. . . . . . - . - -. . .-- . .-.

~ _"
RESERVOIR MECHANISMS IN HEAVY-OIL PRODUCTION
M. Prats, U.S.A.
Abstract. Depletion gas drive, gravity drainage, aquifer inflow, and compaction are identified as naturally-
occurring production mechanisms in heavy-oil production. These are supplemented by potential gradients
developed during flooding operations. Flooding processes usually are thermal in character: hot-water, steam,
and in-situ combustion.
Production mechanisms during thermal recovery processes include : displacement; thermal expansion of fluid
and minerals; distillation, transport, and condensation of light components : incrementai gas drive with increas-
ing temperature: decomposition, fluid-fluid, and fluid-solid reactions : and changes in fluid-fluid and fluid-solid
interfacial forces. Each of these alters the local potential field, and thus are mechanisms affecting flow. The
mechanisms resulting in 'foamy oil' behavior (low produced gas/oil ratios, and apparently high oil mobilities
and production rates sustained for prolonged periods of time) remain unexplained. The useof horizontal and
conventional wells in different arrangements does not create new production mechanisms.
Steamis the most common injectant, usually started as cyclic for early income generation and switched to
flooding to optimize gains. Primary production using horizontal wells (or high productivity index completions)
may be commercial in areas of high oil mobility.
1. INTRODUCTION
The term 'heavy oil', or viscous crude oil, does not
have a universally-accepted definition. Briggs et al.'
suggested that heavy oils be defined as those having
no less than 100 cp (100mPa. s) at ambient
reservoir conditions. That is the working definition
used in this article.
All reservoir mechanisms present in light oil
reservoirs are common to reservoirs containing
heavy oils. Since most reservoirs (including tar sands
deposits) have a maximum permeability of about
10000 md (10000 pm2), an approximate upper
bound to the mobility of heavy oils is 100 md/cp
(100 pm2/mPa s). This combination of high per-
meability and low viscosity is not common. A more
representative upper bound would be about 10 md/
cp (10 pm2/mPa s), which is near the lower bound
of economic attractiveness even for light crudes.
Additionally, heavy oil deposits are usually
shallow (are at relatively low pressure). As a result,
essentially all heavy-oil production is based on an
improved recovery process.
The improved recovery processes based on injec-
tants, the flooding processes, enhance the natural
driving forces in the reservoirs. Other processes use
wells with high productivity indices (e.g., horizontal
wells, downhole heating, hydraulic fracturing) and
make use of natural forces existing in the reservoir to
not supplement the forces in the reservoir in signifi-
cant ways, are stimulation-type applications. Here we
take an extended view that the use of horizontal
instead of conventional wells for the purpose of
obtaining a higher productivity index is a fieldwide
stimulation treatment.
Improved recovery processes have both flooding
and stimulation elements, and are classified accord-
ing to the predominant element.
Improved recovery processes used with heavy oils
frequently involve heating part of the reservoir.
These are collectively known as thermal recovery
methods and have been the subject of extensive
analysis and di scu~si on~~~. Recovery mechanisms
associated with heavy oil production and the appli-
cation of thermal recovery processes have been dis-
cussed in more detail by Prats2. This article
summarizes them, and includes recent developments.
2. NATURAL PRODUCTION MECHANI SMS
Two reservoir engineering concepts are introduced
at this point in order to discuss natural production
mechanisms : mobility ratio and fractional flow.
The mobility ratio M is a measure of the stability
of an idealized piston-like displacement of one fluid
by another and may be defined by
-
increase production rates. These processes, which do M =(k/Cl)displacin$(k/~L)displaced , (1)
Proceedings of the 15th World Petroleum Congress
0 1998 The Executive Board of the World Petroleum Congress
Published by John Wiley & Sons
473
~
474
INCREASED RECOVERY AND DEVELOPMENT OF HEAVY CRUDE OIL RESERVOIRS
C812
where the mobilities k/p (permeability over viscosity)
of the non-condensable fluids are measured at the
upstream and downstream sides of the displacement
front. Large M indicates that the displacing fluid is
more mobile than the displaced fluid-that it tends
to advance more rapidly than the fluid it is dis-
placing and that it tends to finger through it. The
larger the value of M the greater the tendency to
finger, and the less eficient the displacement. Values
of M <1, called favorable, lead to good displace-
ment. Values of M >1, called unfavorable or
adverse, lead to poor displacement eficiencies.
Fractional flow considers Co-current fluids. For oil
and water (and negligible capillary forces), the frac-
tional water flowf, is given as
where the water (w) and oil (o) mobilities are for co-
current rather than displacement conditions.
