The Basics of Grain Size within a Lake System

Grain size within a lake system is generally related to the amount of energy that exists in a
particular environment. Below is a simple graphic showing a cross section of a typical lake with
significant wave action. Notice on the diagram that different areas of the lake have different
relative energy levels. Nearshore, wave action results in a relatively high energy environment.
In deeper water, the relative energy is less. Deep water (greater than wave base, which is equal
to one half the wavelength) is not affected by surface waves. Hence, the deep water
environment is normally a low energy environment, unless it is affected by strong currents.




How is grain size related to energy?
Water with high energy is able to move many particles as bed load (sand and gravel) or in
suspension (silt and clay). As the amount of energy decreases, the size of particles the water can
hold in suspension also decreases. Thus, as we move along the lake bottom away from shore
and into deeper water, grains moved as bed load or held in suspension decrease in size. In the
relatively high energy area nearshore, the first particles to be deposited will be the heavier
particles such as pebbles and coarse sand. In the medium energy area offshore, we tend to find
finer sand or silt. In deep water, water movement is usually negligible. In order for clay sized
grains to drop out of suspension, the water must be very still for an extended period of time.
Since the deep water region is usually very still, this is the area in which we tend to find very
fine-grained particles such as clay.
Is grain size within a lake system really that easy?
No. The basic concept outlined above is correct; however, many factors can affect energy
distribution within a lake. Storms, deep-water currents, and upwelling are just a few examples
of things that alter the energy distribution within a lake. These changes in energy will affect
grain size. Therefore, grain size can actually be more complicated than simple lake geometry
predicts.
The River Plume


An interesting phenomenon can be observed where a stream empties into a lake. A distinct
color difference between the river and lake water can commonly be observed. The area that
appears to be an extension of "river-colored" water into a lake is called a plume. Figure 1 is a
cartoon of an aerial view of a river plume. Note the distinct color difference. Although this is a
cartoon representation, the color difference in actuality may be just as distinct.



What causes the river plume?
A river plume is visible for several reasons. River water commonly appears more brown in
color than the lake because the river is ordinarily carrying more suspended particles such as silt
and clay. However, the plume is not just different in color, but also a distinct line is commonly
observed between the two water masses. Typically, the river water is relatively warm and,
therefore, less dense than the relatively cool, lake water. Water of different densities will not
mix easily. Consequently, a distinct line forms where the waters of different densities meet.
This boundary continues under the water as well, so the "line" is actually a surface.


Figure 2 illustrates a cross section of a plume. Notice how the river water lies over the more
dense, lake water. This results in the formation of a wedge of river water overlying the lake
water. A boat is shown testing water at the plume. If the researchers test the water at depth a,
the water will have the characteristics of the river water. However, if the researchers test the
water further down the line at depth b, the water will have the characteristics of the lake
water. A similar wedge of water occurs where river water (relatively low-density, fresh water)
flows into the ocean (relatively high-density, salty water).
A photograph of the plume at the mouth of the Kalamazoo River at Saugatuck, Michigan, is
shown in Figure 3. The geometry of a river plume as well as the sharpness of its boundary may
vary considerably depending on a number of factors (e.g., wind, wave, and current conditions as
well as the amount of material carried in suspension). But by studying the geometry of the
plume, you can determine the direction of littoral transport at any one time (see "Longshore
Current and Beach Drift"). For example, in Figure 3 you can see the plume extends to the left
(south) indicating that littoral transport was from north to south when the photograph was
taken. You can also get a sense from the photograph of the tremendous amount of sediment
that is carried to the Great Lakes daily by rivers. Whether or not the sediment is accompanied
by toxic materials, it decreases the water quality of the lakes by increasing turbidity. As a
result, control of the erosion of sediment into streams is critical to maintaining high water
quality in the Great Lakes.


