The process of adsorption involves separation of a substance from one phase

accompanied by its accumulation or concentration at the surface of another. The process

continues until equilibrium is established between the amount of solid-bound adsorbate and
the remaining portion in the solution. The adsorbing phase is the adsorbent, and the
material concentrated or adsorbed at the surface of that phase is the adsorbate.
Adsorption phenomena are operative in most natural physical, biological, and chemical
systems, and adsorption operations employing solids such as activated carbon and
synthetic resins are used widely in industrial applications and for purification of waters
and wastewaters.
Similar to surface tension, adsorption is a consequence of surface energy.
Whatever the nature of the forces holding a solid together, it can be regarded as producing a field of force
around each ion, atom, or molecule. At the surface of the solid, these forces cannot suddenly disappear and
thus reach out in space beyond the surface of the solid. Due to these unsaturated and unbalanced forces, the
solid has a tendency to attract and retain on its surface molecules and ions of other substances with which it
comes into contact. Thus, when a solid surface comes in contact with a gas or a liquid, the concentration of
the gas or liquid is always greater on the surface of the solid than in the bul gas or liquid phase. This leads
to the gas or liquid getting adsorbed on the solid surface. The e!act nature of the bonding depends
on the details of the species involved, but the adsorbed material is generally classified as
e!hibiting physisorption or chemisorption.
4.2 PHYSICAL ADSORPTION AND CHEMICAL ADSORPTION
Traditionally, adsorption is classified according to the magnitude of adsorption forces.
Wea interactions "#$%&mol' analogous to those between molecules in liquids give rise
to physical adsorption. "(ritannica' )hysisorption or physical adsorption is a type of
adsorption in which the adsorbate adheres to the surface only through *an der Waals
"wea intermolecular' interactions, which originates from the interactions between
induced, permanent or transient electric dipoles. The individuality of adsorbate and
adsorbent are preserved. +t is multilayer process and the molecules are not site specific.
,hemisorption is a type of adsorption whereby a molecule adheres to a surface through
the formation of a chemical bond "ionic or covalent bond' depending on the reactive
chemical compounds used "e.g. corrosion'. +n chemisorption, there is a transfer or sharing
of electron, or breaage of the adsorbate into atoms or radicals, which are bound
separately. Strong interactions "-#$%&mol' similar to those found between atoms within
a molecule "covalent bonds' give rise to chemical adsorption or chemisorption. The
molecules are site specific and the process is monolayer.
4.3 APPLICATION OF ADSORPTION
The fundamental practical applications of adsorption and related areas are-
. separation and purification of liquid and gas mi!tures, bul chemicals, isomers and air/
. drying gases and liquids before loading them into industrial systems/
. removal of impurities from liquid and gas media/
. recovery of chemicals from industrial and vent gases/ and
. water purification.
The commercial adsorption processes for separating gas and liquid mi!tures
accomplished due to selective adsorption of certain substances from their mi!tures. The
same idea is true for purification of gas and liquid mi!tures and drying of some industrial
gases. 0or those purposes, the pore system of adsorbents used is sufficiently wide to
enable fast diffusion/ separation is caused mainly by selective adsorption that depends
upon the van der Waals forces between the adsorbent and the constituents of the gas or
liquid mi!tures. The above processes are ma1or unit operations in the chemical and
petrochemical industries. "adsorption theory to practice- Dabrowsi'
Table 4.1: Compar!o" o# P$%!&al a"' C$em&al A'!orp(o"
Sl. No P$%!&al A'!orp(o" C$em&al A'!orp(o"
2 *an der Waal3s adsorption
Activated adsorption
"ionic or covalent bond'
4 5eat of adsorption6 7 cal&mol 5eat of adsorption6 4$-2$$ cal&mol
8
Adsorption occurs only at
temperature less than the boiling
point of the adsorbate
Adsorption can occur even at higher
temperature
#
9o activation energy is involved in
the adsorption process
Activation energy may be involved
7
Activation occurs in mono as well
as in multi layers
Activation occurs mostly in mono
layer
:
;uantity adsorbed per unit mass is
high i.e. entire surface is
participating
;uantity adsorbed per unit mass is
low i.e. only active surface sites are
important
<
=ate of adsorption controlled by
mass transfer resistance
=ate of adsorption controlled by
resistance reaction
4.4 ADSORPTION MECHANISM
The rate of adsorption is determined by the rate of transfer of the adsorbate from the
bul solution to the adsorption sites within the particles. This can be broen conceptually
into a series of consecutive steps which are
2. Diffusion of adsorbate across a stationary solvent film surrounding each
adsorbent.
4. Diffusion through the macro pore.
8. Diffusion through the micro pore.