Although the presentation is given for oil and water,
the concept applies to any fluids. For high oil vis-
cosities, the fractional flow of mobile water at
reservoir conditions can approach 100%. Because of
the low viscosity of gas relative to water, the fraction-
al flow of mobile gas would also be high. These frac-
tional flows in the reservoir translate to high
produced water cuts and gas-oil ratios.
Now we are ready to discuss naturally-occurring
production mechanisms. Consider a well completed
in a reservoir. Lowering the well pressure in a
reservoir at equilibrium conditions causes a pressure
gradient (or more properly stated, a potential
gradient) towards the well, which results in fluid
entry. Four basic production mechanisms are put in
play when the well is produced :
Solution gas drive, in which gas dissolved in the
oil tends to come out of solution and the total
fluids tend to expand as the reservoir pressure
decreases.
Fluid influx, in which water from an aquifer or gas
from an initial gas cap displaces some of the oil.
Gravity drainage, in which dense fluids tend to
collect in low zones within formations.
Compaction, in which the reservoir pore volume
decreases as the reservoir pressure decreases.
Except possibly at an outcrop, all crude oils
contain some dissolved gas, with the amount
decreasing as the API gravity of the crude decreases.
Solution gas in heavy crudes is relatively low, and
the effect of solution gas drive is not as pronounced
and sustained as for light oils. The movable free gas,
which has a mobility much higher than the crude,
tends to be produced rapidly, leading to relatively
high gas-oil-ratios and the early depletion of the
reservoir energy. Furthermore the potential pressure
drawdowns are usually low. These factors, together
with the low crude mobility lead to low production
rates and low recoveries from heavy-oil reservoirs.
Aquifer influx can be strong even in heavy-oil
reservoirs. Unfortunately, the adverse mobility ratio
between the water and the viscous crudes promotes
water fingering and leads to early water break-
through, rapid increases in the produced water cut,
and to low recoveries under practical conditions.
Aquifer influx may trigger oil production by counter-
current imbibition in certain fractured reservoirs.
Gas cap expansion is essentially ineffective in heavy
oil reservoirs.
The maximum potential gradient resulting from
gravity forces is no more than 0.43 psi/ft (9700 Pa/
m), which again leads to low heavy oil production
rates. Buoyancy forces tend to separate the oil and
free gas in the reservoir, and often leads to the forma-
tion of secondary gas caps over the life of a project.
Likewise the brine entering a reservoir from an
aquifer tends to underride the oil column (where
brine is denser than the crude oil). The separation of
gas, oil and water-invaded zones during primary pro-
duction has important consequences in the selection
and implementation of a subsequent recovery
process.
Compaction in heavy-oil reservoirs has been found
to be significant only in a few areas of the world.
When it occurs, stimulation processes can be very
rewarding, as the reservoir energy may be supported
for long time periods by the shrinking pore volume.
3. IMPROVED RECOVERY PROCESSES
Most of the improved recovery processes are
flooding processes, which impose additional pressure
gradients on the reservoir. Since flooding involves
moving fluids from one well to another, they require
reservoir continuity over distances somewhat greater
than the well spacing. If compaction occurs when the
reservoir pressure is allowed to decrease, then it is
reduced during flooding processes which increase the
average reservoir pressure.
The most common injected fluid is water (both
liquid and vapor). The most common non-heated
fluid is air (or mixtures containing oxygen). These
processes are known as hot-water flooding, steam
flooding and in-situ combustion. The most common
C812
INCREASED RECOVERY AND DEVELOPMENT OF HEAVY CRUDE OIL RESERVOIRS
475
fluid injected in stimulation-type applications is
steam. Two processes are identified in this category,
cyclic steam injection and SAGD (steam assisted
gravity drainage). Stimulation-type applications that
do not require (but may use) fluid injection include
horizontal wells, hydraulic fracturing, and electric
reservoir heating. Production mechanisms associated
with these processes are discussed below, some of
them only briefly.
3.1 Hot -wat er flooding
The primary role of the heated water is to reduce
the oil viscosity and, thereby, improve the displacing
efficiency over that obtainable from a conventional
waterflood.
Figure 1 compares schematically the saturation
distribution resulting from water flooding a light oil
under favorable mobility ratio with the saturation
and temperature distributions resulting from a hot-
water flood of a heavy oil. At favorable mobility
ratios the oil saturation upstream of the displace-
ment front is close to irreducible leading to what is
known as piston-like displacement. For the heavy oil,
the saturation change at the displacement front is
much smaller, leaving a substantial amount of
mobile oil upstream. Water will be produced (break
through) earlier for the heavy oil, and a larger
volume of water will be required to produce the same
amount of oil. Since the injected heat must be shared
with the formation, which has a volumetric heat
capacity several times that of the water, the tem-
perature front lags the displacement front by a sub-
stantial distance. Displacement fronts are essentially
at the initial reservoir temperature.
