of dietary starch may be unavailable due to mechanical or chemical
difficulty.

FAT
A molecule of dietary fat typically consists of several fatty acids (containing long chains of carbon and
hydrogen atoms), bonded to a glycerol. They are typically found as triglycerides (three fatty acids
attached to one glycerol backbone). Fats may be classified as saturated or unsaturated depending on
the detailed structure of the fatty acids involved.
[citation needed]
Saturated fats have all of the carbon atoms
in their fatty acid chains bonded to hydrogen atoms, whereas unsaturated fats have some of these
carbon atoms double-bonded, so their molecules have relatively fewer hydrogen atoms than a saturated
fatty acid of the same length. Unsaturated fats may be further classified as monounsaturated (one
double-bond) or polyunsaturated (many double-bonds). Furthermore, depending on the location of the
double-bond in the fatty acid chain, unsaturated fatty acids are classified as omega-3 or omega-6 fatty
acids. Trans fats are a type of unsaturated fat with trans-isomer bonds; these are rare in nature and in
foods from natural sources; they are typically created in an industrial process called
(partial) hydrogenation.
Many studies have shown that unsaturated fats, particularly monounsaturated fats, are best in the
human diet. Saturated fats, typically from animal sources, are next, while trans fats are to be avoided.
Saturated and some trans fats are typically solid at room temperature (such as butter or lard), while
unsaturated fats are typically liquids (such as olive oil or flaxseed oil). Trans fats are very rare in nature,
but have properties useful in the food processing industry, such as rancidity resistance.
[citation needed]

Most fatty acids are non-essential, meaning the body can produce them as needed, generally from other
fatty acids and always by expending energy to do so. However, in humans at least two fatty acids
are essential and must be included in the diet. An appropriate balance of essential fatty acids omega-
3 and omega-6 fatty acids seems also important for health, though definitive experimental
demonstration has been elusive. Both of these "omega" long-chain polyunsaturated fatty
acids are substrates for a class of eicosanoids known as prostaglandins, which have roles throughout the
human body. They are hormones, in some respects. The omega-3 eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), which
can be made in the human body from the omega-3 essential fatty acidalpha-linolenic acid (LNA), or
taken in through marine food sources, serves as a building block for series 3 prostaglandins (e.g.
weakly inflammatory PGE3). The omega-6 dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid (DGLA) serves as a building
block for series 1 prostaglandins (e.g. anti-inflammatory PGE1), whereas arachidonic acid (AA) serves as
a building block for series 2 prostaglandins (e.g., pro-inflammatory PGE 2). Both DGLA and AA can be
made from the omega-6 linoleic acid (LA) in the human body, or can be taken in directly through food.
An appropriately balanced intake of omega-3 and omega-6 partly determines the relative production of
different prostaglandins: one reason a balance between omega-3 and omega-6 is believed important for
cardiovascular health. In industrialized societies, people typically consume large amounts of processed
vegetable oils, which have reduced amounts of the essential fatty acids along with too much of omega-6
fatty acids relative to omega-3 fatty acids.

FIBER
Dietary fiber is a carbohydrate (or a polysaccharide) that is incompletely absorbed in humans and in
some animals. Like all carbohydrates, when it is metabolized it can produce four calories (kilocalories) of
energy per gram. But in most circumstances it accounts for less than that because of its limited
absorption and digestibility. There are two subcategories: insoluble and soluble fiber. Insoluble dietary
fiber consists mainly of cellulose, a large carbohydrate polymer that is indigestible by humans who do
not have the required enzymes to disassemble it nor do their digestive systems harbor sufficient
quantities of the types of microbes that can do so either. Soluble dietary fiber comprises a variety
of oligosaccharides, waxes, esters, resistant starches and other carbohydrates that dissolve or gelatinize
in water. Many of these soluble fibers can be fermented or partially fermented by microbes in the
human digestive system to produce short-chain fatty acids which are absorbed and therefore introduce
some caloric content.
Whole grains, beans and other legumes, fruits (especially plums, prunes, and figs), and vegetables are
good sources of dietary fiber. Fiber is important to digestive health and is thought to reduce the risk of
colon cancer.
[citation needed]
For mechanical reasons it can help in alleviating both constipation and diarrhea.
Fiber provides bulk to the intestinal contents, and insoluble fiber especially stimulates peristalsis the
rhythmic muscular contractions of the intestines which move digesta along the digestive tract. Some
soluble fibers produce a solution of high viscosity; this is essentially a gel, which slows the movement of
food through the intestines. Additionally, fiber, perhaps especially that from whole grains, may help
lessen insulin spikes and reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes.