#. Adsorption at an appropriate site.
+t is assumed that fourth step occurs very rapidly in comparison to second step. +f the
system is agitated vigorously, the e!terior diffusion film around the adsorbent will be
very thin, offering negligible resistance to diffusion. So, it can be assumed that the main
resistance to adsorption shall lie in the pore diffusion step. Weber and >orris "2?:8'
while referring to the rate limiting step of organic materials uptae by granulated
activated carbon in the rapidly mi!ed batch system propose the term @+ntra-particle
TransportA which comprises of surface diffusion and molecular diffusion. Several
researchers have shown that surface diffusion is the dominant mechanism and is a rate-
determining step. A functional relationship common to most of the treatments of intra-
particle transport is that the uptae varies almost proportionally with the square root of
time.
4.4.1 STAGES IN ADSORPTION PROCESS
Adsorption is thought to occur in three stages, as the adsorbate concentration increases.
S(a)e I: 0irstly, a single layer of molecules builds up over the surface of the adsorbent.
This monolayer may be chemisorbed and is associated with a change in free energy that
is a characteristic of the forces that hold it.
S(a)e II: As the fluid concentration is further increased, the layers are formed by
physical adsorption. The number of layers formed is limited by the siBe of the pores.
S(a)e III: 0inally, for adsorption from the gas phase, capillary condensation may occur
in which capillaries become filled with condensed adsorbate, when its partial pressure
reaches a critical value relative to the siBe of the pore.
4.* ADSORPTION DIFF+SION ST+DY
The mathematical treatment of (oyd et al., "2?#<' and =eichenberg "2?78', to distinguish
between the particle and film diffusion and mass action-controlled mechanism of
e!change, have laid the foundations of sorption&ion-e!change inetics. +n adsorption
systems, the mass transfer of solute or adsorbate onto and within the adsorbent particle
directly affects the adsorption rate. +t is not only important to study the rate at which the
solute is removed from aqueous solution in order to apply adsorption by solid particles to
industrial uses but also it is necessary to identify the step that governs the overall removal
rate in the adsorption process in order to interpret the e!perimental data. There are
essentially four steps in the adsorption of a solute from the bul liquid solution by an
adsorbent.
Transport of solute from the bul of the solution to the e!ternal film surrounding the
adsorbent particle "assumed to be very fast in agitated vessels'.
Diffusion of the adsorbate from across the e!ternal liquid film to the e!ternal surface of
the adsorbent particle "film diffusion/ the resistance could be neglected for properly
mi!ed&agitated vessels'.
Diffusion of adsorbate from the pore mouth through pores to the immediate vicinity of
the internal adsorbent surface "pore, surface and molecular diffusion'.
Adsorption of the adsorbate onto the interior surface of the adsorbent.
All these processes play an important role in the overall sorption of the solute from the
bul liquid solution to the internal surface of an adsorbent. +n a rapidly stirred, well
mi!ed batch adsorption, mass transport from the bul solution to the e!ternal surface of
the adsorbent is usually rapid. Therefore, the transport resistance of the adsorbate from
the bul of the solution to the e!terior film surrounding the adsorbent may be small and
can be neglected.
+n addition, the adsorption of adsorbate at surface sites "step #' is usually very rapid, and
thus offers negligible resistance in comparison to steps 4 and 8. Thus, these processes
usually are not considered to be the rate-limiting steps in the sorption process.
+n most cases, steps "4' and "8' may control the sorption phenomena. 0or the remaining
two steps in the overall adsorbate transport, three distinct cases may occurC
,ase +C e!ternal transport resistance - internal transport resistance
,ase ++C e!ternal transport resistance D internal transport resistance
,ase +++C e!ternal transport resistance E internal transport resistance
+n cases + and ++, the overall rate is governed by the film diffusion and diffusion in the
pores, respectively. +n case +++, the transport of solute to the boundary may not be
possible at a significant rate, thereby, leading to the formation of a liquid film with a
concentration gradient surrounding the adsorbent particles.
Fsually, e!ternal transport is the rate-limiting step in systems which have "a' poor phase
mi!ing, "b' dilute concentration of adsorbate, "c' small particle siBe, and "d' high affinity
of the adsorbate to adsorbent. +n contrast, the intra-particle step limits the overall sorption
for systems that have "a' a high concentration of adsorbate, "b' a good phase mi!ing, "c'
large particle siBe of the adsorbents, and "d' low affinity of the adsorbate to adsorbent.
4., ADSORPTION E-+ILI.RI+M ST+DY:
When a solid surface is e!posed to a gas, the molecules of the gas strie the surface of the solid. Some of
the striing molecules stic to the solid surface and become adsorbed while the others rebound. +nitially the