Willman et al 4 showed experimentally that hot-
water floods improve recovery of heavy oils relative
to conventional waterfloods primarily by (1) improv-
ing oil mobility (reducing oil viscosity) and (2)
reducing the residual oil.
It can be seen from Equations (1) and (2) that as
the oil viscosity is reduced both the mobility ratio
and the fractional water flow decrease. The former
results in increased displacement efficiency (less
bypassing), and the latter increases the productive life
POSITION OF DISPLACEMENT FRONT
FOR HIGH VISCOSIM CRUDE -
POSITION OF WATER-OIL DISPLACEMENT
FRONT FOR IDEAL LOW VISCOSITY CRUDE 1
Fig. 1.
IDEALIZED HEAT
FRONT
7 DISTANCE FROM INLET
Schematic representation of saturation and temperature distributions in hot-water dis-
placements.
476
over which
Both tend
formance.
Figure 2
calculations
INCREASED RECOVERY AND DEVELOPMENT OF HEAVY CRUDE OIL RESERVOIRS
CS12
water cuts are economically tolerable. values). This is evidence of improved, or more piston-
to provide improved recovery per- like (Fig. l), displacement due to heating. Under-
running of water near the base of the sand [Fig. 2(a)]
which compares numerical simulation due to buoyancy forces between the water and the oil
for cold-water and hot-water flooding5, is obviously significant, even though the permeability
provides additional details. Figure 2(a) shows the
saturation profiles resulting after 5 years of cold
water injection into the first well (shown by the first
vertical heavy line from the left). Figure 2(b) shows
the effect of an additional 4 yr of injection into the
second weil from the left. Figure 2(c) shows the effect
of injecting 380 O F (190 OC) water for 4 yr at the same
rate and into the same well as in Fig. 2(b), starting
from conditions shown in Fig. 2(a).
Note that hot-water flooding reduces the tran-
sition zone, the distance between the 0.65 and 0.35
oil-saturation contours (the initial and residual
OIL SATURATION DISTRIBUTION A
(a) 0.26 PV cold water
A
injected in 5 years A
was five times greater at the top than at the bottom
of the sand. In hot-water floods, buoyancy effects
usually are accentuated by the increased density dif-
ference between water and oil as temperatures
increase. Because of buoyancy and other factors the
contours of equal temperature and saturation are
certainly not vertical within the reservoir sand. After
injection of 0.59 PV of hot water, only about 30% of
the reservoir shown in the cross section has been
heated, and the average temperature rise in the
heated zone is well below the injection temperature.
Most of the reservoir heat is in the zones from which
Ii (b) additional 0.59 PV
cold water injected
in 4 more years
(c) 0.59 PV hot water
instead of cold water
injected in 4 years
OIL SATURATION AND
TEMPERATURE
DISTRIBUTIONS
Fig. 2. Calculated saturation and temperature distributions5.
- x- -- I----
INCREASED RECOVERY AND DEVELOPMENT OF HEAVY CRUDE OIL RESERVOIRS
SAMPLE NO.
ORIGINAL 1
477
CARBON NUMBER
SAMPLE N WAS OBTAINED FROM THE Nth QUARTER OF
THE TUBE RESIDUE CLOSEST TO THE INLET
Fig. 3. Distribution of components in residual oil after a steamfloodg.
most of the oil already has been displaced. Indeed, all
simple thermal drives are characterized by the pres-
ence of large amounts of heat in oil-depleted portions
of the reservoir, which has prompted a number of
modifications aimed at scavenging or recycling the
heat to improve the efficiency of the process. For
hot-water drives, some of this heat can be scavenged
by injecting unheated water near the end of the
project.
In order to discuss the reduction in residual oil
with increasing temperature, weinitially assume that
the residual saturation measured at any temperature
is constant. The oil volume expands when heated,
and the excess over the cold residual saturation is
available for displacement. When the formation is
allowed to return to its initial temperature the oil
volume will decrease to a value below its convention-
al residual saturation. In this manner, thermal expan-
sion of the crude would obviously contribute to the
reduction in residual oil at high temperatures.
Reported reductions in residual oil (as much as
50% and higher) are significantly more pronounced
than can be explained by thermal expansion.
Reductions in residual oil above those explainable by
thermal expansion are commonly thought to be due
to changes in interfacial forces (including those with
solids) at increasing temperatures.
In a similar manner, some investigators find tem-
perature dependence of capillary pressures and rela-
tive permeabilities while others do not. Such
experiments must be carried out with great care,
whereas the results may be highly sensitive to experi-
mental proced~res~,~. In contrast to others, Maini'
reports using preserved cores and the associated
heavy crude.
Clearly, there are uncertainties. The common view
is that residual oil decreases with increasing tem-
perature, and that temperature affects capillary pres-
sures and relative permeabilities.
Since all recovery processes have mobile water, the
above observations also are applicable to them. Only
additional information is provided in discussing
other processes.