PROTEIN
Proteins are the basis of many animal body structures (e.g. muscles, skin, and hair). They also form the
enyzmes which catalyse chemical reactions throughout the body. Each molecule is composed of amino
acids which are characterized by containing nitrogen and sometimes sulphur (these components are
responsible for the distinctive smell of burning protein, such as the keratin in hair). The body requires
amino acids to produce new proteins (protein retention) and to replace damaged proteins
(maintenance). Amino acids are soluble in the digestive juices within the small intestine, where they are
absorbed into the blood. Once absorbed they cannot be stored in the body, so they are either
metabolised as required or excreted in the urine.
For all animals, some amino acids are essential (an animal cannot produce them internally) and some
are non-essential (the animal can produce them from other amino acids). Twenty two amino acids can
be found in the human body, and about ten of these are essential, and therefore must be included in
the diet. A diet that contains adequate amounts of amino acids (especially those that are essential) is
particularly important in some situations: during early development and maturation, pregnancy,
lactation, or injury (a burn, for instance). A complete protein source contains all the essential amino
acids; an incomplete protein source lacks one or more of the essential amino acids.
It is a common misconception that a vegetarian diet will be insufficient in essential proteins; both
vegetarians and vegans of any age and gender, with a healthy diet, can flourish throughout all stages of
life, although the latter group typically need to pay more attention to their nutrition than the former.

MINERALS
Dietary minerals are the chemical elements required by living organisms, other than the four
elements carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen that are present in nearly all organic molecules. The
term "mineral" is archaic, since the intent is to describe simply the less common elements in the diet.
Some are heavier than the four just mentioned including several metals, which often occur as ions in
the body. Some dietitians recommend that these be supplied from foods in which they occur naturally,
or at least as complex compounds, or sometimes even from natural inorganic sources (such as calcium
carbonate from ground oyster shells). Some are absorbed much more readily in the ionic forms found in
such sources. On the other hand, minerals are often artificially added to the diet as supplements; the
most famous is likely iodine in iodized salt which prevents goiter.

Essential dietary minerals
Chlorine as chloride ions; very common electrolyte; see sodium, below
Magnesium, required for processing ATP and related reactions (builds bone, causes strong
peristalsis, increases flexibility, increases alkalinity). Approximately 50% is in bone, the remaining
50% is almost all inside body cells, with only about 1% located in extracellular fluid. Food sources
include oats, buckwheat, tofu, nuts, caviar, green leafy vegetables, legumes, and chocolate.
Phosphorus, required component of bones; essential for energy processing
[6]
Approximately
80% is found in inorganic portion of bones and teeth. Phosphorus is a component of every cell, as
well as important metabolites, including DNA, RNA, ATP, and phospholipids. Also important in pH
regulation. Food sources include cheese, egg yolk, milk, meat, fish, poultry, whole-grain cereals, and
many others.
[4]

Potassium, a very common electrolyte (heart and nerve health). With sodium, potassium is
involved in maintaining normal water balance, osmotic equilibrium, and acid-base balance. In
addition to calcium, it is important in the regulation of neuromuscular activity. Food sources include
bananas, avocados, vegetables, potatoes, legumes, and mushrooms.
[5]

Sodium, a very common electrolyte; not generally found in dietary supplements, despite being
needed in large quantities, because the ion is very common in food: typically as sodium chloride, or
common salt

5. What are the different sources of Land degradation?
Land degradation is a process in which the value of the biophysical environment is affected by a
combination of human-induced processes acting upon the land.
[1]
also environmental degradation is the
gradual destruction or reduction of the quality and quantity of human activities animals activities or
natural means example water causes soil erosion, wind, etc. It is viewed as any change or disturbance to
the land perceived to be deleterious or undesirable.
[2]
Natural hazards are excluded as a cause, however
human activities can indirectly affect phenomena such as floods and bush fires.
This is considered to be an important topic of the 21st century due to the implications land degradation
has upon agronomic productivity, the environment, and its effects on food security. It is estimated that
up to 40% of the world's agricultural land is seriously degraded.

Sources of Land Degradation:

Land degradation is a global problem, largely related to agricultural use. The major causes include:
Land clearance, such as clearcutting and deforestation
Agricultural depletion of soil nutrients through poor farming practices
Livestock including overgrazing and overdrafting
Inappropriate irrigation
[7]
and overdrafting
Urban sprawl and commercial development
Soil contamination
Vehicle off-roading
Quarrying of stone, sand, ore and minerals
Increase in field size due to economies of scale, reducing shelter for wildlife, as hedgerows and
copses disappear
Exposure of naked soil after harvesting by heavy equipment
Monoculture, destabilizing the local ecosystem
Dumping of non-biodegradable trash, such as plastics

Effects of Land Degradation:

Overcutting of vegetation occurs when people cut forests, woodlands and shrublandsto obtain timber,
fuelwood and other productsat a pace exceeding the rate of natural regrowth. This is frequent in
semi-arid environments, where fuelwood shortages are often severe.
Overgrazing is the grazing of natural pastures at stocking intensities above the livestock carrying
capacity; the resulting decrease in the vegetation cover is a leading cause of wind and water erosion. It
is a significant factor in Afghanistan. ext of land shortage the growing population pressure, during 1980-
1990, has led to decreases in the already small areas of agricultural land per person in six out of eight
countries (14% for India and 22% for Pakistan).
Population pressure also operates through other mechanisms. Improper agricultural practices, for
instance, occur only under constraints such as the saturation of good lands under population pressure
which leads settlers to cultivate too shallow or too steep soils, plough fallow land before it has
recovered its fertility, or attempt to obtain multiple crops by irrigating unsuitable soils.
High population density is not always related to land degradation. Rather, it is the practices of the
human population that can cause a landscape to become degraded. Populations can be a benefit to the
land and make it more productive than it is in its natural state. Land degradation is an important factor
of internal displacement in many African and Asian countries
Severe land degradation affects a significant portion of the Earth's arable lands, decreasing the wealth
and economic development of nations. As the land resource base becomes less productive, food
security is compromised and competition for dwindling resources increases, the seeds of famine and
potential conflict are sewn.