rate of adsorption is large as the whole surface is bare but as more and more of the surface becomes
covered by the molecules of the gas, the available bare surface decreases and so does the rate of adsorption.
5owever, the rate of desorption, which is the rate at which adsorbed molecules rebound from the surface,
increases because desorption taes place from the covered surface. As time passes, the rate of adsorption
continues to decrease while the rate of desorption increases until an equilibrium is reached between the rate
of adsorption and the rate of desorption. At this stage the solid is in adsorption equilibrium with the gas or
liquid, and the rate of adsorption is equal to the rate of desorption. +t is a dynamic equilibrium because the
number of molecules sticing to the surface is equal to the number of molecules rebounding from the
surface. 0or a given adsorbate-adsorbent system, the equilibrium amount adsorbed x&m is a function of
pressure and temperature/ i.e.
"#.2'
where x/m is the amount adsorbed per unit mass of the adsorbent at the equilibrium
pressure p, and T is the temperature of adsorption. "bansal'
The relationship between the amount of adsorbate adsorbed and the adsorbate
concentration remaining in solution is described by an isotherm. The adsorption isotherm
can be depicted by plotting solid phase concentration against liquid phase concentration
graphically. To optimiBe the design of adsorption system for the removal of adsorbate, it
is important to establish the most appropriate correlation for the equilibrium curve
GHataye et al.,4$$IJ.
Kquilibrium isotherms are measured to determine the capacity of the adsorbent. *arious
isotherm equations lie those of Hangmuir, 0reundlich have been used in the literature to
describe the equilibrium characteristics of adsorption from liquid solutions. Adsorption
isotherm is a graphical plot showing distribution of contaminants between the adsorbed
phase and solution phase at the dynamic equilibrium.>any theoretical and empirical
models have been developed to represent the various types of adsorption isotherms.
Hangmuir, 0reundlich, (runauer-Kmmet-Teller "(KT', etc. are most commonly used
adsorption isotherm models for describing the dynamic equilibrium. The isotherm
equations used for the study are described follows "Duong D. Do 2??I'.
4.6.1 ADSORPTION ISOTHERMS
(runauer "S.(runauer, H.S. Deming, W.K. Deming, and K. %. Teller, %.Am. ,hem. Soc. :4, 2<48 "2?#$'' et
al. have divided the isotherms for physical adsorption in five classes as illustrated in 0igure #.2.
0igure #.2 Types of adsorption isotherm curves.
The isotherms for true micro porous adsorbents in which the pore siBe is not very much greater than the
molecular diameter of the sorbate molecule, are normally of type +. This is because with such adsorbents
ther is a definite saturation limit corresponding to complete filling of the micropores. Lccasionally if
intermolecular attraction effects are large an isotherm of type * is observed. An isotherm of type +*
suggests the formation of two surface layers either on a plane surface or on the wall of a pore very much
wider than the molecular diameter of the sorbate. +ostherms of types ++ and +++ are generally observed only
in adsorbents in which there is a wide range of pore siBes. +n such systems there is a continuous progression
with increasing loading from monolayer to multilayer adsorption and then to capillary condensation. The
increase in capacity at high pressures is due to capillary condensation occurring in pores of increasing
diameter as the pressure is raised. "=uthven'
The adsorption isotherm is the most e!tensively employed method for representing the equilibrium states of
an adsorption system. +t can give useful information regarding the adsorbate, the adsorbent, and the
adsorption process. +t helps in the determination of the surface area of the adsorbent, the volume of the
pores, and their siBe distribution, the heat of adsorption, and the relative absorbability of a gas or a vapor on
a given adsorbent. Several adsorption isotherm equations such as Hangmuir, 0reundlich, Temin have been
derived.
4.6.1.1 Langmuir Isotherm
Hangmuir isotherm describes adsorbate-adsorbent systems in which the e!tent of adsorbate coverage is limited to
one molecular layer at or before a relative pressure of unity is reached. Although the isotherm, proposed
originally by Hangmuir "2?2I', is more usually appropriate for the description of chemisorption "when an ionic
or covalent chemical bond is formed between adsorbent and adsorbate', the equation is nevertheless obeyed at
moderately low coverages by a number of systems and can, moreover, be readily e!tended to describe the
behaviour of binary adsorbate systems.
Hangmuir isotherm model is based on the following assumptionC
2. Surface is homogeneous, that is adsorption energy is constant over all sites
4. Adsorption on surface is localised, that is adsorbed atoms or molecules are
adsorbed at definite, localised sites
8. Kach site can accommodate only one molecule or atom.
The adsorption isotherm derived by Hangmuir for the adsorption of a solute from a liquid
solution is
e A
e A m
e
C K
C K Q
Q
+