3.2 St eam flooding
All phenomena encountered in hot water floods
are found in steam floods. An important additional
production mechanism in steam floods-a phenome-
non first discerned by William et ~l .~-i s the steam
distillation of the relatively light fractions in the
crude. Distillation causes the vapor phase to be com-
posed not only of steam but also of hydrocarbon
vapors. Some hydrocarbon vapors will condense
478
INCREASED RECOVERY AND DEVELOPMENT OF HEAVY CRUDE OIL RESERVOIRS
C812
along with the steam, mixing with the original crude
and increasing the amount of relatively light frac-
tions in the residual oil trapped by the advancing
steam condensate ahead of the front. Dilution by
light fractions causes some of the trapped oil to be
displaced by the condensed water. The remaining oil
is stripped by the steam of some light ends, thus
leaving less but heavier residue. The lighter com-
ponents, stripped from the bypassed oil, help to
regenerate and maintain a solvent bank just down-
stream of the condensation front. Their experiments
showed the produced crude did not change in com-
position until the steam zone was relatively near
steam breakthrough, when the volatile content
increased markedly.
Distilled or stripped components are not dis-
placed, rather they are carried along in the gas phase,
and consequently move more rapidly than the
viscous crude oil. This is illustrated by the laboratory
steam displacement results shown in Fig. 3.
Low values of residual oil saturations ( <0.05) have
been reported in the laboratory and in field
ope ration^','^. For example, Blevins reported a
10-ft (3 m) core interval in the Kern River field with
an average saturation of about 0.03. I t is clear that
the displacement efficiency in steam drives can be
very high.
Injection of steam through granular packs contain-
ing crude oils, under conditions such that only
crude contains about 5% by volume of components
distillable with 200-psia (1.4 MN) steam.
The crude immediately downstream of the conden-
sation front, heated by conduction and convection,
has a reduced viscosity. Enrichment with diluents
further reduces its viscosity. And the low viscosity
tends to improve the stability of the condensation
front.
The mobility ratio given by Equation (1) for non-
condensable displacements is not applicable to steam
displacements. For condensable vapors, the applic-
able mobility ratio is essentially the ratio of the
upstream/downstream pressure gradients evaluated
at the displacement condensation front2. Steam dis-
placement is a relatively stable process-i.e., one
that is not conducive to the formation and growth of
viscous fingers. As described mathematically by
Miller13, any small steam fingers that form tend to
lose heat at relatively high rates, ultimately resulting
in condensation and disappearance of the steam and,
thus, of the finger.
Steam drives have a better production per-
formance than hot-water drives, the difference being
due to the improved displacement efficiency associ-
ated with the condensing vapor, and to stripping
effects. These result in low residual oil saturations.
3.3 In-si t u combustion
vapor-phase recovery of the oil is obtained, shows
that distillation is also important for heavy crudes.
Figure 4 shows that even a 9 API (1007 kg/m3)
In-situ combustion is a recovery process in which
an oxygen-containing gas is injected into a reservoir,
where it reacts with organic fuels. The heat generated
then is used to help recover unburned crude. Air is
by far the most common injectant. The process is
also known as underground combustion and fire-
flooding14, and may be modified by the addition of
waterJ .
Temperature levels in dry forward combustion are
affected by the amount of fuel burned per unit bulk
volume of reservoir rock. The temperature levels in
turn affect the displacement, distillation, stripping,
pyrolytic cracking, boiling of the crude, and forma-
tion of solid fuel downstream of the combustion
front. Liquid crude oil components not converted to
fuel are displaced by the steam and hot water zones
ahead of the combustion front. Cracking results in a
measurable reduction in the API gravity of the pro-
duced crude, the reduction increasing the heavier the
crude. Crude oil components stripped into the gas
phase, or produced by thermal cracking and other
reactions, are entrained in the combustion gas, and
some components may dissolve in the crude and
brine well downstream of the heated zones.
O
0
U
-1
50
z 200 psi g; 387.F
I80 gin STEAM INJECTION RATE
CUMULATIVE WATER INJECTED AS STEAM
03
I NI TI A L OIL VOLUME Voi cm
Fig. 4. Crude oil steam distillation yield.
- -- - - - ~ ~ -
_ _
C812 INCREASED RECOVERY AND DEVELOPMENT OF HEAVY CRUDE OIL RESERVOIRS 479
Because the volumetric heat capacity of the air is
low, heat convection from the burned zone also is
low and the temperature in that zone tends to remain
high. Water, which has a high volumetric heat capac-
ity, may be injected during or after the combustion
process to help transfer the heat from the burned
zone (and adjacent strata) to the oil zone. In practice,
water is seldom used in combustion projects and its
use is discussed only for completeness.