What is biomagnification?
An important process through which chemicals can affect living organisms is bioaccumulation.
Bioaccumulation means an increase in the concentration of a chemical in a biological organism over
time, compared to the chemical's concentration in the environment. Compounds accumulate in living
things any time they are taken up and stored faster than they are broken down (metabolized) or
excreted. Understanding the dynamic process of bioaccumulation is very important in protecting human
beings and other organisms from the adverse effects of chemical exposure, and it has become a critical
consideration in the regulation of chemicals.
A number of terms are used in conjunction with bioaccumulation. Uptake describes the entrance of a
chemical into an organism -- such as by breathing, swallowing, or absorbing it through the skin --
without regard to its subsequent storage, metabolism, and excretion by that organism.
Storage, a term sometimes confused with bioaccumulation, means the temporary deposit of a chemical
in body tissue or in an organ. Storage is just one facet of chemical bioaccumulation. (The term also
applies to other natural processes, such as the storage of fat in hibernating animals or the storage of
starch in seeds.)
Bioconcentration is the specific bioaccumulation process by which the concentration of a chemical in an
organism becomes higher than its concentration in the air or water around the organism. Although the
process is the same for both natural and manmade chemicals, the term bio-concentration usually refers
to chemicals foreign to the organism. For fish and other aquatic animals, bioconcentration after uptake
through the gills (or sometimes the skin) is usually the most important bioaccumulation process.
Biomagnification describes a process that results in the accumulation of a chemical in an organism at
higher levels than are found in its food. It occurs when a chemical becomes more and more
concentrated as it moves up through a food chain -- the dietary linkages between single-celled plants
and increasingly larger animal species.
A typical food chain includes algae eaten by the water flea eaten by a minnow eaten by a trout and
finally consumed by an osprey (or human being). If each step results in increased bioaccumulation, that
is, biomagnification, then an animal at the top of the food chain, through its regular diet, may
accumulate a much greater concentration of chemical than was present in organisms lower in the food
chain.
Biomagnification is illustrated by a study of DDT which showed that where soil levels were 10 parts per
million (ppm), DDT reached a concentration of 141 ppm in earthworms and 444 ppm in robins. Through
biomagnification, the concentration of a chemical in the animal at the top of the food chain may be high
enough to cause death or adverse effects on behavior, reproduction, or disease resistance and thus
endanger that species, even when levels in the water, air, or soil are low. Fortunately, bioaccumulation
does not always result in biomagnification.
THE BIOACCUMULATION PROCESS - Bioaccumulation is a normal and essential process for the growth
and nurturing of organisms. All animals, including humans, daily bioaccumulate many vital nutrients,
such as vitamins A,D and K, trace minerals, and essential fats and amino acids. What concerns
toxicologists is the bioaccumulation of substances to levels in the body that can cause harm. Because
bioaccumulation is the net result of the interaction of uptake, storage and elimination of a chemical,
these parts of the process will be examined further.

What is Organic Farming?

Organic farming is a method of crop and livestock production that involves much more than choosing
not to use pesticides, fertilizers, genetically modified organisms, antibiotics and growth hormones.
Organic production is a holistic system designed to optimize the productivity and fitness of diverse
communities within the agro-ecosystem, including soil organisms, plants, livestock and people. The
principal goal of organic production is to develop enterprises that are sustainable and harmonious with
the environment.
The general principles of organic production, from the Canadian Organic Standards (2006), include the
following:
protect the environment, minimize soil degradation and erosion, decrease pollution,
optimize biological productivity and promote a sound state of health
maintain long-term soil fertility by optimizing conditions for biological activity within the
soil
maintain biological diversity within the system
recycle materials and resources to the greatest extent possible within the enterprise
provide attentive care that promotes the health and meets the behavioural needs of
livestock
prepare organic products, emphasizing careful processing, and handling methods in
order to maintain the organic integrity and vital qualities of the products at all stages of
production
rely on renewable resources in locally organized agricultural systems
Organic farming promotes the use of crop rotations and cover crops, and encourages balanced
host/predator relationships. Organic residues and nutrients produced on the farm are recycled
back to the soil. Cover crops and composted manure are used to maintain soil organic matter
and fertility. Preventative insect and disease control methods are practiced, including crop
rotation, improved genetics and resistant varieties. Integrated pest and weed management,
and soil conservation systems are valuable tools on an organic farm. Organically approved
pesticides include natural or other pest management products included in the Permitted
Substances List (PSL) of the organic standards. The Permitted Substances List identifies
substances permitted for use as a pesticides in organic agriculture. All grains, forages and
protein supplements fed to livestock must be organically grown.
The organic standards generally prohibit products of genetic engineering and animal cloning,
synthetic pesticides, synthetic fertilizers, sewage sludge, synthetic drugs, synthetic food processing
aids and ingredients, and ionizing radiation. Prohibited products and practices must not be used on
certified organic farms for at least three years prior to harvest of the certified organic products.
Livestock must be raised organically and fed 100 per cent organic feed ingredients.
Organic farming presents many challenges. Some crops are more challenging than others to grow
organically; however, nearly every commodity can be produced organically.