2
or

,
_

,
_

,
_

m e m A e
Q C Q K Q
2 2 2 2
"#.2'
Where,
e
Q
6 Amount of adsorbate adsorbed per unit amount of adsorbent at
equilibrium/
m
Q
6 Amount of adsorbate adsorbed per unit amount of adsorbent required for
monolayer adsorption "limiting adsorbing capacity'/
A
K 6 ,onstant related to enthalpy of adsorption/
e
C
6 ,oncentration of adsorbate solution at equilibrium.
4.6.1.2 Freundlich Isotherm
The 0reundlich isotherm is derived by assuming a heterogeneous surface with a non-
uniform distribution of heat of adsorption over the surface. The heat of adsorption in
many instances decreases in magnitude with increasing e!tent of adsorption. This decline
in heat of adsorption is logarithmic, implying that adsorption sites are distributed
e!ponentially with respect to adsorption energy. This isotherm does not indicate an
adsorption limit when coverage is sufficient to fill a monolayer.
The equation that describes such isotherm is 0reundlich +sotherm, given as
n
e F e
C K Q
2

or
e F e
C
n
K Q ln
2
ln ln +
"#.4'
Where,
F
K and n are the constants/
e
C
6 the concentration of adsorbate solution at equilibrium.
The 0reundlich equation is most useful for dilute solutions over small concentration
ranges. +t is frequently applied to the adsorption of impurities from a liquid solution onto
activated carbon. A high M
0
and high Nn3 value is an indication of high adsorption
throughout the concentration range. A low M
0
and high Nn3 indicates a low adsorption
throughout the concentration range. A low Nn3 value indicates high adsorption at strong
solute concentration "9emr et al., 4$22'.
4.6.1.3 Temkin Isotherm
Temin and )yBhev considered the effects of some indirect adsorbate&adsorbent
interactions on adsorption isotherms and suggested that because of these interactions the
heat of adsorption of all the molecules in the layer would decrease linearly with coverage.
The Temin isotherm has been used in the following formC
' " e e C A Ln
b
RT
q
or
' " ' " e e C Ln
b
RT
A Ln
b
RT
q +
"#.8'
Where, ( 6
b
RT
The adsorption data can be analyBed according to equation. A plot of q
e
versus lnC
e