Figure 5 schematically indicates some of the char-
acteristics of the combustion process for different
WAR (injected water/air ratios). These concepts are
developed on the basis of idealized horizontal flow
and vertical combustion fronts.
Improved heat transfer from water injection results
in a larger steam zone downstream of the com-
bustion front and in a better displacement efficiency
than with air alone. The improved displacement from
the steam zone results in a lower fuel content in the
combustion zone. Generally, increasing the WAR
increases the size of the steam zone and the volume
of the reservoir burned for a given volume of air
injected (combustion front velocity), and reduces the
peak temperatures.
Gravity segregation between water and air does
influence the wet combustion process. I n extreme
cases, water may not reach the upper part of the
AT MRX
O
'io a.DRY
O 7'
[ FIRE FRONT FLOW-
,i" b.NOFF' A' El
BBUMSCF
so
O c. 04P7'1;z;;;
Y '
O
EVRPORFITION
O
AT
t" d.
7 '
O
PARTIALLY
QUENCHED
WAR >.95
Fig. 5. Schematic representation of combustion pro-
cesses' ' s l '.
sand intervals, so that only dry combustion (with its
relatively poor heat recuperation) takes place. In the
lower parts of the interval, combustion may not be
sustained because of the presence of too much water
and too little air; in the center section, wet com-
bustion may occur at some unknown WAR. Thus,
Fig. 5 only idealizes the process.
Reverse combustion merits a few words, primarily
because of differences in the recovery mechanisms. In
reverse combustion the combustion front moves
countercurrent to the oxygen flow. The crude
upstream of the receding combustion front tends to
flow through the combustion front. As the crude
nears the high-temperature combustion front, it is
cracked severely and a relatively large amount of
solid fuel is formed. If the process is started at a pro-
ducer, all its oil production has to pass through the
combustion front. This is in contrast to Co-current
combustion processes, where essentially all the pro-
duced crude moves downstream and away from the
combustion zone and only a small amount of fuel is
formed. Because of the high fuel content and the fact
that the burned zone is resaturated with oil, the
amount of displaceable oil is lower than in co-
current processes. On the other hand, the API
gravity of the recovered product is increased signifi-
cantly by extensive cracking within the combustion
and burned zones. Because the more volatile pyrol-
ysis products flow through the hot burned zone, no
oil bank builds up and the resistance to flow is fairly
low. Spontaneous ignition near the injector voids the
reverse combustion process.
3.4 Cyclic st eam injection
In cyclic steam injection, steam is injected into a
formation for a few days or weeks, then the well is
shut for a few days to allow the steam to condense
(to 'soak in'), and then put on produ~ti onl ~, ~~. This
process is known by a number of names: steam soak,
steam stimulation, and huff-and-puff. Cyclic steam
injection is essentially a stimulation process, and
requires the presence of natural driving forces-
generally solution gas and gravity drainage. Some-
times compaction plays a role.
The early reduction in the viscosity of the crude in
the heated zone near the well is a key factor in the
success of the process. Because the producer is
heated from the start, the production response is
obtained earlier and the amount of recovered oil per
amount of steam injected is often higher than in
thermal drives. Inter-well formation continuity is not ___. - - ___
_____ ____ _____.____ - - - ---
480
INCREASED RECOVERY AND DEVELOPMENT OF HEAVY CRUDE OIL RESERVOIRS
C812
required, and wells can be steam soaked several
times. Some wells have had more than 38 cycleslg.
As the natural energy of the reservoir is spent the
production response of subsequent cycles tends to
diminish. The duration of the cyclic steam process
prior to steamflooding is highly variable, and can be
decades where compaction is significant.
Figure 6 shows some field values of the OSR
(incremental oil produced per volume of steam
injected, known oil/steam ratio). Sustained high OSR
values are found in areas where compaction is
known to occur, such as Tia J uana and Lagunillas.
The Kuwait case indicates that first-cycle per-
formance in undepleted formations can be high. Well
location within the structure is important, as indi-
cated by the Midway-Sunset, Yorba Linda and
White Wolfe cases. Gravity drainage can be benefi-
cial in a reservoir with thick columns and/or large
dips. Specific results are of course affected by all
reservoir and operational parameters.
Cyclic steam injection is not a pure stimulation
treatment. In addition to changes in surface forces
and volatilization phenomena related to temperature
increases, the natural forces in the reservoir may be
supplemented by the formation and generation of a
noncondensable gas phase. These may result from
the dissolution of gases with increased temperature
and from chemical reactions. This additional gas
may not be significant in steam flooding, where it
would occur far from the producers, but may provide
an extra driving force in the production phase of
cyclic steam injection. Additional driving force may
be provided by some of the water between the
mineral grains and the oil phase flashing to steam as
the pressure is reduced during the production cycle.