What are the major types of pesticides?
The word "pesticide" is a general term used to describe a substance (or mixture) that kills a pest, or it
prevents or reduces the damage a pest may cause. Pests can be insects, mice or other animals,
unwanted plants (weeds), fungi, bacteria or viruses.
Pesticides can also include any substance that is used to modify a plant's growth (regulator), drop a
plant's leaves prematurely (defoliant), or act as a drying agent (desiccant). Pesticides are usually
chemicals, but they can also be made from natural materials such as animals, plants, bacteria, etc.
NOTE: The term "pesticide" describes a very large and diverse group of chemicals or products. It is very
important to always get specific information about the exact product you are using.
Pesticides include a wide range of products - many of which you may use every day. The table below
lists some common categories, their purpose, and what products they are normally found in. There are
many, many more types of pesticides than what is listed here.
Common Types of Pesticides
Category Purpose Examples
Insecticides Kills or repel insects, ticks and mites bug sprays
insect repellents
ant and roach baits
garden dusts or sprays
commercial farm/orchard sprays
flea shampoos, flea and tick collars
moth balls
Herbicides Kills weeds or unwanted plants. weed killers
weed and feed lawn care products
tree cut/stump treatments
Fungicides Kills mould, mildew and other fungi. rose and flower sprays
commercial farm/orchard sprays
treated seeds
paint additives
Rodenticides Kills rodents such as mice and rats. mouse and rat bait stations
Disinfectants Kills bacteria, mould and mildew. bleach
ammonia
kitchen and bathroom cleaners
pool and spa cleaners
Wood preservatives Protects wood from insects and fungi. pressure-treated wood

6. Explain different alternative methods of pest control.

Pest control refers to the regulation or management of a species defined as a pest, usually because it is
perceived to be detrimental to a person'shealth, the ecology or the economy.
Practitioners of pest control are referred to as Exterminators.

Types of Pest Control:
Biological pest control
Biological pest control is the control of one through the control and management of
natural predators and parasites. For example: mosquitoes are often controlled by putting Bt Bacillus
thuringiensis ssp. israelensis, a bacterium that infects and kills mosquito larvae, in local water sources.
The treatment has no known negative consequences on the remaining ecology and is safe for humans to
drink. The point of biological pest control, or any natural pest control, is to eliminate a pest with minimal
harm to the ecological balance of the environment in its present form.
Mechanical pest control
Mechanical pest control is the use of hands-on techniques as well as simple equipment, devices, and
natural ingredients that provide a protective barrier between plants and insects. For example: weeds
can be controlled by being physically removed from the ground. This is referred to as tillage and is one
of the oldest methods of weed control.
Elimination of breeding grounds
Proper waste management and drainage of still water, eliminates the breeding ground of many pests.
Garbage provides food and shelter for many unwanted organisms, as well as an area where still water
might collect and be used as a breeding ground by mosquitoes. Communities that have proper garbage
collection and disposal, have far less of a problem with rats, cockroaches, mosquitoes, flies and other
pests than those that don't.
Open air sewers are ample breeding ground for various pests as well. By building and maintaining a
proper sewer system, this problem is eliminated.
Certain spectrums of LED light can "disrupt insects breeding.
Poisoned bait
Poisoned bait is a common method for controlling rat populations, however is not as effective when
there are other food sources around, such as garbage. Poisoned meats have been used for centuries for
killing off wolves, birds that were seen to threaten crops, and against other creatures. This can be a
problem, since a carcass which has been poisoned will kill not only the targeted animal, but also every
other animal which feeds on the carcass. Humans have also been killed by coming in contact with
poisoned meat, or by eating an animal which had fed on a poisoned carcass. This tool is also used to
manage several caterpillars e.g.Spodoptera litura,fruit flies,snails and slugs,crabs etc.
Field burning
Traditionally, after a sugar cane harvest, the fields are all burned, to kill off any insects or eggs that
might be in the fields.
Hunting
Historically, in some European countries, when stray dogs and cats became too numerous, local
populations gathered together to round up all animals that did not appear to have an owner and kill
them. In some nations, teams of rat catchers work at chasing rats from the field, and killing them with
dogs and simple hand tools. Some communities have in the past employed a bounty system, where a
town clerk will pay a set fee for every rat head brought in as proof of a rat killing.
Traps
With the many traps available on the market today you can easily remove mice and rats from homes.
You must first know what rodent needs to be removed, you can then decide what type of trap is the
best suited to your needs. The snap trap is the most widely used, it utilizes a trigger (sometimes shaped
like cheese) to hold bait, and kills the rodent by striking it behind the head with a wire rod or jaw. In
some instances you may wish to use glue traps also called glue boards. This type of trap requires the
mouse or rat to attempt to cross the trap so the glue can hold the rodent. After a catch is made you can
euthanize the rodent and dispose of it trap and all, or some glue boards will release the catch when you
pour vegetable oil on them, as the oil reacts with the glue to lose its grip. The last type of trap are live
catch traps, this type of trap is typically a repeating style so more than one animal can be caught at a
time, they can also be released from this trap in a new location if desired.
Pesticides
Spraying pesticides by planes, handheld units, or trucks that carry the spraying equipment, is a common
method of pest control. Crop dusters commonly fly over farmland and spray pesticides to kill off pests
that would threaten the crops. However, some pesticides may cause cancer and other health problems,
as well as harming wildlife.
Space fumigation
A project that involves a structure be covered or sealed airtight followed by the introduction of a
penetrating, deadly gas at a killing concentration a long period of time (24-72hrs.). Although expensive,
space fumigation targets all life stages of pests
Space treatment
A long term project involving fogging or misting type applicators. Liquid insecticide is dispersed in the
atmosphere within a structure. Treatments do not require the evacuation or airtight sealing of a
building, allowing most work within the building to continue but at the cost of the penetrating effects.
Contact insecticides are generally used, minimizing the long lasting residual effects.
Sterilization
Laboratory studies conducted with U-5897 (3-chloro-1,2-propanediol) where attempted in the early
1970s although these proved unsuccessful. Research into sterilization bait is ongoing.
Another effective method of soil sterilization is soil steaming. Pest is killed through hot steam which is
induced into the soil.
Destruction of infected plants
Forest services sometimes destroy all the trees in an area where some are infected with insects, if seen
as necessary to prevent the insect species from spreading. Farms infested with certain insects, have
been burned entirely, to prevent the pest from spreading elsewhere.
Natural rodent control
Several wildlife rehabilitation organizations encourage natural form of rodent control through exclusion
and predator support and preventing secondary poisoning altogether.
The United States Environmental Protection Agency agrees, noting in its Proposed Risk Mitigation
Decision for Nine Rodenticides that without habitat modification to make areas less attractive to
commensal rodents, even eradication will not prevent new populations from recolonizing the habitat.
Repellents
Balsam fir oil from the tree Abies balsamea is an EPA approved non-toxic rodent repellent.
Acacia polyacantha subsp. campylacantha root emits chemical compounds that repel animals
including crocodiles, snakes and rats.