enables the determination of the constants A and B. The constant B is related to the heat
of adsorption "9emr et al., 4$22'.
4.6.2 ERROR ANALYSIS
The use of =4 is limited to solving linear forms of isotherm equations, which measures
difference between e!perimental data and theoretical data in linear plots only, but not the
errors in isotherm curves.
)urely, from a comparison of the correlation coefficients "=4 values' for the lineariBed
models, it can be seen that higher weightage is given to the higher C
e
value data points,
thus giving a better fit correlation to the higher C
e
value data points. Due to the inherent
bias resulting from lineariBation, error functions of non-linear regression basis are
employed to evaluate the isotherm constants and compare them with the less accurate
lineariBed analysis values. Three different error functions of non-linear regression basin
were employed in this study to find out the best-fit isotherm model to the e!perimental
equilibrium data. The values of error functions used in the adsorption of phenol using
banana peel activated carbon are given in table :.4.
4.6.2.1 The Hybrid Fractional Error Function H!"#I$%
5O(=+D is given as
"#.#'
This error function was developed ")orter and >cMay, 2???' to improve the fit of the
A=K method at low concentration values. +nstead of n as used in A=K, the sum of the
fractional errors is divided by "n-p' where p is the number of parameters in the isotherm
equation. The values of 5O(=+D error functions are given in Table :.4, for activated
carbon from banana peels.
4.6.2.2 &ar'uardt(s )ercent *tandard $e+iation &)*$%
>)SD has been used by a number of researchers in the field "Seidel and Pelbin, 2?I?' to
test the adequacy and accuracy of the model fit with the e!perimental data. +t has some
similarity to the geometric mean error distribution, but was modified by incorporating the
number of degrees of freedom. This error function is given as

,
_

n
i
i
meas e
calc e meas e
q
q q
p n
2
4
,
, ,
' " 2
2$$ "#.7'
4.6.2.3 *um o, the *'uares o, the Errors **E%
The Sum of the Squares of the Krrors "SSK' function is given as
"#.:'
Where, q
e,calc
is equilibrium capacity obtained by calculating from the model "mg&g'
q
e,e!p
is e!perimental data of the equilibrium capacity "mg&g'
n is the number of data points
4.6.2.4 *um o, the -bsolute Errors *-E%
The Sum of the Absolute Krrors "SAK' function is given as
"#.<'
Where, q
e,calc
is equilibrium capacity obtained by calculating from the model "mg&g'
q
e,e!p
is e!perimental data of the equilibrium capacity "mg&g'
n is the number of data points.
( )
,e!p ,
2
,e!p
2$$
n
e e calc
i
e
i
q q
HYBRID
n p q

1
]

( )
4
, ,e!p
2
n
e calc e
i
i
SSE q q

,e!p ,
2
n
e e calc
i
i
SAE q q

4.6.2.. -+erage #elati+e Error -#E%

The Average =elative Krror "A=K' function attempts to minimiBe the fractional error
distribution across the entire concentration range
The Average =elative Krror "A=K' function is given as
"#.I'
Where, q
e,calc
is equilibrium capacity obtained by calculating from the model "mg&g'
q
e,e!p
is e!perimental data of the equilibrium capacity "mg&g'
n is the number of data points.
4.6.2.6 /hi0*'uare Error Function
The ,hi-square test statistic is basically the sum of the squares of differences between the
e!perimental data and data obtained by calculating from models, with each squared
difference divided by the corresponding data obtained by calculating from the models.
The equivalent mathematical statement isC
4
,e!p , 4
,
" '
e e calc
e calc
q q
q