3.5 Pri mary producti on using hori zontal
wel l s
One of the main reasons for developing thermal
recovery processes for heavy oils was that the pro-
ductivity of conventional wells producing unheated
oil was not sufficiently high, hydraulic fracturing is
ineffective in high permeability reservoir^^^, and the
technology for drilling and completing horizontal
wells remained to be developed. Historically, thermal
processes were developed about two decades before
horizontal wells. Today there is a choice, and there is
some primary using horizontal wells.
for example, report the use of hori-
zontal wells for primary heavy oil production in two
Saskatchewan fields near Lloyminster.
Another area is Hamaca26, in the Orinoco Oil
Belt, Venezuela, where at least one horizontal well
produced over 1000 m3/day of unheated 1007 kg/m3
crude.
These two areas exhibit what has become known
as foamy oil beha~i or~~, first identified by Smith2*.
Bohun et
Area N,, Cycle OSR2
Ti a J u a na [ 2 O]
Lag u ni I I as[ 2 O]
San Ardo[22] 6.23
Midway-Sunset[l9] -
Midway-Sunset[22] 0.35
Yorba Linda[23] 13.1
8.03
Kern River[22] 0.74
I . I O
51.7
44.0
Kuwait[2 1 ] 0.91
White Wo If [ 221
--
3+ 4.5
3+ 3.3
1 3.0
1 2.8
IO+ 1.
1 0.29
3+ 1.25
3+ 0.76
1 0.43
1 0.23
Comments
Com pact ion
Compaction
No prior production
Depletion, thick zone
Drainage, large dip
Upstructure
Downstructure
U pst ru ct u re
Partially depleted
U pst ructu re
Incremental cumulative production per well, in 1,000 m3.
2Cumulative OSR in vol/vol, with volume of steam measured
as cold water equivalent.
1
Fig. 6. Oil/steam ratios of cyclic steam field projects.
-- - - -__
- _. I
C812 INCREASED RECOVERY AND DEVELOPMENT OF HEAVY CRUDE OIL RESERVOIRS 48 1
The production response from the Lloydminster and
Hamaca areas is characterized by production rates
several times higher than what can be expected based
on conventional petrophysical and PVT analyses and
Darcy's law, sustained for many months at a produc-
ing gas-oil ratio essentially equal to the solution
gas-oil ratio, and with low reductions in reservoir
pressure. Proposed explanations for the observed
behavior include the following:
(1) the average permeability of the formation is
several times as high as the measured 10 darcies,
(2) some sand is produced and the formation is
fluidized,',
(3) the vertical extent of the formation has been
underestimated (partial completion effect), and
(4) the effective oil viscosity is very close to that of
the asphaltene-free crude as a result of asphal-
tenes reversibly binding to stabilized micro-
bubbles3'.
Published laboratory results27 have yet to explain all
the observed behavior. Although special field tests
can be done to attempt to ascertain which if any of
these alternatives has merit, such remains to be done.
Empirical models have been developed to rep-
resent the high-compressibility effects of these foamy
oils3', but the models do not reflect their apparent
high mobility.
3.6 St eam assisted gr avi t y drai nage
SAGD makes use of horizontal wells, buoyancy
forces, and steam to produce very heavy oils efi-
ciently. The process is depicted schematically in Fig.
7. A horizontal production well is completed near the
bottom of an oil column and above any existing
water-oil contact. Steam is injected above this well
either through a second horizontal well (or through a
series of vertical wells). The development of the
SAGD process is identified with Butler3,.
A steam chamber is formed above the producer,
and steam is introduced continuously through the
injection well(s). Conduction heat losses at steam-oil
interfaces causes steam to condense, and the conden-
sate and heated oil tend to drain towards a sump
above the producer. Liquid withdrawals provide
space for the lateral and vertical expansion of the
steam zone. The steam chamber is essentially main-
tained at a constant pressure. Flow is strictly the
result of gravity forces, since there are no imposed
pressure gradients. The only precaution is not to vent
steam from the steam chamber, which would cause
the process to become very inefficient, and difficult to
stabilize33.
Analyses, scaled physical models and numerical
simulation have been used to investigate steam finger
rise, reservoirs with bottom water, and reservoirs
with shale intercalations. There are commercial
applications of combined steam floods and the
SAGD pro ces^^^,^^.
3.7 Ot her processes
microbial processes37, and ohmic electric heating
near well bore^^^. Mechanisms present in immiscible
CO, flooding have been discussed under com-
bustion, except that here the system is isothermal.
Microbial processes rely on biodegradation and con-
version of crude to more easily producible com-
ponents. Electric reservoir heating has been tried as a
stimulation process. It involves passing a current
Processes not discussed include immiscible
STEAM CONDENSES AT
GROWING CHAMBER WALL
HEATED OIL AND
TOWARDS SUMP
SUMP IS PRODUCED CONTINUOUSLY
THROUGH HORIZONTAL WELL
CONDENSATE
COLLECT IN SUMP
Fig. 7. Schematic of steam assisted gravity drainage.