What are the different problems that arise from the use of pesticides?

Problems associated with the use of pesticides have shown up. Major problems include:

harmful side effects on non-target organisms (people, animals, soil, water, etc.)

resurgence of pest populations (because natural control is disrupted)

the development of resistance

the cost

Toxicity for non-target organisms
The use of pesticides (both synthetic and organic) always involves certain risks because of their
poisonous character. Who is at risk?

The users of the pesticides.
Farmers and their family members run the highest risks. They can easily come in contact with the
pesticides, for example when mixing the chemicals or when applying them to the crop.

The consumers of farm products.
The pesticides that were sprayed on the crop can leave behind residues that will be eaten by the
consumers.

The environment.
Pesticides will not only reach the target organisms but will also kill other organisms (e.g. beneficial
insects, birds, earthworms, fish) in or around the crop fields, causing loss of biodiversity, deaths of wild
life, and death of farm animals. Soil, air and water bodies can easily be contaminated with these
poisonous chemicals. The unavoidable destruction of beneficial insects and spiders interferes with
natural pest control.
he mentioned risks are most obvious when pesticides cause acute toxicity to man, domestic animals and
non-target organisms such as fish, bees, birds and soil organisms. The more subtle long-term chronic
effects (disruption of endocrine system, cancer, sterility and mutagenic effects) often go unnoticed and
are not yet fully understood.
Also in the environment, some pesticides have not only acute effects but also long-term effects.
Especially the "persistent organic pollutants" (POPs) will continue to poison non-target organisms in the
environment and will also appear as crop residues long after their use has ceased.
No pesticide, synthetic or organic, is considered "safe". However, some are less dangerous to use than
others, depending on their effect on living organisms. Before using a pesticide, it is essential to be well
informed about the various effects it may have. Farmers have to know how to reduce the risks.
Pesticides kill not only the pests but also the natural enemies of these pests. That means that natural
control mechanisms are disrupted and it allows the pest populations to rapidly build up again to levels
that can cause serious crop damage.
The disruption of natural control can even create new pest problems. Minor pests that are usually kept
at low numbers by their natural enemies will multiply rapidly in the absence of their enemies and cause
outbreaks. So the control directed against one pests may result in the outbreak of another pest.
The resurgence of pest populations after removing natural enemies creates a dependence on pesticides,
which obviously is not sustainable. A key element of Integrated Pest Management is therefore to avoid
resurgence. Conservation of natural enemies is required so that natural control will not be disrupted.

The economic problems related to the use of pesticides:

There are two sides to the economics of pesticide use.

Direct costs
This refer to buying the products, which requires investment by the farmers.

While many will argue that pesticides are cheap, they form a major part of the farm inputs.

Many farmers have become trapped in a dependence on pesticides. By using pesticides they have
disrupted natural control, which results in more pests and which leads to more pesticide use.

Indirect costs
This refers to all kind of expenses related to pesticide use, most of which are paid by the government
spending tax payers' money.

A hidden cost is all the medical costs related to health problems and accidental deaths as a result of
pesticide use.

