068 113 Surfing

God Save the Queen (or God Save the
King when a king reigns) is the

national anthem of the UK. There is
good ground to believe it was
composed by Henry Carey in 1740.
Only the first verse is usually sung in
official occasions. The tune has been
used by many countries for anthems
and hymns, for instance by the USA
for America.
Objectives
The aim of this module is:
1 to help you understand the roots of modern Britain, i.e.
how historical events and social developments have
shaped present day Britain and contributed to the
formation of a (basic) national (cultural) identity;
2 to provide a guide to comparing different cultures
establishing connections in the fields of political and social
development, literature and the arts;
3 to develop both your accuracy and fluency in the use of
the language;
4 to improve your linguistic skills, with special attention to:
taking notes on the content of oral and written texts
reporting both orally and in writing
describing events and their social and cultural contexts
discussing ideas, events and values
researching a variety of sources (books, films, the
Internet, etc.)
expressing personal opinions and viewpoints
writing notes and paragraphs
Contents
1 From Prehistoric Britain to the Tudors
2 The Tudors (1485-1603)
3 The Stuarts (1603-1714)
4 The Georgian Period (1714-1830)
5 The Victorian Age (1837-1901)
6 The Windsors (1917- )
Before starting this module you need to have completed
Module A and to know both the geography and the basic
aspects of British and Irish culture.
68 M O D U L E B The Shaping of the UK
Projects
You are expected to develop these projects working both
individually and in groups:
Project one Make a file/poster about ancient Britain.
Project two Make a file/poster about Medieval England.
Project three Make a file/poster about Tudor England.
Project four Make a file/poster about 17th century Britain.
Project five Make a file/poster about 18th century Britain.
Project six Make a file/poster about the Victorian Age.
Project seven Make a file/poster about 20th century Britain.
Project eight Make a literary map of the British Isles
(referring both to Module A and B).
God Save the Queen
God save our gracious Queen,
Long live our noble Queen,
God Save the Queen!
Send her victorious,
Happy and glorious,
Long to reign over us,
God Save the Queen!
The Shaping of the UK
69 I nt r oduct i on
Quiz
How much do you know about the UK already? Try this quiz and then try it again after you have finished
the module.
What four countries make up the UK?
Where does the name Britain come from?
Which languages, ancient and modern, contributed most to the making of modern-day English?
Which famous book, partly inspired by Boccaccios Decamerone, is held to be the first written in English?
Who is head of the Church of England?
How many wives had Henry VIII?
Who was the Virgin Queen?
Why were Englands first theatres built outside city limits?
Can you name four plays by William Shakespeare?
Who were the Roundheads and the Cavaliers?
When was the UK formed?
Which was the most famous sea battle in English history (1805)?
How did the British make huge profits from the slave trade?
What was the Industrial Revolution?
How did the London bobby get his name?
Which country was the jewel in the crown of Queen Victoria?
Who was the most popular English novelist of the 19th century?
Why did the royal family change its name from Saxe-Coburg-Gotha to Windsor in 1917?
What is the Commonwealth of Nations?
How long has Elizabeth II been queen?
From Prehistoric Britain
to the Tudors
Which are the oldest buildings in
Italy? Where are they?
What are the most common
constructions left by the Romans?
Which were the oldest churches in
Italy (before 1000 AD)? What were
they like?
CLASS DISCUSSION 2
Stonehenge is one of the most famous
archaeological sites in the world. It is a
mysterious prehistoric monument which
was probably built around 3,000 BC for
religious or astronomical purposes. It was
a large circle of thirty enormous standing
stones, with a second U-shaped line of
ten even larger stones inside the circle.
The largest of these stones is nearly 9m
high and weighs over 50 tons. How the
huge stones were transported there
(some from as far as Wales) is also part of
the mystery. In recent years it has become
a gathering point for some New Age
groups, particularly at Midsummers Day,
when you can see the sun rising from
behind a stone whose top seems to touch
the horizon.
1
Who were the ancient inhabitants of
Britain? Where were they from?
Where does the name Britain come
from?
How long did the Romans occupy
the country?
What did they leave there?
What happened when the Romans
left?
Where did the Vikings settle?
How did the British become Christian?
Who was King Arthur?
KEY QUESTIONS
Ancient Britain
(before 43 AD)
There is no written record of the
prehistoric period in Britain, though
the remains of prehistoric monuments
can be found throughout the country.
The Celts came to the British Isles
from Europe in about 700 BC and
settled mainly in England. They were
tall people with fair hair and blue eyes.
They were good fighters and farmers
and also fine artists. It is thought that
they loved music. They were organised
in tribes. The priestly caste known as
druids were the most influential
people in the tribe. They were
responsible for religious practices,
medical treatment, education and the
administration of justice. The Celts
worshipped nature and held their
rituals in the open air. They believed in
the immortality of the soul, which,
after death, moved either into a new
body or into the natural elements.
Therefore, nature was mysterious
because it was filled with the presence
of spirits who were in touch with the
supernatural world.
Their language, Gaelic, is still
spoken in certain forms in some places
in Scotland, Wales and Ireland.
1
71 Fr om Pr ehi st or i c Br i t ai n t o t he Tudor s
Roman Britain
(43- 410)
In 55 BC Julius Caesar landed in
England, but he soon left. The Romans
came back in 43 AD and occupied the
whole of England and Wales. They
stayed for nearly 400 years in what
they called the province of Britannia.
Some of the Celts stayed in England
and Wales and became Romanised,
while others migrated to Ireland and
Scotland. The people who lived in
England before and during the Roman
occupation were called Britons.
The Romans introduced their
civilisation and language. They built
well planned towns, such as London,
Bath and York. They also built roads,
villas and baths, but most of their
roads and buildings were destroyed
when they left. A reminder of the
Roman occupation of Britain are some
English place names: Chester,
Manchester, Doncaster were originally
Roman military camps, and their
names come from the Latin word
castrum.
The Germanic invasions
(410-1066)
The Romans left in 409, and Germanic
tribes started to raid Britain. Two of
them, the Angles and the Saxons
invaded the country in around 450 and
settled in the south and east. In the
west they were first stopped by an
army of Celtic Britons under the
command of the perhaps imaginary
Saxon kingdom of Wessex. For some
time England was divided between the
Saxons (in the south and west, then
called Wessex) and the Danes (in the
north and east). The Vikings took on
the Christian religion. They were
powerful by sea and were good traders.
The capital of their kingdom was
Yorvik (York). The whole of England
was under Danish rule from 1013 to
1042, and the two peoples gradually
mingled into one culture.
1. A wall, called Hadrians Wall, was built right
across the northern part of England to protect
Britannia from Scottish tribes from Caledonia
(Scotland).
2. Ship burial at Sutton Hoo, Suffolk. The 7th
century AD helmet made of iron and covered with
tinned bronze decorative plates giving a silvered
effect. The features of the face-mask are gilded.
British Museum, London.
King Arthur (p. 77), but later they
occupied all of England and parts of
Southern Scotland. Most Britons took
refuge in the mountains of Wales and
Scotland.
The Anglo-Saxons established
seven kingdoms: some of their names
(e.g. Kent, Sussex, East Anglia) still
mark English counties or regions. They
introduced new farming methods and
founded thousands of villages. They
loved music and poetry. They used gold
and other metals to make fine
jewellery, weapons and domestic
articles. They had a primitive form of
religion linked to the mysterious forces
of nature, and a world of magicians,
charms, dragons and monsters. Their
Gods names live on in some days of
the week : Tiw = Tuesday, Woden =
Wednesday, Donar = Tuesday, Fria =
Friday.
During this period, missionaries
came to the British Isles and many
people became Christian. First St
Patrick converted Ireland in 432.
Christianity then spread to Scotland.
150 years later, St Augustine arrived in
England and became the first
Archbishop of Canterbury. Churches,
cathedrals and monasteries were built
at this time.
The earliest examples of British
architecture are Saxon; the buildings
are characterized by thick stone walls,
round arches and small windows.
In the 9th century the Vikings (or
Danes) from Scandinavia conquered
most of Scotland and England, but
were defeated by King Alfred of the
1
2
Medieval England (1066-1485 )
1
1066 is the most famous date in
English history. Why?
How was feudal society organised in
England?
What languages were spoken?
How powerful was the King in the
Middle Ages?
How did the Magna Carta limit his
power?
What do you think the word
parliament comes from?
Why was the parliament set up in
1295 called the Model Parliament?
KEY QUESTIONS
1
2
3
4
The Norman conquest
The Normans (men of the north, from Scandinavia who had settled in France)
invaded England in 1066 and defeated the English at Hastings. The Duke of
Normandy, who was their leader, became King William I of England. He is known as
William the Conqueror. The Battle of Hastings changed the course of English
history. This was the last time that England was invaded and conquered.
The Bayeux tapestry (kept at Bayeux in France) is a unique
historical record of the events that led to the battle of
Hastings and the battle itself (1066). They are embroidered
on a tapestry 70 m long and 50cm high.
What can you learn from the pictures?
1. The invasion fleet crosses the
English Channel.
2. The Normans and the English
are fighting.
3. King Harold is killed.
4. The English turn and run away.
The Normans introduced the feudal
systeminto England. The King was the
owner of all the land, but it was
distributed among his vassals in return
for goods and services, including military
service. These vassals were known as
barons, or great lords, who in their turn
did the same with their own vassals,
knights, who became local lords, with
peasants working their lands. So
Norman soldiers became the owners of
the land and of the people living on it.
The lords were French-speaking
Normans, and the peasants were
English-speaking Saxons. It was from
these two languages that Middle English
developed (p. 14).
The Anglo-Norman kingdom became
the most powerful in the British Isles
and gradually extended to Wales and
part of Ireland over the following
centuries. Scotland remained politically
independent but the southern part
(Lowlands) resented the cultural
influence of England. In the north
(Highlands), the Gaelic culture and
language prevailed.
5. King Edward I with his Parliament.
What Say the Reeds at Runnymede?
At Runnymede, at Runnymede,
Your rights were won at Runnymede!
No freeman shall be fined or bound,
Or dispossessed of freehold ground,
Except by lawful judgement found
And passed upon him by his peers.
Forget not, after all these years,
The chart signed at Runnymede.
[]
Rudyard Kipling
The birth of parliament
At this time the power of the king was
absolute. However, in 1215, at
Runnymede, the powerful barons made
the king sign a document, called the
Magna Carta which, for the first time,
set a limit to the kings power and
obliged him to follow certain rules of
government.
By the terms of Magna Carta the
king promised to speak with his lords
before levying taxes. The council of lords
represented an early form of parliament,
What is the Italian word for Middle
Ages?
What does it mean?
Which were the two periods coming
before and after it?
How was Medieval Italy politically
organised?
Did any foreign countries rule in Italy?
Who?
Where did the Normans settle in
Italy?
Did they leave any notable
constructions behind them in Italy?
CLASS DISCUSSION 2
though the king was still the real ruler.
Later in the century it came to include
common men from urban and rural
areas as well. Rich merchants and
landowners, called the commons, sat
with members of the clergy and the
aristocracy in what was later called the
Model Parliament (1295). Four of the
original copies of the Magna Carta still
exist. Two are kept at the British Library
and two in the cathedrals of Lincoln and
Salisbury.
5
The great majority of the population
lived in the country, but some market
towns grew up where peasants and
craftsmen sold their goods. Craftsmen
were skilled workers who made a variety
of goods in their workshops: bread,
shoes, pots, furniture, etc. They belonged
to different guilds, according to their
Life in the Middle Ages
TASK
Read the text and take notes about
these people:
lord of the manor villeins freemen
yeomen craftsmen merchants
clothiers
1
Lords, peasants,
craftsmen and merchants
Most people in the Middle Ages lived in
small villages and worked on the land. In
each village there was a common land
where the peasants sheep and cattle
could graze. The most important man in
the village was the lord of the manor
(manor = land granted by the king to a
lord).