C812
INCREASED RECOVERY AND DEVELOPMENT OF HEAVY CRUDE OIL RESERVOIRS 483
from surface equipment (e.g., steam generators,
compressors), acid gases produced from the reservoir
(products of combustion, and of reaction with and
decomposition of minerals), and organic and mineral
solids (e.g., asphaltic material, sand, scale). Produced
gases deserve special attention as they may contain
high concentrations of H,S and other noxious com-
ponents.
In thermal processes, special attention should be
paid to situations where heated lines and tubulars
are at high pressures, specially where oxidants or
other reactants may be present.
5. ECONOMICS
As may be seen in Fig. 8, most of the EOR pro-
duction in the world (including light and heavy
crudes) is based on thermal processes. The data
base4' leading to the figure shows that on a world
wide basis over 90% of the thermal processes are
used on heavy oils, and that over 90% of the non-
thermal EOR processes are used on crudes of less
than 100 cp (100 mPa s). For heavy oils, thermal
processes are the ones of choice. And worldwide,
steam accounts for over 90% of the production by
thermal methods. Steam is the most widely-used and
economically attractive improved recovery method
for heavy oils. One of the indicators of economic
attractiveness is the OSR.
The production response to cyclic steam injection
is immediate. Thus, projects with high OSR often
lead to high internal rates of return. Projects where
compaction and/or 'foamy oil' occur fall in this cate-
gory. Ultimate economic recoveries with cyclic steam
injection typically do not exceed about 25% of
OOIP, and are generally much less.
Factors favoring the economics of steamfloods
include high volumetric oil content, large thickness,
and low steam injection pressures (a few hundred
psi). Recoveries over 60% of OOI P at a cumulative
OSR in the range of 0.15-0.25 have been obtained.
The trade-off with cyclic steam projects is greater net
profit, but at a lower internal rate of return.
The two processes are not exclusive. Thermal
operations are frequently optimized by converting
cyclic steam processes to steamfloods at an appropri-
ate time.
6. PRODUCTION MECHANI SMS
SUMMARY
Pure stimulation processes do not supplement the
four naturally-occurring production mechanisms
(depletion, gravity drainage, fluid influx, and
compaction).
These natural production mechanisms are supple-
mented by pressure gradients developed during
flooding operations. Temperature increases resulting
from thermal recovery processes alter interfacial and
surface forces, increase gas dissolution, cause liquid
expansion and decomposition of some minerals,
promote reactions between water and crude com-
ponents and/or minerals, and enable and enhance
interphase mass transfer. These phenomena intro-
duce new mass transfer mechanisms within the
reservoir, affect the viscosity, composition and other
properties of the fluids (especially those of the heavy
oils), and alter the magnitude of the potential gra-
dients initially in the reservoir. Introduction of water
(through injection or as a product of combustion)
may trigger oil-water countercurrent inhibition
under proper circumstances.
Three-dimensional multi-phase reservoir simula-
tors, subject to material and energy balance control,
are available to consider the combined effects of the
mechanisms on the flow, content, composition, pres-
sure, and temperature distributions within a reservoir
as a function of time. Producing mechanisms in
heavy oil reservoirs can be complex, and it may take
some effort to arrive at a set of properly descriptive
parameters. Where necessary, compaction effects
generally are studied separately, and results are iter-
ated with those from reservoir simulations.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
REFERENCES
Briggs, P. J., Baron, P. R., Fulleylove, R. J., and
Wright, M. S. J. Petr. Tech., Feb. 1988, 206.
Prats, M. Thermal Recovery, 1988, Monograph 7,
Dallas, Society of Petroleum Engineers, Chs. 2, 6-9.
Burger, J., Sourieau, P. and Combarnous, M. Thermal
Methods of Oil Recovery, 1982, Paris, Gulf Publishing
Company.
Willman, B. T., Valleroy, V. V., Rumberg, G. W., Cor-
nelius, A. J., and Powers, L. W. Trans. AIME, 1961,
222,68 1-90.
Spillette, A. G. and Nielsen, R. L. Trans. AIME, 1968,
Torabzadeh, S. J. and Handy, L. L. Paper SPE 12689
presented at the SPE/DOE Fourth Symposium on
Enhanced Oil Recovery, Tulsa, 15-18 Apr. 1985.
Miller, M. A. and Ramey, H. J., J r. Paper SPE 12116
presented at the SPE 57th Annual Technical Con-
ference and Exhibition, San Francisco, 5-8 Oct. 1983.
Maini, B. B. and Batycky, J . P. J. Petr. Tech., Aug.