Governments spend millions on laboratories for residue testing, laboratories for testing the quality
of pesticides, field testing of pesticides, testing of side effects, etc.

Other costs born by the government include: costs for staff involved in registration, labeling,
inspectors for implementing legislation, disposal of obsolete pesticides, cleaning of contaminated
sites, etc.

The import of pesticides requires large amount of foreign currencies.

The pesticide residue issue is becoming more and more important in world trade. This is a
development which is likely to have an adverse effect on the export market for countries that rely
heavily on agriculture as a major part of their economy.

7. What are the different major infectious organisms and hazardous agents that cause
environmental diseases?

There are many different types of environmental disease including:

Lifestyle disease such as cardiovascular disease, diseases caused by substance abuse such as
alcoholism, and smoking-related disease

Disease caused by physical factors in the environment, such as skin cancer caused by excessive
exposure to ultraviolet radiation in sunlight

Disease caused by exposure to chemicals in the environment such as toxic metals
Categories of environmental disease
First, there are those caused by the ancient metals: lead and mercury.
Then there are those caused by the other metals: arsenic, phosphorus, and zinc.
The newer metals can also cause environmental disease: beryllium, cadmium, chromium,
manganese, nickel, cobalt, osmium, platinum, selenium, tellurium, thallium, uranium, and
vanadium.

Additionally, there are environmental diseases caused by the aromatic carbon compounds
including : benzene, hexachlorocyclohexane, toluenediisocyanate, phenol,pentachlorophenol, quino
ne and hydroquinone.Also included are the aromatic nitro-, amino-, and
pyridiliumderatives: nitrobenzene, dinitrobenzene, trinitrotoluene, paramethylaminophenol
sulfate (Metol), dinitroorthocresol,aniline, trinitrophenylmethylnitramine (tetryl), hexanitrodiphenyl
amine (aurantia), phenylenediamineand paraquat. The aliphatic carbon compounds can also cause
environmental disease. Included in these
are methanol, nitroglycerine, nitrocellulose, dimethylnitrosamine, and
the halogenatedhydrocarbons: methyl chloride, methyl bromide, trichloroethylene, carbon
tetrachloride, and the chlorinated naphthalenes. Also included are glycols: ethylene
chlorhydrin anddiethylene dioxide as well as carbon disulfide, acrylonitrile, acrylamide, and vinyl
chloride.

Other important chemical causes of environmental diseases are the noxious gases which can be
categorized as : Simple asphxiants, chemical asphyxiants, and irritant gases. The simple asphixiants
are nitrogen, methane, and carbon dioxide. The chemical asphyxiants are carbon
monoxide, sulfuretted hydrogen and hydrogen cyanide. The irritant gases are sulfur
dioxide, ammonia, nitrogen dioxide, chlorine, phosgene, and fluorine and its compounds, which
include luroine and hydrofluoric acid, fluorspar,fluorapatite, cryolite, and organic fluorine
compounds.

8. What are the basic Geological principles? How do tectonic plate movements affect condition
for life in earth?

4 Common Geological Principles:
a.) Law of Superposition. Nicolaus Steno, a Danish anatomist, geologist, and priest (1636 - 1686)
observed the changes in a sequence of rock layers while working in the mountains of Italy. Steno's
observations became known as the Law of Superposition which simply stated that in a sequence of
sedimentary rock layers, each layer of rock is older than the layer above it and younger than the rock
layer below it. The Law of Superposition also applied to other geologic events on the surface, such as
lava flows and ash layers from volcanic eruptions.
b.) Law of Crosscutting Relationships. Described by Scotsman James Hutton (1726 - 1997), the Law
of Crosscutting Relationships stated that if a fault or other body of rock cuts through another body of
rock then it must be younger in age than the rock through which it cuts and displaces.
c.) Law of Inclusions. The Law of Inclusions was also described by James Hutton and stated that if a
rock body (Rock B) contained fragments of another rock body (Rock A), it must be younger than the
fragments of rock it contained. The intruding rock (Rock A) must have been there first to provide the
fragments.
d.) Law of Faunal Succession. In 1790, while engineering canals to link Britain's looming industrial
age together, William Smith observed that fossils of invertebrate animals found in the rock layers
appeared in a predictable sequence. From this observation the Law of Faunal Succession was developed
and stated that fossils occur in a definite, invariable sequence in the geologic record.

Effects of Tectonic plate movements in the environment

At the boundaries of tectonic plates you get a lot of emission of various gasses either from hydrothermal
vents at mid-ocean ridges or from volcanoes near plate subduction zones. These gasses typically
comprise things like sulphur dioxide and carbon dioxide that can have big impacts on climate and ocean
chemistry. Another major impact on the environment from plate tectonics is mountain building, such as
when two plates collide to form large mountain ranges such as the Himalayas. Big mountain ranges can
have huge affects on weather patterns and precipitation. The Asian monsoons are heavily influenced by
the Himalayan plateau for example. Also, weathering of mountain ranges can alter the atmospheric and
ocean composition due to the chemical processes involved. Finally, as plate tectonics causes the
continents to shift position it will have a direct effect on ocean circulation and how heat is distributed
around the planet, as well as those continents shifting to different latitudes and climate regimes.