1. Houses were made of wood or stone. They often
had thatched roofs. The picture shows Great
Chalfield manor, a late Middle Ages manor house,
rebuilt in 1480.
2. The Normans were the first to build castles in
Britain for the lords to live in with their families,
soldiers and servants. These fortresses, such as the
Tower of London (p. 80) and Windsor Castle
(below), were built of stone.
The land belonged to the lord and
the peasants had to pay him rent. Most
peasants (called villeins) had to work on
the lords land for a few days a week.
They were not free. They were attached
to the land and could not leave the
manor without the lords consent.
Some better-off peasants (called
freemen) paid rent to the lord and were
not compelled to work on his land. They
could leave the village if they wished.
In the 15th century, life got better for
the peasants. Some freemen (called
yeomen) became richer making and
selling their own goods. They bought
more land with the money and built
new, larger houses. Though their lives
were always hard, poor peasants started
to earn money by working for the lords
and the yeomen as well.
In the Middle Ages all educated people
spoke Latin. This made it possible for the
students to move about from one
university to another. The first university
was set up at Oxford. It was followed a few
years later by its rival, Cambridge. The
students were mainly the sons of
tradesmen and well-off freemen. They
studied for seven years from 14 to 21.
trade or craft: tailors, goldsmiths,
carpenters, bakers, etc. The guild was an
association that looked after the
collective rights and interests of its
members. It established rules and set
standards of quality, regulated prices
and wages and supported its members
when they were in need.
Printing was invented in China in the 11th
century and was introduced in Europe in
the 15th century. Englands first printed
books were published in 1477.
Making woollen cloth was Englands
main industry. Since the 14th century
English cloth was also exported to
various European countries. Merchants
bought wool from the lords and abbots,
who owned large flocks of sheep, and
sold it to the cloth-makers. They lived in
towns but sent the wool to the village
peasants who wove the cloth in their
homes, and paid them for their work.
Wool merchants and clothiers were very
rich, they had big houses and wore fine
clothes.
1
2
TASK
Listen to the recording about
the Black Death and find out
- where the plague originally came
from
- why it is called the black death
- what animals carried the disease
- how it was transferred to humans
- what medieval people thought of it.
2
TASK
Read the text and find out
- what the finest Medieval buildings
were
- why monasteries were important
- who Thomas Becket was.
3
3. Picture of an elephant, from a Latin bestiary
written in England in the twelfth century, the British
Library, London.
4. The cathedral was the principal church of a see or
diocese. The abbey was part of a monastery
(monks) or convent (nuns). In the picture Whitby
Abbey, Yorkshire.
In 1348 a terrible plague broke out. It was
called the Black Death and killed two
thirds of the population of Britain.
The Church
In the Middle Ages a great deal of the
nations wealth was in the hands of the
Church. The finest buildings at the time
were cathedrals and abbeys.
The head of the Catholic church was
the Pope in Rome. The Archbishops of
Canterbury and York were the top men in
the Church in England. Each see (or
diocese) was under the control of a
bishop. Most bishops were chosen by the
king from among his friends and advisers.
Many lived at Court with the king.
The struggle between the Crown and
the Church led to the murder in 1170 of
Thomas Becket, Archbishop of
Canterbury, who had tried to oppose the
kings power over the Church. He was
buried in the cathedral and made a saint
by the Pope. His shrine became a place
of pilgrimage for people from all over
Britain.
1
Do you know of any medieval castles
in Italy?
Did the Black Death affect Italy as well?
Do you know of any cathedrals or other
buildings built in Italy between the
11th and the 15th centuries? Where?
What are they like? Find a picture and
some information about one of them
and prepare a card to show to the
class.
CLASS DISCUSSION 4
Monks lived in a monastery, with an
abbot as their head. The abbot of a large
monastery was a rich and important
person. He attended the Great Council
like a baron and had to administer great
estates. Monasteries owned a lot of land
worked by peasants. Much of the
revenue was used to feed the monks, to
provide alms and medical care for the
poor and shelter for travellers.
In the medieval period, monasteries
were centres of learning. Many monks
studied and taught the boys who wanted
to join the Order. Other monks copied
out books by hand and illustrated
manuscripts with miniatures and
adornments. Some wrote chronicles,
records of events that happened each
year. These chronicles became valuable
historical sources for future generations.
4
3
5
Learn about Robin Hood at
www.zanichelli.it/materiali/surfing/
WWW
The Anglo-Norman Culture
TASK
Read the text and underline all the
words referring to architecture.
Then discuss them with your
teacher.
1
TASK
Look at the pictures of some
famous English Cathedrals and
identify the architectural elements
mentioned in the text.
2
Medieval cathedrals
The cathedrals built in the Middle Ages
are some of the finest buildings in
England. They were deliberately huge to
represent the great power and influence
of the Church over the community.
Norman churches, built in
Romanesque style in the 11th and 12th
centuries, featured walls, heavy pillars,
great round columns, round arches,
narrow windows, a cruciform plan with a
nave and two aisles, and often a wooden
roof. Where there were stone vaults,
these were often supported by stone
pillars (buttresses) built against the walls.
1. Edgars coronation, performed by Dunstan,
Archbishop of Canterbury. A detail from the
Edgar Window in Bath Abbey. Stained
glass windows were made of coloured pieces
of glass in a lead framing which illustrated
holy stories. They were popular throughout
the Medieval times and were used in both
Norman and Gothic Cathedrals.
2. Norwich Cathedral was built in the 12th
century in Norman style, with some later
Gothic additions.
3-4. Wells Cathedral was built in the 13th
and 14th century. The west front (above) was
adorned with 340 figures. The nave (left) was
built in 1185-1240 (Early English style), while
the double arch at the end of it was added in
the 14th century (Decorated style).
Look for pictures of and
information on one of the following
cathedrals:
Bath, Canterbury, Durham, Ely, Exeter,
Lincoln, Salisbury, York.
Find out about its location, history,
style, etc. and prepare a card to
show to the class.
PROJECT WORK 3
Most of the famous English
cathedrals built in the 13th-15th
centuries were in Gothic style with its
characteristic pointed arches and ribbed
vaults. The massive Norman columns
were replaced by groups of slender shafts
connected to the central pillar by bands.
In the 14th century, architecture
became more elaborate and decorated,
with stone carving on the windows and
capitals (Decorated style). Windows,
which were tall and narrow in the 13th
century, became wider, with more light
coming in through the coloured stained
glass. The exterior of the most important
churches was covered with arched
niches containing statues, and the roofs
were enlivened with steep spires and
pinnacles.
The last phase of Gothic, the
typically English Perpendicular style
(late 15th cent.) was characterised by the
predominance of vertical lines and high
steeples, less markedly pointed arches,
fan shaped vaults and wide windows
with elaborate tracery patterns.
1
2 3
4
Literature and folklore
In the Middle Ages, the languages of
culture were French and Latin. Geoffrey
Chaucer (ca. 1343-1400) was the first
important poet to write in English. He
wrote a collection of stories called The
Canterbury Tales. They are told by a
group of pilgrims to entertain themselves
while travelling to the tomb of Beckett in
Canterbury Cathedral. The various
characters come from differing social
classes, are portrayed very realistically,
and convey a lively picture of medieval
society. Chaucers works made English
the literary language of Britain.
5. This print is a reproduction of the
imagined scene of Chaucers
Pilgrims on the road to Canterbury
some time after having left the
Tabard Inn, from a drawing of
Mrs. Eileen Thorne.
6. Kings College Chapel,
Cambridge (1446-1515) has the
finest fan vault in Britain
(Perpendicular style).
4
Read Chaucers description of three of his pilgrims at
www.zanichelli.it/materiali/surfing/
WWW
King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table
The legends of King Arthur and his knights became the subject of several poems and stories of
the Middle Ages and an important part of British folklore.
Arthur is said to have been a Romanised Celt who lived between the 5th and 6th centuries and
who bravely fought against the Anglo-Saxons. He has since become a great English hero, part
historical and part myth. Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table represent the perfect
example of medieval chivalry, founded on loyalty, honour, charity and love. They lived
according to the highest Christian principles and fought for a just cause, never for personal
advantage. They were brave and often successful in their battles against giants, monsters,
dragons, and sorcerers.
A legend says that they are lying asleep underground, ready to wake up and return to save
England if she finds herself in danger.
Names like Merlin, Guinevere, Lancelot, Excalibur and
Camelot have become popular all over the world through
novels and films. What do you know about them? Look
for more information.
PROJECT WORK 5
Discuss with your teacher.
1 What were guilds called in Italy?
2 Where did they mainly flourish? Where do we still find
their names?
3 What were the main economic activities in Italy during
the Middle Ages?
4 Which was the first university in Italy?
5 Which was the language of culture in Italy in the Middle
Ages?
6 Who were the greatest Italian writers of this time?
7 Which language did they use?
8 Which wrote a collection of tales?
9 What device did he use as a framework for his tales?
10 Who were the greatest Italian artists of the Middle Ages?
CLASS DISCUSSION 6
5
6
2
The Tudors (1485-1603)
At home and abroad
Henry VII came to the throne in 1485, and thus began the
Tudor line of monarchs. It was a time of transition from the
medieval to the modern world. The Tudors ruled England,
Wales and part of Ireland. England enjoyed a period of peace
and prosperity under the Tudors, and became a major political
and economic power.
It was a time of trade and expansion. Voyages of exploration
were carried out, and trade flourished thanks to the fast English
ships and their skilled sailors. Great trading companies, such as
The East India Company, were established. New products such
as tobacco and potatoes were introduced to England from
America. Sir Francis Drake was the first Englishman to sail
around the world. He was one of the famous Elizabethan
seadogs who attacked Spanish ships and colonies, stealing their
treasures. New colonies were set up, upon which Englands
colonial power was based over the following centuries.
1
How did England become a rich and powerful nation under
the Tudors?
Was it a time of peace or war?
Why was this period called the Renaissance?
KEY QUESTIONS
TASK
Look at the historical tree of the dynasties of the kings and
queens of Britain on page 243 and find out who the Tudor
monarchs were.
2
London was a busy trading centre in the early 16th century .
Merchants came from all over Europe to trade their wares in
shops, homes, taverns and in the street.
A London cloth-dealer, Richard Gresham had the idea of
building a base in the city where trade could be regulated
and controlled. It was his son Thomas who paid for the
building of what was to become the Royal Exchange. The
original Royal Exchange was born in 1565 and destroyed by
the Great Fire of 1666. It was rebuilt twice, extended and
restored in recent years, and it is now home to some of the
worlds most important merchants.
1
Tudor times. It was only called when
the monarch wanted to pass a law or
collect more taxes. Parliament now had
two Houses: the House of Lords, made
up of members of the aristocracy and
Church, and the House of Commons,
with representatives from the new
merchant class and smaller
79 The Tudor s ( 1485- 1603)
As a result of the Reformation, the
Church lost much of its wealth, and its
land passed into the hands of nobles
and the gentry. At the same time, as
trade grew, merchants became richer.
Many bought lands and became
members of the gentry. These people
had fine new houses built for them in
the country, and they furnished them
lavishly. Artists, mainly from abroad,
began painting portraits of wealthy
personages, including lords, merchants
and their wives.
Important inventions such as
printing and gunpowder were about to
change the way society worked.
Science and the arts developed so
rapidly that the age became known as
the Renaissance.
The upper and middle classes were
cultured and their sons studied Latin
and Greek. They attended grammar
schools and universities, and notably
Oxford and Cambridge. They
appreciated the fine arts, classical
culture and the new ideas of humanism
born out of the Italian Renaissance.
There was a deep love for music, and
dances took place at court and at fairs
and festivals all over the country.
Parliament did not meet regularly in
TASK
Compare picture 2 with picture 5
on page 73.
3
1
1 What is the Italian word for
Renaissance?
2 Why was this name given to an
age?