Volek, C. W. and Pryor, J. A. J. Pet. Tech., Aug. 1972,
Blevins, T. R. and Billingsley, R. H. Trans. AIME,
243,627-38.
1985,1500-10.
899-906.
1975,259,1505-14.
484 INCREASED RECOVERY AND DEVELOPMENT OF HEAVY CRUDE OIL RESERVOIRS
CS12
11. Wu, C. H. and Brown, A. Paper SPE 5569 presented at
the 1975 SPE Annual Technical Conference and
Exhibition, Dallas, Sep. 20-Oct. 1.
12. Harmsen, G. J . WPC, 1971, paper PD9.
13. Miller, C. A. AIChE. J ., May 1975,474-9.
14. Nelson, T. W. and McNiel, J. S. Oil Gas J., 5 J un. 1961,
15. Dietz, D. N. and Weijdema, J . Trans. AIME, 1968,243,
16. Parrish, D. R. and Craig, F. F., J r. Trans. AIME, 1969,
17. Hong, K. C. and J ensen, R. B. Trans. AIME, 1969,246,
18. Rivero, R. T. and Heintz, R. C. J. Pet. Tech, J un. 1975,
19. J ones, J . and Cawthon, G. Paper SPE 17421, Preprints
of SPE California Regional Meeting, 1988, Long
Beach, 227-37.
20. Borregales, C. I Simposio de Crudos Extra-Pesados,
Ptroleos de Venezuela, Maracay, 13-15 Oct. 1976.
21. Ahmad, K. N. and Milhem, M. M. Paper SPE 17987,
Preprints of SPE Middle East Oil technical Conference
and Exhibition, 1989, Bahrain, 623-30.
58-65.
411-13.
246,753-61.
357-67.
665-71.
22. Bums, J. J . Petr. Tech., J an. 1969, 25-34.
23. Stokes, D. D. and Doscher, T. M. Oil and Gas J., 2
24. Prats, M. Trans. AIME, 1961,222, 105-18.
25. Bohun, D., Sugianto S., Chodzicki, J ., and Beckie, B.
Paper HWC94-02, Preprints of The Canadian SPE/
CIM/CANMET International Conference on Recent
Advances on Well Applications, 20-23 Mar. 1994,
Calgary, Alberta, Canada.
26. Figueredo, C. and Gordillo, R. Proc. Fourth Latin
American and Caribbean Petroleum Engineering Con-
ference, Port of Spain, Trinidad & Tobago, 23-26 Apr.
27. Huerta, M., Otero, C., Rico, A., J imnez, I., de Mirabal,
Sep. 1974,71-6.
1996,791-796.
M. and Rojas, G. SPE 36749 SPE Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition, Denver, Colorado, 6-9
Oct. 1996.
28. Smith, G. E. Soc. Petr. Eng. Prod. Eng. J ., May 1988,
29. Geilikman, M. B., Dusseault, M. B., and Dullien, F. A.
SPE/DOE 27797, SPE/DOE Ninth Symposium on
Improved Oil Recovery, Tulsa, Oklahoma, 17-20 Apr.
1994.
30. Claridge, E. L. and Prats, M. SPE 29243, Proceedings
of the International Heavy Oil Symposium, Calgary,
19-21 J un. 1995.
31. Kraus, W. P. and McCaffery, W. J . CIM 93-45, 1993
Annual Technical Conference of the Petroleum Society
of CIM, 9-12 May, Calgary.
32. Butler, R. M. Thermal Recovery of Oil and Bitumen,
New J ersey, Prentice-Hall, 1991, Ch. 7.
33. Edmunds, N. R. and Wood, W. K. J. Cdn. Pet. Tech.,
Apr. 1996,41-48.
34. Beattie, C. I., Boberg, T. C., and McNab, G. S. Soc.
Petr. Eng. Res. Eng. J., May 1991, 208-14.
35. J espersen, P. and Fontaine T. J . Paper presented at the
Fourth Saskatchewan Petroleum Conference, CIM/
CANMET, Oct. 1991, Regina.
36. Saner, W. B. and Patton, J . T. J. Petr. Tech., J ul. 1986,
37. Dietrich, F. L., Brown, F. G., Zhou, Z. H., and Maure,
M. A. SPE 36746, SPE Annual Technical Conference
and Exhibition, Denver, Colorado, 6-9 Oct. 1996.
38. Pizarro, J . O. S., and Trevisan, O. V. J. Petr. Tech.,
39. Bracho, L. G. and Oquendo, O. A. Paper SPE 21530,
Preprints of the SPE International Thermal Oper-
ations Symposium, 7-8 Feb. 1991, Bakersfield, Califor-
nia.
169-80.
769-76.
Oct. 1990, 1320-7.
40. Moritis, G., Oil & Gas J., 26 Sep. 1994, 51-80.