Figure 3 Photograph of the mouth of the Kalamazoo River at Saugatuck, Michigan.
Note the distinctive, brown, river water (plume) that extends into Lake Michigan.
Seasonal Lake Stratification


Lakes within the Great Lakes region undergo seasonal changes with regard to their
temperature-density profiles. These changes directly influence various characteristics of the
lake. To begin with, one must understand the temperature-density relationship for water. For
the most part, as water increases in temperature it becomes less dense. Conversely, water
becomes more dense as it decreases in temperature. The exception to this rule is that water
reaches its maximum density at approximately 4 Celsius. Below 4C, as water cools the
number of water molecules joined together by hydrogen bonds to form loose clusters increases.
Because of the formation of these structured aggregates, below 4C water actually becomes less
dense as it cools. The molecules in ice form a very structured, open framework, so ice itself is
less dense than water and, consequently, it floats. With this concept in mind, seasonal or
thermal stratification within lakes can be explored
Changes in the temperature profile with depth within a lake system is called thermal
stratification. This profile changes from one season to the next and creates a cyclical pattern
that is repeated from year to year. Let us begin with spring. After the ice melts on a lake, the
lake water is generally the same temperature from the surface to the bottom. Wind allows
circulation and mixing of the lake water. Surface water can be pushed to the lake bottom and
bottom water can rise to the surface (Figure 1). This circulation pattern is very important in that
it allows relatively large amounts of oxygen to reach the bottom of the lake. Otherwise, oxygen
would have to reach the bottom by the relatively slow process of diffusion. The mixing of the
lake water at this time of year is called spring overturn.


As air temperatures rise in late spring, heat from the sun begins to warm the lake. As the
amount of solar radiation absorbed decreases with depth, the lake heats from the surface down.
The warm water is less dense than the colder water below resulting in a layer of warm water that
floats over the cold water. The layer of warm water at the surface of the lake is called the
epilimnion. The cold layer below the epilimnion is called the hypolimnion. These two layers
are separated by a layer of water which rapidly changes temperature with depth. This is called
the thermocline (or metalimnion). The three distinct layers of water, each with a different
temperature or range of temperatures, is an excellent example of thermal stratification within a
lake system. Figure 2 below shows how the depth of the epilimnion increases through the
spring and into the early summer.


During the summer the epilimnion will reach a maximum depth and stratification will be
maintained for the remainder of the summer. The warm water, abundant sunlight, and nutrients
brought up from the lake bottom during spring overturn provide an ideal environment for algae
growth within the epilimnion. Algal blooms tend to give the epilimnion a greenish hue.
Stratification during the summer acts as a deterrent to complete lake mixing. Wind circulates
the surface water, but the warm water of the epilimnion is unable to drive through the cold,
dense water of the hypolimnion. As a result, the water is only mixed in the epilimnion (Figure
3).

Without mixing to provide dissolved oxygen, the lake bottom, lacking enough light for
photosynthesis to occur, tends to have a very limited supply of oxygen during the summer.
Respiration by animals and bacteria can deplete the dissolved oxygen at the bottom of the lake.
A stratified lake of this nature is said to be in summer stagnation. Dead algae sink to the lake
bottom and are decomposed by bacteria. This accelerates the depletion of dissolved oxygen in
the hypolimnion as aerobic bacteria use oxygen to decompose the wealth of organic material
raining down from the epilimnion. During summer stagnation the lake bottom can become
anoxic (i.e., without oxygen) and anaerobic bacteria begin to decompose organic material
without the aid of dissolved oxygen. If dead algae accumulate at a faster rate than bacteria
decompose the organic matter, sediment deposited in the lake will be rich in organics. This is
likely because without thorough mixing to provide the surface water with nutrients from the
bottom, the algae eventually begin to limit the available nutrients in the epilimnion. Lack of
available nutrients can cause large die-offs of algae, adding to the organic matter on the lake
bottom. Frequently, anaerobic bacteria produce hydrogen sulfide gas (H2S), so the organic-rich
sediment may have the odor of rotten eggs. Some of the sulfur in the H2S may combine with
iron to form pyrite or fools gold (FeS2). For example, when a core composed of fine
sediment is taken from the bottom of Lake Michigan and is cut open, commonly dark
laminations are observed, which disappear within an hour. The dark material is likely pyrite that
oxidizes (combines with oxygen) to iron oxide when exposed to air.
As autumn approaches and temperatures decrease, the epilimnion begins to decrease in depth
(Figure 4). Eventually the epilimnion gets so shallow that it can no longer be maintained as a
separate layer and the lake loses its stratification. Thus, as in the spring, the lake water in the
autumn has generally uniform temperatures (about 4C in late autumn), and wind can once again
thoroughly mix the lake water. In addition, surface water, which is in direct contact with the
cold air, gets cooled faster than the water below. This cold, dense water sinks and further helps
to mix the lake, and once more oxygen and nutrients are replenished throughout the lake (Figure
5). This process is called autumn overturn.