3 When was the Renaissance in
Italy? (Same time as in
England?)
4 Who were the greatest Italian
artists of that period?
5 Do you know of any famous
building of that period?
6 Was Italy one monarchy?
7 Was there a Parliament?
8 Do you know of any Italian
scientists and explorers of that
period?
9 What important discoveries
took place then?
10 Which states in Italy had the
most important fleets?
CLASS DISCUSSION 4
1. Sir Thomas Greshams
gift of the Royal
Exchange to the city of
London and the Mercers
company, by Edward
Henry Wehnert (1813-68).
2. The king in Parliament.
A contemporary drawing
of the scene of the
opening of parliament in
1515.
3. Little Moreton Hall, a
16th century manor
house in the northwest of
England (Cheshire), is one
of the finest Elizabethan
houses in Britain. Most
Tudor houses had a
wooden frame filled with
bricks or clay and often
covered with plaster. The
rooms were comfortable,
well furnished and with
large glass windows.
3
2
landowners. The Commons were
getting stronger and stronger and
sometimes Elizabeth I encountered
serious opposition from them but she
managed to control the Commons
most of the time and worked closely
with Parliament.
80 M O D U L E B The Shaping of the UK The Shaping of the UK
Two Strong and Capable Rulers
Henry VIII
Henry VIII is perhaps one of the best-known Kings of England,
chiefly because he had six wives.
He was only eighteen years old when he became king. For
the first twenty years of his reign, he enjoyed life and was
more interested in girls and hunting than in political matters.
He was the best-dressed king in Europe. He was an excellent
horseman and musician and a man of great culture. He
welcomed artists, poets and musicians to his court. He was a
true, educated Renaissance man.
The king was first married to a Catholic Spanish princess,
Catherine of Aragon, but they had no sons. He asked the Pope
for permission to leave his wife so that he could marry
someone else, but the Pope refused. So, by the Act of
Supremacy, in 1534, Henry VIII abolished the authority of the
Pope in England and declared himself head of a Church of
England, independent of Rome. With this he destroyed the
power of the Roman Church in England. Then he closed down
the monasteries and made their lands the property of the King.
The new Anglican Church was different from European
Protestantism. It was a reformed Catholic Church that used
the English language in its services and prayer books and was
free of foreign interference. The Archbishop of Canterbury is
the spiritual head of the Church of England and
Canterbury Cathedral is its central church.
Henry VIII was a clever politician. He made
England strong and independent of Europe.
But he was also a cruel and despotic king, who
sentenced most of his opponents to death.
1. Henry VIII, by Hans Holbein the Younger, National Portrait Gallery, London.
The German painter Hans Holbein (1497-1543) worked in England and
became the official royal painter in 1536. He is best known for his paintings of
Henry VIII and his Court.
1
In what ways did Henry VIII and Elizabeth I represent
Renaissance values and principles?
Why was the Anglican Church brought into being?
Did Scotland become Anglican too?
What was anglicanism like?
How were the relations between England and Spain?
How did the Tudors rule the country?
Who succeeded Queen Elizabeth I to the throne of England?
KEY QUESTIONS
TASK
Listen to the recording about
Henry VIIIs wives and find out
- how long each of them was queen
- which two were Catholic
- which two were beheaded
- which two were divorced by the king
- which one gave him a son
- which one was called the Flanders
mare by the king
- which one was the mother of Queen
Elizabeth I.
The Queens were: Catherine of
Aragon Anne Boleyn Jane
Seymour Anne of Cleves
Catherine Howard Catherine Parr
2
1
The Tudor s ( 1485- 1603) 81
In pairs look at the portraits of
Henry VIII and Elizabeth I and
describe how the two monarchs
are represented. Then compare
your descriptions with other pairs.
TASK 3
Queen Elizabeth I
In 1558, a very unusual young woman
became Queen of England. She was
Elizabeth I, the daughter of Henry VIII
and his second wife, Ann Boleyn. She
was 25 years old, strong, intelligent and a
skilful politician. She enjoyed hunting
and riding as well as dancing. She was
also interested in music, poetry and
painting.
There was a conflict at the time in
England between Catholics and
Protestants. Queen Mary I (Elizabeths
half-sister) had tried to restore
Catholicism. She had persecuted
Protestants so cruelly that she was called
Bloody Mary. Elizabeth re-established
the Anglican Church, but she had no
extreme religious beliefs. She wanted a
united country and an independent
Church of England. Catholics could
practise their own religion, but they had
to be loyal to the Queen.
Elizabeths cousin Mary Stuart was
queen of the Scots. When her second
husband was killed in an explosion, the
Scots accused Mary and her third
husband of his murder. Mary escaped to
England. She wanted to be Queen of
England and, with her Catholic
followers, she plotted against Elizabeth.
Elizabeth put Mary in prison and
ordered her execution in 1587.
Philip II, the king of Spain, wanted to
marry Elizabeth and become king of
England. Since Elizabeth rejected him,
the King planned to take England by
force. He prepared a fleet of 130 ships to
invade England, but the English fleet, led
by Sir Francis Drake, defeated the
Spanish Armada in the English Channel
in 1588.
During her long reign, known as the
Elizabethan Age, Elizabeth showed
herself to be a strong Queen, who
governed well and was loved by the
people. She handled the difficult political
and religious situation of the times with
great skill and diplomacy. She encouraged
letters and the arts, by protecting artists
and writers like William Shakespeare.
Elizabeth died in 1603. She had never
married, had no children and so became
known as the Virgin Queen. James, the
son of Mary Queen of Scots, was King of
Scotland. Elizabeth named him her heir
and he became King James I of England.
2. Armada portrait of Queen Elizabeth I, by George
Gower, National Portrait Gallery, London.
3. Mary Queen of Scots.
4. Kirby Hall is an outstanding example of the
Elizabethan mansion, including two courtyards, a
Great Hall and wonderful gardens.
2
3
4
The Age of Elizabeth
TASK
Read about the theatre in
Elizabethan England and take
notes about the following topics:
the public
the performances
the actors
the theatre.
Then compare with modern
theatre.
1
The theatre
In Elizabethan England the theatre was
a popular pastime not only of the
nobility and the Court, but also of the
common people. The audiences were
made up of people from all classes of
society, with different tastes and
education, and a good play had to please
them all. Performances were given in the
daytime. They could take place
anywhere, as a simple platform served as
a stage, but inn yards were particularly
suitable, because the windows, doors
and balconies could be used to create
the scene. Sometimes the company had
elaborate costumes and stage
equipment, but the imagination of the
public created the scenery. Boys and
young men played womens roles. The
plays included songs and music, so
musicians also took part.
Actors were viewed with suspicion
by the strict City authorities who
considered them immoral vagrants.
Therefore they needed the protection of
some influential men, or the queen
herself, in order to perform.
When the authorities prohibited
theatrical performances within the City
limits, the first real theatres, called
playhouses, were built outside the City.
They were circular or octagonal and
rather small. They had no roof. If it
rained plays were called off. There were
covered galleries for the wealthier
spectators, while the poorer members of
the audience just stood in the yard
surrounding the stage on three sides.
1. A 17th century
water-colour of the
Globe Theatre on
Bankside, based on
Visscher. It was
Londons most famous
playhouse where
Shakespeare and his
actors performed
many plays.
2. The Globe was
destroyed by fire in
1613. It was rebuilt in
1997 and it looks
almost as it was in the
time of Shakespeare.
1
2
The Tudor s ( 1485- 1603) 83
William Shakespeare
Drama reached its high point in England
during Elizabeths reign, with the plays
of William Shakespeare. Shakespeare
was the greatest English playwright and
one of the greatest poets of all time. His
plays are still staged all over the world.
His deep understanding of the
human soul enabled him to create a
gallery of unforgettable characters. His
greatness lies in his skill in handling plot
Macbeth
The theme of this tragedy is ambition. The action takes place in Scotland.
Macbeth, the thane of Cawdor, is a brave hero at the beginning of the play, loyal
to his king, but his thirst for power turns him into a cruel murderer. His wife, who
was his main support and drove him on, finally dies. It is then Macbeth
understands that his own end is approaching and that he can do nothing to stop
the course of events. He realises that all he has done is meaningless, that life itself
is meaningless.
[]
To-morrow, and to-morrow, and to-morrow,
Creeps in this petty pace from day to day,
To the last syllable of recorded time;
And all our yesterdays have lighted fools
The way to dusty death. Out, out, brief candle!
Lifes but a walking shadow; a poor player,
That struts and frets his hour upon the stage,
And then is heard no more: it is a tale
Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury,
Signifying nothing. []
(from Macbeth, Act V, Scene V)
TASK
Choose one of Shakespeares plays
and find out what it is about (plot,
characters, setting, etc.). Then
report to the class.
2
TASK
In pairs answer the questions on
the extract to the right.
1Read the extract. Can you find some
words repeated in these lines?
Can you find some pairs of words
which begin with the same letter?
What effect does repetition
produce?
2In his poetry Shakespeare uses a lot
of imagery: similes, metaphors,
symbols.
Can you find examples here?
3What does Macbeth think of life?
Does he think that man can change
his destiny?
3
3. William Shakespeare.
4. Johann Heinrich Fssli, Macbeth and Lady
Macbeth, c. 1812, Tate Gallery, London.
and his ability to stir feelings and
emotions through the power of his
words.
Shakespeare was born at Stratford-
on-Avon in 1564. He was just over 20 and
already had a wife and three children,
when he left Stratford for London. There,
he acted and wrote many successful
plays. About twenty years later he went
back to Stratford where he spent his last
years and died in 1616.
Shakespeares most famous works
are his 36 plays, which include comedies
such as A Midsummer Nights Dream,
Twelfth Night, The Merchant of Venice,
and The Tempest, historical dramas such
as Richard III, Henry IV, and Henry V,
and tragedies such as Romeo and Juliet,
Hamlet, Othello, King Lear and Macbeth.
3
4
3
The Stuarts (1603-1714)
The most famous painter of
this period in England was
Anthony Van Dyck
(1599 - 1641). He was a
Dutch portrait painter who
lived in London and became
the official painter for the
Court of Charles I. He greatly
influenced later British
artists.
1
What was the relationship between the
Monarch and Parliament during this
period?
Were the links between religion and
politics important?
How did the Civil War start? How did it
end?
Two revolutions took place during this
period. How did they differ? What did
they produce?
Two political parties were formed after
the Restoration. Who did they
represent?
How was a settlement reached over
political and religious problems?
Which were the two terrible events of
the century?
How was the United Kingdom of Great
Britain formed?
KEY QUESTIONS
TASK
Look at the historical tree of the
dynasties of the kings and queens of
Britain on page 243 and find out who
the Stuart monarchs were.
2
I
n 1603 King James of Scotland also
became King James I of England,
but the two countries were not yet
fully united. He was the first Stuart
king of England. He believed that the
king ruled by divine right and that
his will was the only law. So when he
became King of England he dismissed
Parliament and tried to rule without
it. His son Charles I shared his
fathers belief in absolute monarchy,
but he needed money and Parliament
would not support him.
85 The St uar t s ( 1603- 1714)
1. The execution of
Charles I, by Robert
Walker, National
Portrait Gallery,
London.
2. The Capel Family,
by Cornelius Jonson,
circa 1640, National
Portrait Gallery,
London.
Whigs and Tories
In the late 1670s Englands two
major political parties were formed
in the House of Commons, the
Tories and the Whigs. They were
formed respectively by Cavaliers and
Roundheads. The Tories were the
party of the landed aristocracy, and
the Whigs were the party of rich
businessmen, merchants and
landowners. The Tories were the
larger party, loyal to the Church and
King, with the support of many
squires and parsons from the many
villages throughout England. They
supported the Catholic king James
II. The Whigs thought that
Parliament should have more power
than the king. They believed in
religious freedom and political
reforms. Neither party was truly
democratic, and the aristocracy was
well represented in both.