"#.?'
Where, q
e,calc
is equilibrium capacity obtained by calculating from the model "mg&g'
q
e,e!p
is e!perimental data of the equilibrium capacity "mg&g'.
+f data from the model are similar to the e!perimental data, 4 will be a small number,
while if they differ, 4 will be a bigger number. Therefore, it is necessary to analyBe the
data set using the non-linear ,hi-square test to confirm the best-fit isotherm for the
sorption system.
3./ ADSORPTION PRACTICES
Adsorption systems are run either on batch or on continuous basis. The following
te!t gives a brief account of both types of systems as in practice.
3./.1 .ATCH ADSORPTION SYSTEMS
+n a batch adsorption process, the adsorbent is mi!ed with the solution to be
treated in a suitable reaction vessel for the stipulated period of time, until the
concentration of adsorbate in solution reaches an equilibrium value. Agitation is
( )
,e!p ,
2
,e!p
2$$
n
e e calc
i
e
i
q q
ARE
n q

generally provided to ensure proper contact of the two phases. After the equilibrium is
attained the adsorbent is separated from the liquid through any of the methods available
lie filtration, centrifugation or settling. The adsorbent can be regenerated and reused
depending upon the need.
3./.2 CONTIN+O+S ADSORPTION SYSTEM
The continuous flow processes are usually operated in fi!ed bed adsorption columns.
These systems are capable of treating large volumes of waste wasters and are widely used
for treating domestic and industrial wastewaters. They may be operated either in the up
flow columns or down flow column. ,ontinuous counter current columns are generally
not used for wastewater treatment due to operational problems.
0luidiBed beds have higher operating costs hence are not common in use. Wastewater
usually contains several compounds which have different properties and which are
adsorbed at different rates. (iological reactions occurring in the column may also
function as filter bed, retaining solids entering with the feed. As a result of these and
other complicating factors, laboratory or pilot plant studies on specific wastewater to be
treated should be carried out. The variables to be e!amined include type of adsorbent,
liquid feed rate, solute concentration in feed and height of adsorbent bed.
3.0 FACTORS CONTROLLIN1 ADSORPTION
The amount of adsorbate adsorbed by an adsorbent from aqueous solution is
depend upon a number of factors which are discussed below.
9ature of Adsorbent
Adsorbent dose
p5 of Solution
,ontact Time
+nitial ,oncentration of Adsorbate
Temperature
Degree of Agitation.
3.0.1 NAT+RE OF ADSOR.ENT
The adsorption capacity of an adsorbent depends upon its physicochemical
characteristics, specific surface area and its affinity to adsorbate. Adsorption capacity is
directly proportional to the e!posed surface of the adsorbent. 0or the non-porous
adsorbents, the adsorption capacity is inversely proportional to the particle diameter
whereas for porous material it is practically independent of particle siBe. 5owever, for
porous substances particle siBe affects the rate of adsorption "Srivastava et al., 4$2$'.
3.0.2 ADSOR.ENT DOSE
The removal increases rapidly with an increase in the adsorbent dose. An increase in the
sorption with an increase in the adsorbent dose can be attributed to the increase in the
mesoporous surface area available for sorption and hence, the availability of more
adsorption sites. 5owever, the unit adsorption decreases with an increase in dose "m'.
The decrease in sorption capacity per unit weight of adsorbent is because of the fact that
an increase in the sorbent dose at a constant concentration and volume leads to the
saturation of sorption sites through the sorption process "Shula et al., 4$$4/ Ou et al.,
4$$8/ Hataye et al., 4$$:/ Hataye et al., 4$$<d'. Also, particle-particle interaction such as
aggregation at higher m leads to a decrease in the total surface area of the sorbent and an
increase in the diffusional path length "Shula et al., 4$$4/ Hataye et al., 4$$:/ Hataye et
al., 4$$<d'. The incremental uptae of adsorbate is very small after a particular dose, as
the surface concentration and the bul solution concentration of adsorbate come to
equilibrium to each other.