9. What are the geological hazards of earthquakes, volcanoes and tsunamis?

Earthquakes effects:
Ground shaking, in itself, is not dangerous. However, the resulting damage to buildings and other
structures and the risk of casualties from falling debris can make it extremely hazardous. Some of the
earthquake effects that can be harmful to people are:

a.) Collapsing buildings, walls, bridges, falling furniture or objects, shattering glass windows and
mirrors. Debris from collapsing structures is one of the principal dangers during an earthquake since
the impact of large, heavy objects can be fatal to human beings. Earthquakes sometimes cause glass
windows and mirrors to shatter and this is also quite dangerous. Earthquake aftershocks can result in
the complete collapse of buildings that were damaged during an earthquake.
b.) Falling electricity lines. Earthquakes can cause electricity poles to fall and live wires to become
exposed or to start fires.
c.) Ruptured gas lines and spillage of flammable substances. Earthquake-generated fires can
cause widespread destruction after a major earthquake. Escaping gas from broken gas lines and the
toppling of containers with flammable substances (e.g. kerosene, household chemicals, etc.) present a
significant threat of explosions and fires, which can cause death and destruction of property.
Additionally, water pipes are sometimes ruptured during an earthquake and this compounds the
problem of controlling such fires.
d.) Rock slides and/or landslides on mountains and hillsides. During an earthquake, large rocks
and portions of earth high up in the hills can become dislodged and rapidly roll or slide down into the
valleys.
e.) Floods caused by the collapse of dam walls. Earthquakes can cause dam walls to crack and
eventually collapse, sending raging waters into surrounding areas and causing severe flooding.
f.) Tsunamis. A tsunami is a large sea wave or series of waves that can be generated by an
earthquake. Large tsunamis can completely devastate low-lying coastal areas.
g.) Liquefaction. When sediments with a high water content are subjected to prolonged shaking,
the pressure of the water held in pores in the sediment gradually increases eventually, the sediments
lose all cohesive strength and begin to behave as if they were liquids. Building and other structures sink
into the ground or overturn and buried tanks and other cavities rise to the surface. This is known as
liquefaction. Liquefaction occurred during the earthquake of 1692 in Jamaica and was responsible for
the destruction of the town of Port Royal. Over the past few decades, many parts of the Eastern
Caribbean have become increasingly vulnerable to liquefaction because of the increased use of
reclaimed land for urban development.
Volcano Eruption Effects:

There is considerable debate on the role that humans play in changing global climate through both the
burning of fossil fuels and the release of chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) gases. Some argue that human
interaction poses less of a threat to our atmosphere than do natural processes, like volcanic eruptions.
This places a great deal of importance on understanding the role of volcanic eruptions in affecting global
climate change. Whatever the source, it is apparent that compositional changes in the earth's
atmosphere generate three principal climatic effects:

a.) THE OZONE EFFECT: Intense sunlight in the stratosphere (above 12 km) produces bluish colored
ozone (O3) by naturally breaking down normal oxygen molecules (O2) into two highly reactive oxygen
atoms (O). Each oxygen atom then quickly bonds with an oxygen molecule to form ozone. Ozone
absorbs UV radiation, and in the process ozone is changed back into an oxygen molecule and an oxygen
atom. A balance exists in ozone destruction and production, so that an equilibrium concentration exists
in the stratosphere. This equilibrium has probably existed throughout much of geologic time. Recently,
however, an ozone hole has been detected in the stratosphere over Antarctica, presumably due to the
atmospheric build up of ozone-destroying CFCs by humans. Ozone depletion has resulted in a greater
penetration of ultraviolet radiation on the earth's surface, which is harmful to life on earth because it
damages cellular DNA. The ozone effect does not appear to have a direct influence on global
temperatures.

b.) THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT: Certain gases, called greenhouse gases (primarily carbon dioxide and
water vapor; but also methane, N2O, and CFCs), allow short wavelength radiation from the sun (UV and
visible light) to penetrate through the lower atmosphere to the earth's surface. These same gases,
however, absorb long wavelength radiation (infrared), which is the energy the earth reradiates back into
space. The trapping of this infrared heat energy by these greenhouse gases results in global warming.
Global warming has been evident since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution. Most scientists
attribute global warming to the release of greenhouse gases through the burning of fossil fuels.

c.) THE HAZE EFFECT: Suspended particles, such as dust and ash, can block out the earth's sunlight,
thus reducing solar radiation and lowering mean global temperatures. The haze effect often generates
exceptionally red sunsets due to the scattering of red wavelengths by submicron-size particles in the
stratosphere and upper troposphere.