The Commonwealth
The conflict between Crown and
Parliament led to the Civil War (1642-
1649) between the royalist Cavaliers,
who supported the King, and the
puritan Roundheads, who supported
Parliament. The Monarchy was
defeated by general Oliver Cromwell in
1649. The House of Lords was abolished
because, for the most part, it had sided
with the king. King Charles I was put on
trial, sentenced to death and beheaded.
Britain became a Commonwealth, or
republic with Cromwell as Lord
Protector, from 1653 to 1658.
TASK
Look at the picture and describe
the Capel family.
3
The Restoration
In 1660, soon after Cromwells death, a
new Parliament was called, whose
members decided to bring back the
Stuart king Charles II and to re-
establish the Anglican Church as the
official Church of England. Cavaliers
got most seats in the new parliament
and took revenge on their enemies.
The new Court became the most
magnificent and immoral in English
history.
The Glorious Revolution
Charles was succeeded by his son
James II, who soon became unpopular
because he chose only Catholics as his
ministers and as commanders of the
army. In 1688 Parliament offered the
crown to James daughter Mary and her
Protestant husband William of Orange.
For the first time it was Parliament
that chose the Monarch, and this
showed that now the Monarch could
rule only with the consent of
Parliament. This important political
change was called the Glorious
Revolution. Two years later William III
defeated the Catholic forces of James II
in Ireland and discrimination against
Catholic Irish was intensified.
The religious and political problems
were settled with the Bill of Rights and
the Toleration Act. The former limited
the Kings power and turned Britain
into a constitutional monarchy in
which real power lies with parliament,
not the monarch. Since then the king or
queen could not rule without
Parliament. The latter allowed more
religious freedom, but also established
that no future king or queen could be a
Catholic, no Catholic could sit in
Parliament, and only members of the
Anglican Church could hold public
office.
The United Kingdom
of Great Britain
Queen Anne was the last of the
House of Stuart. She had 11 children,
but all died young. During her reign,
by the Act of Union (1707), England,
Wales (which had been under the
control of the English Monarch since
the 13th century) and Scotland joined
to form the United Kingdom of Great
Britain, ruled by the Parliament in
London.
2
1
Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727)
was the greatest scientist of
his age. His most important
studies concerned gravity and
the movement of the earth
around the sun.
Sir Francis
Bacon (1561-
1626), who was
appointed Lord
Chancellor by
King James I,
wrote the first
book in English
about the
inductive or
experimental
method for the
investigation of
nature: The
Advancement of Learning (1605).
A New Culture
Science and superstition
A most important change in England in
the seventeenth century was the birth of
modern science based on observation
and experiment. Science had hitherto
been greatly intermixed with magic and
superstition.
Many instruments that we now take
for granted were invented, such as the
telescope, the microscope and the
thermometer. Medicine made a big leap
forward.
The Royal Society, the oldest and
most important British scientific
organisation, was founded in 1662.
1. Banqueting Hall (London), by Inigo Jones with
Pieter Paul Rubens painted ceiling.
2. Hampton Court Palace. The South Front built by
Sir Christopher Wren toward the end of the
seventeenth century.
Witchcraft
During the seventeenth century most people believed in witches. Witches were
women who had magic powers. They could cast spells and give people the evil
eye. They were said to have received these powers from the devil, to whom they
had sold their souls. According to tradition, they were often old women who lived
alone, with a black cat that was thought to be an evil spirit.
In 1542 Parliament made witchcraft a crime and for about 150 years after that
hundreds of women were brought to court, tortured and hanged on the charge of
being witches. The last hanging for witchcraft in England took place in 1685, but
many people went on believing in witchcraft.
TASK
Look for more information about
one of the following people and
report to the class:
Francis Bacon, Isaac Newton,
Inigo Jones, Christopher Wren.
1
English architecture
English architecture was greatly
influenced by the classical architecture
of the late Italian Renaissance,
particularly by the 16th century Italian
master Andrea Palladio.
Inigo Jones (1573-1652) introduced
Palladianism to Britain. His masterpiece
is the Banqueting House (1619-22) in
Whitehall, London. In London, he also
designed and built Covent Garden and
Lincolns Inns Fields.
The most noteworthy architect of
the second half of the century was Sir
Christopher Wren (1632-1723). He was
the most famous architect of his time.
He contributed to the reconstruction of
London after the Great Fire. He designed
and executed many projects, particularly
in the City of London, where he built 52
churches. St. Pauls Cathedral is
considered to be his masterpiece. He
also designed secular buildings. He
rebuilt and enlarged Hampton Court
Palace which had been built in Tudor
times for Henry VIII.
1
2
The St uar t s ( 1603- 1714) 87
Puritanism in England
The 17th century was marked by
religious conflicts. The three main
factions were the Anglicans, of the
Church of England, the Catholics, of the
Roman Church, and the Puritans who
rebelled against the authority of the
official Church.
Puritans rejected the rituals and
traditional hierarchy, bishops in
particular, of both the Catholic and
Anglican churches. Their preaching was
based directly on the Bible.
Puritans had a very strict moral code.
They regarded luxury and frivolity as
wicked, and were against all forms of
entertainment. During the
Commonwealth, Londons theatres were
closed, as were shops and pubs. Dancing
and singing were banned. People were
not allowed to travel on a Sunday,
except to and from church.
Most Puritans belonged to the middle
class. Their lifestyle was severe, in striking
contrast with the upper classes and
courtiers who wore ornate clothes, jewels,
and wigs and whose way of life was one
of amusement and moral licence.
Puritans had a high sense of duty and
love of work. They thought that only a
holy life of hard work and discipline could
save man from his Original Sin. Success
in life was a sign of Gods grace while
3. Mayflower Barn (1624) at Old Jordans Quaker
Guest House, near Beaconsfield, Buckinghamshire.
4. Puritan family, the Bridgeman Art Library,
London. Puritans like the Chorleys, affluent Preston
haberdashers, were conspicuous for their sober
dress, preferring black and white garments without
embellishments.
The Authorised Version of the Bible (1611) and the Book of
Common Prayer (1662), both in English, were the most widely
read books of the time. The 1611 version of the Bible has been in use
in English churches and homes up to the present day.
In 1665 the Great Plague broke out and killed one third of the
population. Puritans saw it as Gods punishment for a dissolute way
of life. In 1666 the Great Fire of London destroyed most of the citys
wooden buildings and put a final stop to the plague.
TASK
Describe the people in picture 4.
Compare this family with the
Capel family on page 85.
2
TASK
Read the text and take notes about
the English Puritans.
3
poverty was regarded almost as a sin.
Puritans were discriminated and
persecuted during the reigns of James I
and Charles I, and many had to leave
Britain for America where the new
colonies of Massachussetts, New
England, Virginia and Maryland were
founded (p. 176).
What was the political situation like in Italy in the 17th
century?
Which Italian writer described the plague of that time in
his famous novel?
Where was the story set?
Who were the greatest Italian artists of the time?
What is this period called in Italy?
Do you know of any famous building of that period?
Who was the Italian who best represented a new view of
science?
CLASS DISCUSSION 4
3
4
4
The Georgian Period (1714-1830)
dynasties of the kings and
queens of Britain on page 243
and find out who reigned over
Britain between 1714 and 1830.
TASK 2
Cabinet Government
When Queen Anne died in 1714, her
cousin George from Hanover became
King George I, and the House of
Hanover became the British Royal
Family. The King was German and did
not speak English, and this had
important effects on the British
system of government.
During the Georgian period there
was no great conflict between the
Monarch and Parliament. Either
1
Why is this called the Georgian Period?
How did the British system of government change in this period?
Who was the first Prime Minister in England? Which party did he belong to?
During whose reign did the war of American Independence take place?
How did people live? Were class distinctions very evident?
Who was the emergent social class formed by?
What was the most important event of this century?
What conditions made it possible?
KEY QUESTIONS
because British monarchs were not
interested in politics or because of
illness (George III suffered from
prolonged fits of madness), the kings
left all decisions to the Cabinet
presided over by the Prime Minister.
This favoured the development of the
modern system of Cabinet
government.
In the past, it was the King who
made the decisions with the consent
of Parliament. Now government was
in the hands of the Kings ministers
who were responsible to Parliament.
The two groups that had been
formed in Parliament, the Whigs and
Tories, alternated in the government of
the country, and party politics became
the basis of government. Under George
I and George II the Whigs, who had
supported the Kings accession to the
throne, were in power.
Sir Robert Walpole was Britains
first Prime Minister (from 1721 to
1742) and the first to live at 10,
Downing Street.
89
William Hogarth, Gin Lane,
The British Museum, London.
Many people living in the slums
of industrial towns took to
drinking gin.
The Geor gi an Per i od ( 1714- 1830)
At home and abroad
The 18th century was a time of relative
prosperity and freedom for the country.
Agriculture, commerce and industry
expanded enormously and this led to a
rapid increase of national wealth.
Through a series of wars with the
major European nations, Britain
replaced France as the greatest
European power. Although she lost her
early American colonies, she
established her power in the Americas,
with the acquisition of Canada and
Louisiana, in Africa, India and the
Pacific, where Captain Cooks
expeditions to Australia and New
Zealand led to the first settlement of
New South Wales in Australia. Britain
became the worlds leading trading
nation. Her merchant fleet was
growing, and British ports were packed
with ships full of tea, sugar, spices,
tobacco, and cotton from all over the
world.
Political stability, the development
of trade and the opening of new
markets, along with the existence of a
class of small capitalists prepared to
invest in the new industries, produced a
major economic change in the country.
At the same time, scientific and
industrial progress changed methods of
making goods and provided work for
large masses of people. The Industrial
Revolution, which took place during
the last decades of the century,
transformed British society and marked
a turning point in human history.
Social classes
In the mid-18th century,
Britain was still a country
of villages and farms and
the landowners
represented the upper
class. However, with the
development of a new
bourgeoisie, the middle
classes were acquiring
more and more power,
while the lower classes
remained desperately poor.
TASK
Describe and compare the two
pictures, on the previous page
and above. What do they tell you
about social classes in the 18th
century?
4
Britain and France confronted each other during the Napoleonic Wars (1803-
1815). France had a powerful army, but Britain had the worlds strongest navy.
Napoleon was determined to invade Britain but his fleet was defeated by
Admiral Horatio Nelson at Trafalgar in 1805. This is the most famous sea
battle in English history. Nelson died during the battle, but saved his country
from invasion and became one of the greatest English national heroes. In 1815
a British and Prussian army led by the Duke of Wellington finally defeated
Napoleon at Waterloo.
In 1801, Ireland was united with
Great Britain to form the United
Kingdom of Great Britain and
Ireland.
The slave trade
Huge profits were made also from the slave trade. British merchants vessels
sailed from London, Liverpool, Glasgow and Bristol laden with British
manufactures and guns and traded them for black slaves in Africa. They then
sailed to the West Indies and America, where they sold the slaves and picked
up rum, tobacco, sugar and cotton. The slave trade was abolished in the British
Empire in 1807.
3
Learn more about social classes
in the 18th century at
www.zanichelli.it/materiali/
surfing/
WWW
T
he 18th century was an
age in which artists
looked at every area of daily
life. The new, ambitious
middle class considered
personal embellishment a
sign of social and political
importance.
Men and women of the
upper classes were elegant in
embroidered silk and velvet.
Men had powdered wigs.
This was also the age of coffehouses
and clubs. Coffee, tea, and chocolate
had all been introduced in the 1600
and the first coffeehouse opened in
London in 1652. By the beginning of
1700 there were about 2000
coffeehouses in London. They turned
by degrees into gentlemens clubs with
exclusive membership. Merchants
and politicians, businessmen and
professionals, writers and artists, all
had their meeting places, where they
would do business and discuss new
ideas over a cup of hot tea or coffee.