3.0.3 pH OF SOL+TION
The surface charge as well as the degree of ioniBation is affected by the p5 of the
solution. Since the hydrogen and hydro!yl ions adsorb readily on the adsorbent surface,
the adsorption of other molecules and ions is strongly affected by p5. Penerally a surface
adsorbs anions favourably at low p5 and cations at high p5 "Shrivastava et al., 4$2$'.
3.0.4 CONTACT TIME
+n physical adsorption, most of the adsorbate species are adsorbed within a short
interval of contact time. 5owever, strong chemical binding of adsorbate with adsorbent
requires a longer contact time for the attainment of equilibrium. Available adsorption
results reveal that the uptae of adsorbate species is fast at the initial stages of the
contact period, and thereafter, it becomes slower near the equilibrium. +n between these
two stages of the uptae, the rate of adsorption is found to be nearly constant. This may
be due to the fact that a large number of active surface sites are available for adsorption at
initial stages and the rate of adsorption is a function of available vacant site. During the
course of adsorption, the concentration of the available vacant sites decreases and the
repulsion between solute molecules on the surface and solution increases thereby
reducing the adsorption rate "Srivastava et al., 4$2$'.
3.0.* INITIAL CONCENTRATION OF ADSOR.ATE
A given mass of adsorbent can absorb only a fi!ed amount of adsorbate. So the
initial concentration of the adsorbate in the solution is very important. The Q removal
in adsorption decreases with an increase in adsorbate initial concentration. (ut the
adsorption capacity of the adsorbent increases with an increase in initial concentration
because, the resistance to the uptae of solute from the solution decreases with an
increase in the solute concentration also the driving force is increases with increasing
concentration "Hataye et al. 4$$I'.
3.0., TEMPERAT+RE
Temperature dependence of adsorption is of comple! nature. Adsorption
processes are generally e!othermic in nature and the e!tent and rate of adsorption in most
cases decreases with increasing temperature. This trend may be e!plained on the basis of
rapid increase in the rate of desorption or alternatively e!plained on the basis of He-
,hatelierRs principle. Some of the adsorption studies show increased adsorption with
increasing temperature. This increase in adsorption is mainly due to an increase in
number of adsorption sites caused by breaing of some of the internal bonds near the
edge of the active surface sites of the adsorbent. When the adsorption process is
controlled by the diffusion process, then the sorption capacity increases with an increase
in temperature due to endothermicity of the diffusion process. An increase in temperature
results in an increased mobility of the ions and a decrease in the retarding forces acting
on the diffusing ions. This results in enhancement in the sorption capacity of the
adsorbents "Shrivastav et al., 4$2$'.
3.0./ DE1REE OF A1ITATION
Agitation in batch adsorption is important to ensure proper contact between the adsorbent
and the adsorbate in the solution. At lower agitation speeds, the stationary liquid film
around the particle is thicer and the resistance to transport is large. Thus, the process is
e!ternal mass transfer controlled. With the increase in agitation "or proper mi!ing' this
film thicness decreases and the film resistance to mass transfer gets reduced and after a
certain agitation speed, the process becomes intraparticle diffusion controlled. Whatever
is the e!tent of agitation, the solution inside the pores remains unaffected and hence, for
intraparticle mass transfer controlled processes agitation has no effect on the rate of
adsorption.
The adsorption isotherm is the most e!tensively employed method for representing
the equilibrium states of an adsorption system. +t can give useful information regarding
the adsorbate, the adsorbent, and the adsorption process. +t helps in the determination of
the surface area of the adsorbent, the volume of the pores, and their siBe distribution, the
heat of adsorption, and the relative absorbability of a gas or a vapor on a given adsorbent.
"(ansal and Poyal'