As winter approaches, the surface water is eventually cooled below 4 C. At this point, the
water no longer sinks. The water molecules begin to align themselves (form more hydrogen
bonds) to solidify. As water temperatures at the surface reach 0C, ice begins to cover the
surface of the lake. During the winter, ice cover prevents wind from mixing the lake water.
Again, stratification can occur. A layer of low density water colder than 4C, but warmer than
0C forms just under the ice. Below this water, the remainder of the lake water is usually near
4 C. At this point, a lake is said to be in winter stagnation (Figure 6). As spring approaches,
the seasonal cycle begins again.

Alan Carroll home

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Summary
My principal area of current research is the sequence stratigraphy and three-dimensional
distribution of lacustrine and associated facies, primarily in the Eocene Green River Formation.
The Green River Formation provides an excellent natural laboratory for such studies by virtue of
its accessibility, the diversity of lake types it encompasses, and the geologic context provided by
its long history of previous studies. One goal of this work will be to document the stratigraphic
context, sequence-scale and basin-scale distribution, and hydrocarbon generative potential of the
heterogeneous Green River Formation organic facies. In addition to stratigraphic and source-
rock studies, we will also seek to quantify specific tectonic and climatic influences on the
evolution of lake facies. Part of this study will involve detailed application of traditional
techniques of sedimentary basin analysis, such as facies and paleocurrent analysis and sandstone
petrography.
In addition, we are applying various radiogenic isotopic tools to the Green River Formation, in
collaboration with UW professors Clark Johnson and Brad Singer. By examining temporal
changes in
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios in lacustrine carbonates we are seeking to document the provenance
of lake waters, which is controlled by both tectonic reorganization of drainage patterns and by
climatically-induced changes in runoff and evaporation. These studies are supported by
conventional provenance analyses using sandstone petrography, and by sedimentary facies and
paleocurrent evidence. A unique advantage of using these different approaches is that we will be
able to differentiate between the provenance of clastic sediments and the provenance of lake
waters, allowing sediment supply variations to be effectively decoupled from lake level
variations. High-resolution
40
Ar/
39
Ar dating of interbedded tuffs will provide the best
chronostratigraphy in any lake basin, permitting the first reliable measures of lacustrine
sediment accumulation rates. This information will be useful both to tie lake types to timing of
subsidence and uplift events, and to test for possible Milankovitch-scale cyclicities.
Click on an image for a larger view and
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page.

Location of the greater
Green River basin.

Stratigraphy of the greater
Green River basin.


Farson Sandstone Member,
northern Green River Basin.
Note the clinoforms dipping to
the left (southwest) in this
deltaic sandstone. Wasatch
Formation underlies the
sandstone. (photo: Alan Carroll)

Wilkins Peak Member at
Wilkins Peak, near Rock
Springs. (photo: Alan
Carroll)

Wilkins Peak Member, White
Mountain. Note strong evidence
for cyclicity in lacustrine and
lake-marginal mudstone.
(photo: Alan Carroll)


Sand Butte, Washakie basin.
Base of exposure is the alluvial
Wasatch Formation, top is
volcaniclastic sandstone of the
Sand Butte Bed, Laney
Member. LaClede Bed of the
Laney Member is partially
exposed in between. (photo:
Alan Carroll)

Simplified stratigraphic
cross-section of the Laney
Member at DeLaney Rim,
Washakie Basin (Rhodes et
al., in prep.).

Schematic representation of
strontium isotopic evolution of
lake waters during a flooding-
desiccation cycle, Laney
Member (Rhodes et al., in
press).

Researchers
Jeff Pietras is completing his Ph.D. disseration on the stratigraphy and strontium isotope
geochemistry of the Wilkins Peak Member. Meredith Rhodes is completing her Ph.D.
dissertation on the Laney Member. Both of their projects involve major collaboration with Clark
Johnson and Brian Beard of the UW Radiogenic Isotopes Laboratory.
Mike Smith is working on
40
Ar/
39
Ar age determinations for tuff horizons interbedded in the
Green River Formation, in collaboration with Brad Singer of the UW Rare Gas Geochronology
Laboratory. He is currently completing an M.S.. His Ph.D. dissertation will continue with this
work, with a goal of documenting the uplift timing of Laramide basin-bounding uplifts by dating
synorogenic coarase clastic deposits that interfinger with the Green River Formation.
Ackowledgments
Financial support provided by the National Science Foundation, the Donors of the Petroleum
Research Fund of the American Chemical Society, Conoco, and Texaco.