Huge financial institutions such as
the Stock Exchange and Lloyds of
London grew from these coffeehouse
meetings.
Read about artistic and literary
developments in the 18th century
and make notes on English
painting, architecture, literature,
furniture and textiles.
TASK 1
T
hroughout Europe and in England
too the 18th century was called the
Age of Reason or the Age of
Enlightenment. The development of
science led people to believe in the
unlimited powers of the human mind.
Men of letters were guided by reason
rather than by fancy or emotions. For
Lifestyle and the Arts
TASK
Have you heard of or read these
novels? Choose one and complete
the reading card on page 244.
2
These were the most famous novels
of the 18th century.
1. Dr Johnsons portrait by his friend Joshua Reynolds. National
Portrait Gallery, London.
2. In their heyday, coffeehouses were at the heart of social,
political and commercial life in England.
3. Thomas Gainsborough, Mrs Moody and her two sons, Dulwich
Picture Gallery, London.
the first time, prose prevailed over
poetry.
The political stability and freedom of
this time favoured letters, music, and art.
The development of the press and the
establishment of libraries which made
books available to the general public
contributed to the rise of journalism and
the modern novel.
One of the leading figures of
Londons cultural life was Dr Johnson
(1709-1784). He had a reputation as a
writer and a witty speaker, and many of
his remarks are still quoted today. He
also wrote a great Dictionary of the
English Language (1755).
1
3
2
91 The Geor gi an Per i od ( 1714- 1830)
William Kilburn (1745-1818) was the
master of the English school of design in
calico printing (calico was a cotton cloth
originally from India). His floral
watercolour patterns for textiles are kept
in the Victoria & Albert Museum in
London.
John Nash (1752-1835) was the most
prominent architect of his time. He
worked for the Prince Regent (later
George IV) and planned the layout of
Regents Park, Regents Street, Trafalgar
Square, and St James Park in London.
T
he Georgian period is characterised
by fine architecture. The well-to-do
built fine, new houses with columns and
grand doorways in the neoclassical style
inspired by the architecture of ancient
Greece and Rome. Many of the finest
streets and squares of Bath and London
were built between 1760 and 1820.
Great stately homes were built in the
country, often with remarkable gardens.
Formal gardens were replaced by
landscaped gardens which looked more
natural and blended more naturally with
the surrounding countryside (p. 21).
T
he history of British painting begins,
in effect, in the 18th century.
William Hogarth (1697-1764)
devoted himself mostly to depicting the
vices and follies of his time. He is famous
for his sets of paintings illustrating a
moral story, such as The Rakes Progress
and Marriage la Mode.
Joshua Reynolds (1723-1792) was the
most successful artist of his time. He was
a distinguished portrait painter and the
first President of the Royal Academy,
founded in 1768 with the aim of
encouraging painting, sculpture and
architecture in Britain. He was inspired
by classical works and 17th century
Rome.
Thomas Gainsborough (1727-1788)
was famous for his portraits, mainly of
members of the aristocracy, and his
landscapes of the English countryside.
4. A pattern
designed by William
Kilburn.
5. John Nashs most
original building
was the Royal
Pavilion at
Brighton, which was
the most popular
seaside resort for
people of quality.
6. Kenwood
House, Hampstead,
is one of the most
famous houses
designed by the
Scottish architect
Robert Adamand
his three brothers.
1
Choose one of the three painters
mentioned above and find more
reproductions of his paintings.
Write a note about them and show
them to the class. With your
classmates, organise an exhibition
of 18th century British painting.
PROJECT WORK 3
5
6
4
The Industrial Revolution
TASK
Read about the Industrial
Revolution and make notes about
the changes that it brought about.
1
B
etween 1770 and 1830 Britain
changed from an agricultural to an
industrial country. The changes were so
great that this period is known as the
Industrial Revolution.
The invention of new machinery
changed the way goods were made. The
use of the steam engine and coal as a
new power source facilitated the growth
of new industries. Many new coal mines
were opened and many roads and canals
were built to transport coal and other
heavy goods all over the country.
Methods of producing iron improved,
and new iron bridges and ships were
built. Steam locomotion was invented
and over the following decades iron
trains ran on iron tracks the length and
breadth of the country. Britain became
the workshop of the world, with her
mills and factories producing far more
goods much more economically than
any other nation. More than half of the
worlds cargo was carried in British ships.
Industrial development of the country
was a source of prosperity and progress,
but it created many social conflicts and
problems. In 1801, when the first census
was carried out, 10 million people were
accounted for. Britain was still mainly
rural. The Industrial Revolution was to
transform the whole country and even
change its landscape.
The use of machines meant that
many skilled men lost their jobs. The
newly built factories produced plenty of
goods in larger quantities and at lower
prices, and the demand for traditional
crafts declined. Farms changed too, and
there were fewer jobs for farm workers.
Their wives often used to spin and
weave by hand in their homes and sell
their cloth, but soon spinning and
weaving were done on machines in mills.
Large mills developed particularly in
Lancashire and Yorkshire where cotton
1. Old pottery furnace in Ironbridge.
2. The Iron Bridge across the river Severn, from a
colour print,1779. It was the first iron bridge in the
world.
and wool were mostly available. Large
factories grew up on the coalfields of
Scotland, Northern England, and the
Midlands. People from the countryside,
who had lost their jobs, were forced to
leave home either to emigrate to Canada,
Australia and New Zealand or move to
the new industrial towns.
Hundreds of thousands of people
moved from rural areas into the new
towns and cities which grew up around
the factories and mills. The North
became the industrial heartland of the
country and, in the south, London
remained the most important business
and trade centre.
1
2
In factories, the working conditions were
appalling. Factories were dirty and noisy.
Dust and damp made workers ill. People
worked up to 16 hours a day and wages
were low. Many died of disease and
starvation. The factory owners employed
women and children and paid them very
little. Young children worked for long
hours in factories and even in mines
pushing and pulling heavy wagons
through dark, narrow tunnels.
During the 19th century the industrial
towns grew, and, for a time, living
conditions became worse. As factories
needed larger numbers of workers, row
upon row of small houses were thrown
up quickly and cheaply. The houses were
built back to back to save space. People
lived in unhealthy conditions plagued by
disease, poverty and overcrowding. They
had little or no water supply, schools or
hospitals. As industry was fuelled by
The Tolpuddle Martyrs
In 1834 in Tolpuddle, Dorset, six
labourers were sentenced to seven
years deportation because, inspired by
the trade unions which were gaining
popularity in the industrial north, they
had decided to start a friendly society.
There were demonstrations across the
country, and a petition of 80,000 names
was presented to Parliament. They
were taken to Australia and later
offered a conditional release in 1835
which they rejected, only being fully
pardoned in 1836. Each year thousands of people gather in Dorset for a festival to
remember the Tolpuddle Martyrs and their legacy.
3. Gustave Dor, Workers Houses in 19th Century London.
4. Londons bobby.
The Martyrs Chapel, Tolpuddle, Dorset.
What do you know about the process
of industrialisation in Italy?
Can you think of any Italian example
of how industrialisation has changed
the landscape?
Do you know of any place in Italy or
in other countries where children are
still exploited and compelled to
work?
CLASS DISCUSSION 2
coal, day and night factory chimneys
poured out smoke and industrial waste
which blackened the houses and filled
peoples lungs.
While back-to-backs spreading over
the towns and city centres were turning
into slums, rich people lived in elegant
country mansions, a sign of social power
and prestige. The middle classes tended
to move out of town, particularly when
the coming of the railways enabled
people to live in the country and
commute to work every day.
Some important reforms were passed
during the reign of George IV, mainly
thanks to Robert Peel who became
Home Secretary in 1822. The death
penalty was abolished for nearly all
offences except murder in 1826. The
Catholic Emancipation Act of 1829
allowed Catholics to hold any office
except those of King, Queen and Lord
Chancellor.
3
4
In 1829 Robert Peel set up the
metropolitan Police Force of London.
After him, Londons policemen became
known as bobbies.
In 1824 Trade Unions were officially
recognised as representative of the
working class, but it took some time
before they were generally accepted.
The Romantic Age
The Lake Poets
William Wordsworth and Samuel
T. Coleridge were the first two
great Romantic poets. They were
also called the Lake Poets because
Wordsworth spent most of his life
in the Lake District and for a few
years Coleridge was his neighbour.
They frequently discussed poetry
and together wrote The Lyrical
Ballads (1798), a collection of
poems considered the starting
point for the Romantic Movement
in Britain. In the following passage
Coleridge explains how they
planned this collection.
During the first year that Mr Wordsworth and I were neighbours, our conversations
turned quickly on the two cardinal points of poetry, the power of exciting the
sympathy of the reader by a faithful adherence to the truth of nature, and the power of
giving the interest of novelty by the modifying colours of imagination. []. The thought
suggested itself [] that a series of poems might be composed of two sorts. In the one,
the incidents and agents were to be, in part at least, supernatural; []. For the second
class, subjects were to be chosen from ordinary life [].
In this idea originated the plan of the Lyrical Ballads in which it was agreed that my
endeavours should be directed to persons and characters supernatural []. Mr
Wordsworth, on the other hand, was to propose to himself as his object, to give the
charm of novelty to things of every day, and to excite a feeling analogous to the
supernatural, by awakening the minds attention [] and directing it to the loveliness
and the wonders of the world before us; an inexhaustible treasure, but for which, in
consequence of the film of familiarity and selfish solicitude, we have eyes, yet see not,
ears that hear not, and hearts that neither feel nor understand.
From Biographia Literaria by S.T. Coleridge (1817)
TASK
Read the passage above and
answer the questions.
a What are the two cardinal
points of poetry mentioned
by Coleridge?
b What kind of poems were
to be written for the Lyrical
Ballads?
c Who was going to write
what?
d How could things of
everyday life acquire a new
charm for the readers?
1
TASK
Read the two poems on the
next page and answer the
questions.
a Which elements of nature
are mentioned? How are
they described?
b Does the scene convey a
natural or supernatural
atmosphere?
c What are the main feelings
expressed in each stanza?
d Point out some stylistic
devices employed by the
poet (simile, repetition,
contrast, etc.): what is their
function?
2
1. G. Dor, The Rime of the
Ancient Mariner.
1
The Geor gi an Per i od ( 1714- 1830)
The Rime of the Ancient Mariner
[]
Down dropt the breeze, the sails dropt down,
Twas sad as sad could be;
And we did speak only to break
The silence of the sea!
All in a hot and copper sky,
The bloody Sun, at noon,
Right up above the mast did stand,
No bigger than the Moon.
Day after day, day after day,
We stuck, nor breath nor motion;
As idle as a painted ship
Upon a painted ocean.
Water, water, everywhere,
And all the boards did shrink;
Water, water, everywhere,
Nor any drop to drink.
The very deep did rot: O Christ!
That ever this should be!
Yea, slimy things did crawl with legs
Upon the slimy sea.
About, about, in reel and rout
The death-fires danced at night;
The water, like a witchs oils,
Burnt green, and blue, and white.
[]
95
This poem describes a memorable walk the
poet took in the Lake District. It is often
referred to as The Daffodils.
The Daffodils
I wandered lonely as a cloud
That floats on high oer vales and hills,
When all at once I saw a crowd,
A host of golden daffodils;
Beside the lake, beneath the trees,
Fluttering and dancing in the breeze.
Continuous as the stars that shine
And twinkle on the milky way,
They stretched in never-ending line
Along the margin of a bay:
Ten thousand saw I at a glance,
Tossing their heads in sprightly dance.