Tsunami Effects:

Tsunamis are large, destructive waves that are caused by the sudden movement of a large area
of the sea floor. Tsunamis are often incorrectly called tidal waves, but unlike regular ocean tides they
are not caused by the gravitational pull of the moon and sun. Most tsunamis are caused by earthquakes,
some are caused by submarine landslides, a few are caused by submarine volcanic eruptions and on rare
occasions they are caused by a large meteorite impact in the ocean. The December produced the largest
trans-oceanic tsunami in over 40 years, and killed more people than any tsunami in recorded history.
The Krakatau volcanic eruption of 1883 generated giant waves reaching heights of 125 feet above sea
level, killing thousands of people and wiping out numerous coastal villages.
While tsunami means "harbor wave" in Japanese, a tsunami is actually a series of large waves
created by the sudden movement of the seafloor. The energy generated by the earthquake or other
event is transmitted through the water as a large train of waves, but the movement of these waves is
very different from the movement of waves generated by wind. NASA's Physics behind the Wave
explains the structure of tsunamis. Tsunamis can travel rapidly across oceans, causing destruction far
from the location where they were generated. All oceanic regions of the world experience tsunamis,
although tsunamis in the Atlantic, Mediterranean, and Caribbean tend to be smaller and less destructive
than those in the Pacific and Indian Oceans. About 90 percent of recorded tsunamis occur in the Pacific
Ocean. The reasons for this lie in the geologic structure of the Pacific basin - the ocean is surrounded by
a geologically active series of mountain chains, deep ocean, trenches, and island arcs, sometimes called
"the ring of fire." The earthquakes and volcanic eruptions that occur in the ring of fire are the source of
many tsunamis.

The height of a tsunami in the deep ocean is small - usually about 1 foot - and they cannot be
seen or felt by ships at sea. The distance between wave crests can be more than 100 miles. The speed at
which the tsunami travels decreases as water depth decreases. In the deep waters of the mid-Pacific, a
tsunami can reach a speed of more than 500 miles per hour, but in the shallow waters near land the
speed drops to 100 miles per hour or less. As tsunamis reach shallow water the height of the waves
increases dramatically, and can reach 100 feet or more. These huge waves can wash far inland, carrying
large amounts of debris, destroying buildings and other structures, causing widespread flooding, and
dramatically altering shorelines. Most tsunamis consist of a series of waves, and the first wave to reach
shore may not be the largest.

10. Evaluate the cost and benefits of using coal, oil and natural gas.

NATURAL GAS
Advantages
Burns clean compared to cola, oil (less polluting)
70% less carbon dioxide compared to other fossil fuels
Helps improve quality of air and water (not a pollutant)
does not produce ashes after energy release
has high heating value of 24,000 Btu per pound
Inexpensive compared to coal
No odor until added

Drawbacks
Not a renewable source
Finite resource trapped in the earth (some experts disagree)
Inability to recover all in-place gas from a producible deposit because of
unfavorable economics and lack of technology (It costs more to recover the remaining natural gas
because of flow, access, etc.)

CRUDE OIL

Advantages
Oil is one of the most abundant energy resources
Liquid form of oil makes it easy to transport and use
Oil has high heating value
Relatively inexpensive
No new technology needed to use

Disadvantages
Oil burning leads to carbon emissions Finite resources (some disagree)
Oil recovery processes not efficient enoughtechnology needs to be developed to provide better
yields
Oil drilling endangers the environment and ecosystems
Oil transportation (by ship) can lead to spills, causing environmental and ecological damage (major oil
spill near Spain in late Fall 2002)

COAL
Pros
One of the most abundant energy sources
Versatile; can be burned directly, transformed into liquid, gas, or feedstock
Inexpensive compared to other energy sources
Good for recreational use (charcoal for barbequing, drawing)
Can be used to produce ultra-clean fuel
Can lower overall amount of greenhouse gases (liquification or Gasification)
Leading source of electricity today
Reduces dependence on foreign oil
By-product of burning (ash) can be used for concrete and roadways

Cons
Source of pollution: emits waste, SO2, Nitrogen Oxide, ash
Coal mining mars the landscape
Liquification, gasification requires large amounts of water Physical transport is difficult
Technology to process to liquid or gas is not fully developed
Solid is more difficult to burn than liquid or gases
Not renewable in this millennium
High water content reduces heating value
Dirty industryleads to health problems
Dirty coal creates more pollution and emissions

11. What are the other potential energy sources?

Alternative energy is any energy source that is an alternative to fossil fuel. These alternatives are
intended to address concerns about such fossil fuels. The nature of what constitutes an alternative
energy source has changed considerably over time, as have controversies regarding energy use. Today,
because of the variety of energy choices and differing goals of their advocates, defining some energy
types as "alternative" is highly controversial. In a general sense, alternative energy as it is currently
conceived, is that which is produced or recovered without the undesirable consequences inherent
in fossil fuel use, particularly high carbon dioxide emissions, an important factor in global warming.

Common types of alternative energy:

a.) Solar energy is the use of sunlight. Light can be changed into thermal (heat) energy and electric
energy.
b.) Wind energy is the generation of electricity from the wind.
c.) Geothermal energy is the use of the earth's internal heat to boil water for heating buildings or
generating electricity.
d.) Biofuel and Ethanol are plant-derived gasoline substitutes for powering vehicles.
e.) Nuclear binding energy uses nuclear fission to release energy.
f.) Hydrogen is burned and used as clean fuel for spaceships and some cars.

RIZAL TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
BONI AVENUE, MANDALUYONG CITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGY
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN ARCHITECTURE

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
(FINAL EXAMINATION)

SUBMITTED BY
FERNANDEZ, LOUISE LANE
CEIT-01-601A
MH 09:00AM-10:30AM

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Sound is the movement of energy through substances in longitudinal (compression/rarefaction)

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