The waves beside them danced; but they
Out-did the sparkling waves in glee:
A poet could not but be gay,
In such a jocund company;
I gazed and gazed but little thought
What wealth the show to me had
brought:
For oft, when on my couch I lie
In vacant or in pensive mood,
They flash upon that inward eye
Which is the bliss of solitude;
And then my heart with pleasure fills,
And dances with the daffodils.
wandered = walked without purpose
floats = moves in the air
host = large number
fluttering = waving
twinkle = shine intermittently
tossing = moving head upward
sprightly = lively
out-did = did better
glee = joy
jocund = happy
gazed = looked steadily
couch = sofa or bed
vacant = empty
inward = interior
bliss = joy
dropt (dropped) down = stop
Twas = it was
copper = reddish metal
mast = long vertical pole of a
ship supporting the sails, etc.
stuck = were still
breath = wind
idle = motionless
boards = wood of the ship
shrink = become smaller
deep = sea
rot = go bad
slimy = viscous, greasy
crawl = move with body on the
ground
in reel and rout = disorderly
death-fires = fires from
decomposing bodies
witch = woman with evil magic
powers
This extract is from The Rime of the Ancient
Mariner, a long poem in seven parts that tells
the extraordinary adventure of a sailor who
killed an albatross and was horribly punished
for his crime against nature. In the stanzas
below the guilty Mariner and his crew mates
feel lonely and helpless as their ship lies still in
a horrible environment.
TASK
Can you guess which of the two poems
was written by S.T. Coleridge and which
one was written by W. Wordsworth?
Compare the two poems both as to
content and style.
Provide examples from these lines
reflecting the principles expounded in
the passage on page 94.
3
2. Daffodils in the Lake District.
2
The Romantic Age
The Great Romantic poets and painters
George Gordon Byron (1788-1824) and Percy Bysshe Shelley
(1792-1822) were two major poets of the English Romantic
movement. Their works and their lives combined make them
typically Romantic figures.
3. Percy Bysshe Shelley.
4. George Gordon Byron.
5. John Keats.
4
Read about the life and works of G.G. Byron, P.B. Shelley
and J. Keats at www.zanichelli.it/materiali/surfing/
Then point out similarities and differences concerning
their
- family and social background
- studies
- personality and beliefs
- love relationships
- health
- literary success.
WWW
John Keats (1795-1821) was probably the best of the English
Romantic poets. His short life was entirely devoted to the
search for beauty. He wrote that A thing of beauty is a joy for
ever.
5
You can read some of their poems at
www.poetry.archive.com
WWW
4
3
5
Can you think of any Italian poets who advocated social
and political changes in their homeland?
Can you think of any characters in Italian literature who
resemble Romantic heroes in any way?
Who were the most important Italian artists in the
eighteenth century?
Can you think of any famous buildings of this period?
CLASS DISCUSSION 7
TASK
Look at the pictures and answer the questions.
What kind of colour do the painters use?
What is the role of light in the two pictures?
How does each painter describe the scene?
Which two main aspect of Romanticism do the painters refer
to? (see Coleridges Biographia Literaria on page 94).
6
7. John Constable, detail from Stratford Mill, National Gallery, London.
The increasing popularity of nature and rural life as themes
made landscape painting the most characteristic achievement
of English Romantic Art.
The two greatest landscape painters were J.M. William Turner
(1775-1851) and John Constable (1776-1837).
6. J.M.W. Turner, Windsor Castle, Berkshire. The British Museum, London.
6
7
British were proud of all this, and
developed a sense of supreme confidence
in their culture and civilisation.
5
The Victorian Age (1837-1901)
Scientific and
technological progress
Victoria was barely eighteen when she
became queen in 1837. Three years later
she married her German cousin, Prince
Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. During her
reign, which lasted 64 years, the Queen
entrusted all the responsibility for public
affairs to the great statesmen of the time,
who made the country powerful at home
and abroad. It was a time of great
industrial development and scientific
and technological progress.
The application of steam power to
railways and ships made travel reliable
and fast, and the invention of the
telegraph and the telephone transformed
communication. Domestic chores were
revolutionised by the invention of
household appliances such as washing
machines, and later by the application
of electricity. Moreover, a long period of
peace and the enormous expansion of
the Empire contributed to make Britain
the most powerful nation on earth.
On 1 May 1851 Queen Victoria and
Prince Albert opened the Great
Exhibition in Hyde Park, where a huge
building made of glass and iron, the
Crystal Palace, had been erected to
display the exhibits of modern industry
and science: machinery, clothing,
decorative arts, jewellery and products
of all kinds from all over the world. The
6 million visitors were most impressed
by the technical and scientific
achievements of the country. The
dynasties of the kings and queens of
Britain on page 243 and find out
which family Queen Victoria
belonged to and how she became
Queen of Great Britain and Ireland.
TASK 2
1
Why did Britain become the most
powerful country in the world?
How did architecture develop in the
Victorian Age?
KEY QUESTIONS
99 The Vi ct or i an Age ( 1837- 1901)
The Victorian Age revived Gothic
architecture, which replaced the Greek
and Roman models.
1. Some of the exhibits in the
Great Exhibition.
2. The Royal Family,
F.X. Winterhalter, Victoria and
Albert Museum, London.
3. Liverpool Street Station has a
large iron and glass roof
supported by a brick wall and
decorated iron pillars.
St Pancras Station, Westminster
Palace and many churches were built
in the neo-gothic style.
New materials such as iron and glass
came into use in public buildings and
works. The Royal Botanical Gardens at
Kew, Clifton Suspension Bridge at
Bristol and Liverpool Street Station in
London are some of the best examples.
Brick was used for railways stations,
town halls, factories and terraced
houses. Victorian universities such as
Birmingham became known as red
brick universities.
Other interesting Victorian
architectural landmarks can be found
in London, such as the Victoria and
Albert Museum, the Natural History
Museum, Royal Albert Hall,
Paddington Station, Victoria Station,
Westminster Bridge, Big Ben.
1
2
3
The Crystal Palace had an iron
framework and about 300,000
panes of glass. After the
exhibition it was dismantled
and rebuilt at Sydenham,
where it was destroyed by a fire
in 1936.
The Years of Self Confidence
The Victorian compromise
Queen Victoria became the symbol of
Britains success in the world, but the
Victorian Age was a period of major
social and moral contradictions. An
enormous prosperity coexisted with
unbelievable poverty. Factory owners and
new businessmen were mostly interested
in profits and all too often they did not
care about their workers. Despite
progress and reform the living conditions
of the poor remained miserable.
There was a marked division of
society into three classes: the aristocracy,
the middle classes (upper and lower) and
the working class (the poor). This system
lasted throughout the 19th century and
the first half of the 20th century.
The Victorian age marked the
triumph of the industrial middle classes,
with their confidence in progress and
optimistic view of life, their
philanthropism and sentimentalism, and
their morality which relied heavily on
exterior forms and conventions.
The owners of industries more than
the landowners now held the real power
in the country. Most people depended
What transformation took place in
British society during Queen Victorias
reign?
What were the new values
established by Victorian middle
classes?
What reforms improved the political
and public life of the country?
1. Sentimentalised images of innocence were
commonplace and may be considered a
counterpoint to the realities of child labour and high
infant mortality rate.
2. Home Sweet home by Walter Sadler shows a
prosperous household in about 1850.
3. 19th century groceries, Museum of Advertising,
Gloucester.
1 KEY QUESTIONS
on them for their living. They believed in
hard work and self-improvement. They
were men of ambition with great
determination and strength and little
time for worldly pleasures. Now, most
people lived in towns and cities. The
growth of trade, industry and public
administration raised the number of
people who worked in shops and offices.
Such workers are known today as white
collar workers to distinguish them from
factory and other manual workers.
A new set of values was established,
which emphasised hard work, family life,
religious observance, honesty in public
life, self-control and respectability. The
large middle-class family was considered
the embodiment of success. Queen
Victoria was an example to the people.
She represented the moral values of her
age. She was a religious woman, an
affectionate wife and a loving mother of
nine children.
1
3
2
The age of reform
Important social and political reforms
took place during this period, with major
improvements in labour legislation,
housing, sanitation, education and social
security.
A widespread movement in defence
of womens rights and emancipation was
formed. Three Reform Acts (1832, 1867,
1884) extended the right to vote to
sections of the working classes, making
parliament more fully representative of
the nation. Slavery was abolished
throughout the British Empire (1833).
Factory Laws were passed which
regulated factory working conditions
and limited the use of children in
factories.
In 1870 education became
compulsory and free for all children until
the age of 13. Communications became
more and more rapid and efficient. In
1833 Britains first railway reached
London, and 30 years later the London
Underground Railway was opened.
News swiftly spread because of the
postal service and newspapers. The
development of railways and urban
transport offered all classes freedom of
travel and new opportunities for
recreation: seaside holidays, sport,
shopping, and theatre-going.
Charles Dickens (1812-1870) was one of the most popular English
novelists. In his novels he drew a realistic picture of life in Victorian
England and passionately expressed his sense of social right and
wrong.
His first publication was Sketches by Boz (1836), a collection of short
essays describing the people and manners of London of his times. The
following year, Picwick Papers, published in monthly instalments as
were many of his later works, brought him worldwide celebrity.
Oliver Twist was the first of his serious novels in which he
realistically described the social problems of his time. He showed his
contemporaries the harsh conditions in which poor people lived
beneath the surface of a prosperous society: workhouses, deserted
children, prostitutes and criminals, the scandal of private schools,
the horrors of the exploitation of children, and the bitter reality of
imprisonment for debt.
David Copperfield, the most popular of all his works, is mostly
autobiographical. It presents many characters and events taken from
his own life. An angry call for social reform is more evident in his
later novels, such as Bleak House, Hard Times and Little Dorrit.
Dickens was Englands family novelist, although he had a very
unhappy relationship with his wife. Their break-up was an occasion
for public scandal in 1858.
4
4. The British Beehive, etching by George Cruikshank, 1840, Victoria and Albert Museum, London.
The British Empire
W
hen Queen Victoria came to the
throne, Britain already had colonies
in every continent. By the end of her
reign, the British Empire covered a
quarter of the world.
The British Empire was born in the
16th century when Britain started to
compete with other European countries
for control of the seas and of the riches
1
Can you think of some reasons why
colonies were founded?
How did the empire contribute to
making Britain a powerful country?
Which was Britains most important
colony?
Why was the Suez Canal so important
for British trade?
How did the British rule change the
colonies?
What effects has the empire had on
British society and lifestyle?
KEY QUESTIONS
1. The Cutty Sark, which can still be
seen at Greenwich, is the last
surviving clipper. This British fast
sailing ship was built in 1869. It
carried tea from China and then
wool from Australia.
1
of unexplored continents. Many colonies
began as trading centres in newly
discovered countries, and trading
companies such as the East India
Company were set up in the 17th
century. Throughout the 17th and 18th
centuries, more and more colonies were
founded by people who had left their
native lands for political or religious
reasons, or quite simply in search of a
job and a new life. Other colonies were
originally penal colonies, like Australia.
During the 18th century Britain
colonised much of North America,
Africa and Asia, and colonial expansion
continued steadily through the 19th
century.
1
Which other European countries had
colonies?
Is there any country today that has an
empire?
Do you think empire building right or
wrong?
CLASS DISCUSSION 3
In 1858, India, parts of which had been
governed by the East India Company
since the 17th century, passed under the
direct control of the British Government,
which appointed a viceroy to govern the
country.
Many British civil servants, engineers,
administrators and businessmen went to
live in India with their families. The place
of India in the British Empire was so
important that it was called the jewel in
the (queens) crown. In 1877 Queen
Victoria became Empress of India.
Find out more information and
write a report on one of the
following subjects:
Gandhi
One of the British colonies (when the
British settled down, how long, and
how, they ruled etc.)
Kiplings novel Kim.
PROJECT WORK 2
Rudyard Kipling was born in India and
spent part of his life there, mainly
working as a journalist. He was proud
of being British and exalted the British
empire. He wrote poems, stories about
Indian life and novels such as Kim and
The Jungle Books. He was the first
Englishman to receive the Nobel prize
for literature in 1907.
The empire was a source of pride and
wealth for Britain. Colonies provided
cheap agricultural produce and raw
materials for its manufacturing
industries and were a huge market for its
manufactured goods. Textiles, machines
and ships were exported to the colonies
and sold at a large profit.
British rule influenced local systems
of government. Most countries of the
former empire have a civil service, army
and legal system organised along similar
lines to those in Britain. Many roads and
2. Old print showing Bombay, Victoria Station.
3. Gandhi (1869-1948) was the leader of the non-
violent movement for Indian independence.
4. A Hindu nobleman and an officer of the Bengal
Cavalry, Delhi School, 1850-1870. The British Library
Board, London.
2
3
4
railways were also started under British
rule, and schools were established.
However, most British people did
not respect, and did not even try to
understand, different cultures and local
religions. Native people everywhere were
usually considered inferior to white
people and had few rights. Moreover
Britains great economic power and its
place in the world made many British
people think that it was their duty to
spread their culture and civilisation
around the world. People like Kipling
thought that it was the white mans
burden to educate the native
inhabitants, to christianise them and to
impose European culture upon them.
Literature and the Arts
T
he Victorian Age was really a glorious
moment in the history of English
literature, and the novel was the greatest
literary achievement of the age.
As the industrial age grew uglier and
its impact on daily life more brutalising,
some sensitive souls in the mid-
nineteenth century rebelled against this
state of affairs. Writers and artists such
as John Ruskin expressed indignation at
the ugliness of the industrial world and
the alienating effects of industrialisation.
Some novelists were in favour of
social reform and more support for the
working classes. In their novels they
described the living conditions of the
poor and the exploitation of children,
and dealt with the social changes that
were taking place.
Many novels were written by women.
They often explored values associated
with women and their important role
within the family and community.
Sherlock Holmes is a famous character created by Arthur Conan Doyle in the late 19th
century. He is a private detective endowed with exceptional logical skills. Thanks to his careful
observation of clues and his excellent powers of deduction he succeeds in solving several
difficult mysteries. He lives in London at 221 Baker Street where he shares a flat with his friend
and biographer Dr Watson. Holmes is a
typical Victorian middle-class man and
his stories provide interesting insights
into the lifestyle of his time. Sherlock
Holmes cases have been adapted for the
theatre, the cinema and television and
have made him a popular character
throughout the world. His pipe and hat
are unmistakable.
TASK
Look at the books above and
answer the questions.
Do you know or have you read any of
them?
Three of the writers are women: can
you guess which?
Eight of the books are novels and
two are plays. Which two?
Most of these works have been
turned into films. Which? Have you
seen any of them?
1
TASK
Read one of the above books and
fill in the card on page 244. Then
use the card to talk to the class
about the book.
2
The Arts and Crafts
Movement
William Morris (1834-1896) was a painter
and writer, but he is also famous as a
designer of furniture and decor for houses.
He believed that art is essential to human
wellbeing and should be part of daily life.
He founded a social and artistic
movement, the Arts and Crafts Movement,
the aim of which was to reaffirm the
importance of hand-made objects, in
accordance with Ruskins crusade against
machine produced goods. He established
his own company which produced hand-
made furniture, textiles and interior
ornaments by traditional methods. Many
of these designs, especially for wallpaper
and fabrics, are still widely used today
but, ironically, they are now mechanically
reproduced on a large scale.
William Morris worked also with a
group of painters including Edward Burne
Jones and Dante Gabriel Rossetti. These
painters were called the pre-Raphaelites
because they worked in a style influenced
by Italian painting of the period before
Raphael. Most subjects were taken from
medieval legends, classical myth and the
New Testament. They used bright colours
and much realistic detail, which at first
shocked the Victorian public.
Art Nouveau
Towards the end of the 19th century a
new style of art, design and architecture
called Art Nouveau developed. The most
famous British artists and designers
working in this style were Aubrey
Beardsley and Charles Rennie
Mackintosh.
1. William Morris, the
Green Dining Room,
1866, Victoria and
Albert Museum,
London.
2. William Morris,
Strawberry Thief, textile,
1833, Victoria and
Albert Museum, London.
3. Dante Gabriel
Rossetti, The Day
Dream, 1880, Victoria
and Albert Museum,
London.
4. Aubrey Beardsley, The
Peacock Skirt, from
Salom .
How did literature and the arts
develop in Italy during the 19th
century?
Who were the leading Italian artists
and writers?
Can you mention some of the Italian
novels of this time?
CLASS DISCUSSION 4
Which of the five artists mentioned
sounds most interesting to you?
Why?
Find more information about him
as well as some pictures of his
works and prepare a report.
PROJECT WORK 3
C.R. Mackintosh (1868-1928) was a
Scottish architect who worked mainly in
Glasgow. He designed and built entire
buildings, as well as their content in his
5. Victoria and Albert Museum, London.
own personal style. He often based his
designs on flowers, the shapes of
Scottish castles, and the simplicity of
Japanese forms. His long lean furniture
and geometric style are unmistakable.
The works of W. Morris, A.
Beardsley and C.R. Mackintosh can be
seen in London at the Victoria and
Albert Museum. The Museum was built
in 1852 and is Britains national museum
of art and design.
1
2
3
4
5
6
In Flanders Fields
by Lt. Col. John McCrae, M.D.
(1872-1918) Canadian Army
In Flanders fields the poppies blow
Between the crosses, row on row,
That mark our place; and in the sky
The larks, still bravely singing, fly
Scarce heard amid the guns below.
We are the Dead. Short days ago
We lived, felt dawn, saw sunset glow,
Loved, and were loved, and now we lie
In Flanders fields.
Take up our quarrel with the foe:
To you from failing hands we throw
The torch; be yours to hold it high.
If ye break faith with us who die
We shall not sleep, though poppies grow
In Flanders fields.
The Windsors (1917- )
Look at the historical tree of the dynasties of the kings
and queens of Britain on page 243 and find out who
reigned over Britain in the twentieth century.
TASK 2
Listen to the recording and find out why British
economy declined in the following years.
TASK 3
1
Why was World War I called the Great War?
Why did King George V change the name of the Royal Family?
When did the British electoral system become fully
democratic?
When and why did Britain take part in World War II?
Was Britain invaded? Bombed? Destroyed?
Who was the leader who guided Britain through the war?
How did the war change womens lives?
KEY QUESTIONS
The Great War
In 1914 Britain went to war, when Germany invaded neutral
Belgium, and in 1917 King George V changed the name of the
Royal family from Saxe-Coburg-Gotha to Windsor in deference
to anti-German feeling in Britain.
Europeans called World War I the Great War, as it was the
greatest and costliest conflict that had ever taken place. Most
of the fighting happened in Europe and more than ten million
people died. Britain suffered heavy losses but retained its
important role in the development of world affairs.
On Remembrance Sunday, the nearest Sunday to 11
November, when World War I ended, ceremonies are held in
Britain to commemorate the people killed during the two world
wars and in more recent conflicts. People wear red paper
poppies. They represent the flowers that grew in the battle fields
of France where many soldiers died.
107 The Wi ndsor s ( 1917- )
Never in the field of human conflict was
so much owed by so many to so few.
(W. Churchill)
1. Cecil Beaton, The
Prime Minister, Mr
Winston Churchill, at
No 10 Downing Street,
September 1940.
Winston Churchill
was famous for his large
cigars and the V for
Victory sign.
2. The Imperial War
Museumin South
London houses a
collection of relics,
trophies and pictures
from World Wars I
and II.
World War II
In September 1939 Britain declared
war on Germany. Soon afterwards
Winston Churchill became Prime
Minister and kept the nation united
throughout a period of great suffering
until the final victory.
Life in Britain during the war was
very hard. Germans attacked British
ships in an attempt to cut off supplies
of foods and other goods. Food was
scarce and people were encouraged to
grow their own fruit and vegetables.
Rationing was introduced: people
could have only a certain amount of
food each week.
After Germany occupied France in
June 1940, the British were waiting for
a German invasion and prepared to
resist attack. All lights were turned off
at night (blackout), people built air-
raid shelters in their gardens and
Womens progress
Since the late 19th century women in Britain had
demanded the right to vote, but various bills had been
rejected by Parliament or the government. This only
made the suffragettes (so called because they
advocated female suffrage) more active and
determined. They used violent protest, were put in
prison, went on hunger strike, but finally achieved their
aim. In 1918 The Franchise Act gave the vote to
women over 30 years of age and in 1928 the franchise
was extended to take in women over 21.
Emmeline Pankurst and her daughter Christabel were
among the leaders of the British suffragettes.
The two World Wars brought about great changes in
womens lives. Before the war only a few women worked outside the home. But as men
joined the army, women took over their jobs, working in factories, driving buses and lorries
and joining the Land Army. The Land Army was made up of thousands of women who
moved to the country to do the work of the agricultural labourers who had gone to war.
Without these women Britain might have starved. Moreover this showed that there were
no mens jobs that women were not able to do.
In the 20th century both Britain and Italy were involved in the two World Wars.
Which other countries took part in each war?
Did Italy and Britain fight on the same side or against each other?
How long did World War II last for Britain? And for Italy?
Did your town or region suffer during the war? How?
Was rationing introduced? Which foods were easy/difficult/impossible to get?
When were women given the right to vote in Italy?
CLASS DISCUSSION 4
everyone
was given a
gas mask to
wear in
case poison
gas was
used during
air-raids.
Thousands
of children
were
evacuated
to the
countryside to escape a likely bombing
of towns and cities. The worst attacks
on Britain took place in September
1940, when the Germans tried to
destroy the country with heavy air
attacks. This was the time of the Battle
of Britain. The Royal Air Force, with
the support of all the people,
succeeded in repelling the Germans
and preventing them from invading
Britain.
On 6 June 1944 (D-Day) the Allies
landed in Normandy and began the
campaign to drive the Germans out of
France. On 8 May 1945 (VE-Day)
Churchill announced to the British
that fighting in Europe had come to
an end.
1
2
The 50s and the 60s
1
Why did immigration into Britain
increase after the war?
How did the British way of life
change in the 50s and 60s?
When and why was smog a serious
problem in London?
What is the welfare state?
Why was London considered the
European capital of pop culture in the
60s?
What do we mean when we say the
swinging sixties?
KEY QUESTIONS
A
fter the war, massive task of
reconstruction faced the whole of
Europe. Britain had been heavily
bombed, whole areas of cities had been
destroyed and many people died. At the
end of the war, one third of Londons
buildings lay in ruins.
In Britain more workers were
needed in every field, and active
recruitment began in Ireland, in the
colonies, and the countries of the new
Commonwealth. By the end of the 60s
there were 900,000 Irish-born
immigrants in Britain and they are
still the largest immigrant group in
Britain. West Indians came in the 50s,
and Indians and Pakistanis in the 60s,
together with the Chinese, Greeks, and
other nationalities. There are thriving
Italian communities in many British
cities today where parents and
grandparents of todays inhabitants
arrived soon after the war.
The Labour Party won the 1945 postwar
elections with a major programme of
nationalisation and extensive social
services. They set up a welfare state, to
provide free education, unemployment
pay, and many other social benefits, and
the National Health Service gave free
medical treatment to everyone.
In 1952 King George VI died and his
daughter became Queen Elizabeth II.
She was crowned in Westminster Abbey
on 2 June 1953, and the Coronation
ceremony was broadcast to the country
and all over the world, while thousands
of people gathered outside the church
Londons smog
Londoners had become used to a thick mixture of fog and coal smoke, which they
called smog, that lay over the city every winter and caused many people to die of
throat and chest infections. It was so thick they nicknamed it pea-soup. In 1952
a thick smog covered London for four days and killed about 4,000 people. The
smog even got inside buildings cinemas were closed because people could not
see the screen! Four years later a law was passed called the Clean Air Act, which
banned the burning of smoke-producing fuels in London. Nowadays smog is a
thing of the past.
and along the streets to see and cheer
the new Queen.
This was the period of the Cold War
between the Western countries and the
Soviet Union, and spy stories became
very fashionable. James Bond a
character created by the novelist Ian
Fleming in 1953, became the British
hero, fighting (and always winning)
against the enemies of his country who
usually came from the East. He was loyal
to the Crown, a great lover of women
and weapons, a macho-type but with
much charm and glamour. When Sean
Connery became James Bond on the
screen success was guaranteed all over
the world and the Bond-style was
recognizable in fashion and manners.
1
109 The Wi ndsor s ( 1917- )
More jobs and better wages raised the
standard of living in the 50s and 60s.
More and more people began to buy cars
and spend more money on holidays.
The swinging sixties
The 60s saw the birth of a new culture
focusing on teenagers. More money was
now available for young people, who
were interested in music, clothes, parties
and entertainment. This produced a
revolution in fashion, music and
customs. Teenagers wanted to break
with the traditional look of their parents.
They wanted new shapes, colours and
materials. Even some of the traditional
differences between the sexes
disappeared: bright colours, haircut and
clothes that suited both boys and girls
came in and the unisex look was born. In
the 60s, Mary Quant, a London fashion
designer created the miniskirt which
became one of the symbols of the new
generation.
Pop music had become very popular
in the 50s. New kinds of music and
especially rocknroll were coming from
the USA. Records and record players
became cheaper, and teenagers could
now afford to buy them.
Swinging London became the
European capital of pop culture.
In the 60s the Beatles became the
most successful pop group ever. John,
Paul, Ringo and George came together
in August 1962 and in October of that
year released their first single, Love me
do, which reached 16 in the charts.
Their next record, Please please me,
was No 1 in February 1963 and the
rest, as they say, is history.
On 9 February, 1964 the Beatles
appeared on the very influential
American television programme, The
Ed Sullivan Show. 73 million people
watched them in America alone and
wherever they went, from that day on,
normal activities would stop as people
rushed to catch a glimpse of their
heroes. Beatlemania had arrived.
The Beatles recorded 214 songs, made five films and appeared at numberless gigs, television shows and personal
appearances between 1962 and 1970. The writing and composing duo, John Lennon and Paul McCartney, penned many
unforgettable songs including Hey Jude, Yesterday, Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds and Sergeant Pepper.
Their life together put them through terrible strains and from 1968 the Beatles began to experience personal difficulties,
especially between Paul and John, the groups creative soul. In April 1970 Paul decided to leave. The Beatles never got together
to play again. On 8 December, 1980 John Lennon was shot dead in New York.
George Harrison succumbed to cancer on 30 November 2001. Paul continues to sing and compose, and Ringo lives a
rather quiet life out of the limelight.
The first TV sets went on sale in 1936 and
the BBC began the first regular television
service in the world. Television closed down
when the Second World War began in
1939. It started broadcasting again in
1945. In 1967 colour TV was used for the
first time.
Until the early 60s British popular
music rather slavishly followed the
fashions and tastes of the USA. Then,
along came the Beatles with their
Mersey Beat sound. The Mersey is the
river of Liverpool, their home city, and
the music they wrote came to symbolise
a complete break with the London scene
and its American-dominated pop
industry. The Beatles were soon followed
by other great bands, the Rolling Stones,
the Kinks and the Animals, to name but
a few who made British music
tremendously influential and
revolutionised pop throughout the world.
1. Cecil Beaton, Coronation of Her Majesty Queen
Elizabeth II. Official portrait.
2. One of the most famous cars of this period was
the Mini made by Austin & Morris, which cost only
500.
2
The Fab Four in concert.
International Relations
1
What is the British Commonwealth of
Nations?
How are the member countries
governed?
What is the role of the British
monarch?
What do the Commonwealth
countries have in common?
What is the difference between the
EEC and the EU?
When did European people begin to
use the euro?
Does Britain use the euro today?
Who are the euro-sceptics?
KEY QUESTIONS
1. A British recruiting
poster addressing the
Commonwealth
people (1940). Imperial
War Museum, London.
2. The Commonwealth
Games are a major
sports event held every
four years. The event was
hosted by Manchester in
2002.
3. The European
Parliament in
Strasbourg.
The British
Commonwealth
of Nations
After the Second World War a number
of British colonies started demanding
independence, and Britain gradually lost
her empire. India became independent
in 1947, followed by Africa and some
Caribbean countries. In the 50s and 60s
most of the remaining countries of the
empire became independent, but joined
the British Commonwealth of Nations
which had been set up in 1931. Britain
lost much of its power and influence, but
it maintained special trading agreements
with the Commonwealth countries.
Today, there are 54 members of the
British Commonwealth. It consists of 33
republics, five countries with national
monarchies of their own, and 16
constitutional monarchies that
recognise Elizabeth II as their Head of
State.
The Declaration of Commonwealth
Principles (1971) defines the
Commonwealth as a voluntary
association of independent states, each
responsible for its own policies,
consulting and co-operating in the
common interest of their peoples and in
the promotion of international and
world peace.
2
Find more about the
Commonwealth Games at
www.commonwealthgames.com
WWW
A few small countries which are
called dependent territories (like
Gibraltar and the Falklands) have a
Governor appointed by the Queen. The
heads of government of all
Commonwealth countries meet every
two years for the Commonwealth
Conference.
The Queen has an important
unifying and symbolic function. The
second Monday in March is Queen
Elizabeth IIs official birthday and also
Commonwealth Day when she delivers
a message that is broadcast on TV and
on the radio, and posted on the
Internet.
2
1
111 The Wi ndsor s ( 1917- )
Britain and the EEC
The European Economic Community
(EEC) was formed in 1957 with the main
aim of allowing more economic co-
operation and movement of people
between the countries of Europe. From
the beginning Britain showed little
enthusiasm for membership of the EEC.
It would mean among other things
ending her special trading agreements
with the Commonwealth countries. In
some ways it could mean losing her
status as a world power to become a
European power like other European
states.
However, after a long debate and
various preparatory steps (of which the
introduction of decimal currency in 1971
was a major one), Britain joined what
had become known as the Common
Market in 1973.
The European Treaty of Maastricht
established the European Union (EU) in
1992, as well as the concepts of
European citizenship and a single
European currency.
On 1st January 1993 the Single
Market was set up. It provided for the
free circulation of people, goods, services
and capital within the European Union.
Customs barriers were removed and
professional qualifications were mutually
recognised.
In 1999 the euro began to be used in
business transactions in the eleven
countries which had supported
monetary union, and euro banknotes
and coins were introduced into
European countries on 1st January 2002.
3
Here are some of Britains achievements over the last sixty years. When were similar measures taken in Italy?
The National Health Service was established (1948).
The Clean Air Act to control pollution was passed (1956).
The first motorway was opened (the M1 between London and Birmingham) (1958).
The school-leaving age was raised to 16 (1963).
The age of majority was reduced from 21 to 18 (1968).
Capital punishment was abolished (1969).
Britain joined the EEC (1973).
YOUR COUNTRY
Britain, Sweden and Norway, kept their
own currency.
In Britain public opinion and the
media are very reluctant to give up the
pound.
The Labour party was re-elected in
June 2001, with a policy of holding a
referendum, possibly within the current
parliamentary term, to decide whether
or not Britain should adopt the
European single currency.
The attitude of British people
towards Europe varies a lot. Some people
and MPs (the pro-Europeans) are in
favour of closer political, economic and
social relations with other European
countries, while others (the Euro-
sceptics) are suspicious of Europe and
afraid that Britain will lose her
independence and national identity.
3
From the 70s to the Millennium
H
igh prices and unemployment
became a problem again in the 70s.
Between the 70s and 80s, all over
Britain factories, mills, mines and
shipyards closed and unemployment
rose, particularly in South Wales, the
Midlands and the North of England.
Many people had to leave the North to
find work in the South and East,
particularly in and around London.
The Conservative Party came to
power with Prime Minister Margaret
Thatcher in 1979. They cut government
spending, changed the welfare state, and
reduced inflation. Many state-owned
industries were privatized, the power of
the trade unions was reduced, and
unemployment reached the record level
of 3 million in 1984.
In Britain as in America, a new
generation reacted to the crisis by
turning in on itself and raising the values
of personal achievement and pleasure
over older virtues of communal
solidarity and public responsibility.
Margaret Thatcher made greed and self-
seeking politically acceptable when in
1987 she declared there was no such
thing as society, only family. This is what
she said:
I think weve been through a period
where too many people have been given
to understand that if they have a
problem, its the governments job to cope
with it. I have a problem, Ill get a grant.
2. The Millenium
Bridge is a pedestrian
link across the river
between the Tate
Modern and St Pauls
Cathedral, designed by
Sir Norman Foster.
Im homeless, the government must
house me. Theyre casting their problem
on society. And, you know, there is no
such thing as society. There are
individual men and women, and there
are families. And no government can do
anything except through people, and
people must look to themselves first. Its
our duty to look after ourselves and then,
also to look after our neighbour. People
have got the entitlements too much in
mind, without the obligations. Theres no
such thing as entitlement, unless
someone has first met an obligation.
During the 90s the economy
recovered as Britain began to
concentrate on new hi-tech and service
industries. But the Conservatives policy
had widened the gap between rich and
poor, who were now less well protected
by the welfare state, and between North
and South.
The Labour Party came back to
power in 1997 with Prime Minister Tony
Blair. Though his government has
softened the stance on social
responsibility, Britain has not returned
to the welfare state, its great pride over
the three post-war decades. However,
people are once again more willing to
help each other and share their hopes
and sadnesses in a way that was
impossible in the 80s.
2
1
1. Henry Moore was
one of last centurys
best known
sculptors. His large
stone, wood or
bronze works, are
mainly found in
open spaces in
various countries.
113
The Eden Project at St
Austell in Cornwall aims at
exploring the complex
relationship between man
and plants and at
stimulating reflection on the
quality of our natural
environment.
Two huge conservatories
have been built in a dismissed
mine. Each is made of a series
of light geodesic domes
(formed by hexagonal faces).
They contain more than 10,000 plants from every part of the world.
The ultimate challenge
Mankind now faces its ultimate challenge to strike a balance between
exploitation and conservation that will lead to a sustainable future.
(www.edenproject.com)
The Wi ndsor s ( 1917- )
Around the turn of the century Britain
developed a kind of architectural frenzy.
Everywhere, cities tried to build
something special for the Millennium.
Four billion pounds were invested in
new projects all over the country (the
money mainly coming from the National
Lottery). Most of the projects were
designed to improve the relationship
between man and the environment, such
as new gardens, the Eden Project in
Cornwall, renovation of neglected
industrial areas including conversions
such as the Tate Modern in London and
the Albert Docks in Liverpool, new
pedestrian paths and cycling routes (the
National Cycle Network will cover
13,000 km nearly half already in use),
the reopening of navigable rivers and
canals, and so on.
1
Do you know of any projects for the preservation of the
environment and the renovation of industrial areas in
your region?
YOUR COUNTRY
The Eden Project was designed by architect Nicholas Grimshaw.
6. Once the second city of the British Empire, in the 60s and 70s Liverpool
became one of the most depressed areas in Europe and the symbol of the
decline of a whole nation. In the 80s renovation of 10 km of abandoned docks
was initiated. The docks have now become one of the citys main attractions
with museums, art galleries, trendy discos, restaurants, cafs and shops.
3. London British Library attracts scholars and writers, who come here for the
huge amounts of information stored in it. It is a modern linear red-brick building
designed by Colin St John Wilson. It stands next to St Pancras station, in
stunning contrast with the latters Gothic flamboyance.
4. Mile End Park in East London is being turned into a model park, complete
with art gallery, sculpture garden, ecology area, lakes, adventure playground
and sports facilities. The Green Bridge, designed by Piers Gough, is covered with
trees and flowers in itself a park on a bridge.
5. The new London City Hall by Sir Norman Foster, opened in July 2002.
3
5
4
6

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