56 Australian Bulk Handling Review: September/October 2012

Introduction
AS4324.1 Mobile equipment for continu-
ous handling of bulk materials Part 1-
General requirements for the design of
steel structures was introduced in 1995.
The Standard had a long gestation period
[5], with work commencing in 1978. Its
release in 1995 was timely in response
to a number of failures of bulk materials
handling machines in Australia in the ear-
ly 1990s. This Standard applies to mobile
equipment for continuous handling of
bulk materials, e.g. excavators, stackers,
reclaimers, shiploaders, and ship unload-
ers. It was intended that AS4324: Part 1,
which deals with steel structures, would
be followed by other parts addressing
mechanical, electrical and other aspects.
However this has not occurred.
The International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) has published a de-
sign standard for bulk materials handling
machines, ISO5049.1 [3] which has been
widely used internationally and was used
in Australia prior to 1995. There are signif-
icant differences between AS4324.1 and
ISO5049.1; generally speaking, machines
designed according to AS4324.1 are heav-
ier than similar machines designed to
ISO5409.1. German Standard DIN 2226
[2] has been written specifically for ma-
chines working in large brown coal open
cut mines, including bucket wheel ex-
cavators. AS4324.1 has adopted material
from DIN 22261 and its predecessors in
addition to material from ISO5049.1.
Protective or load limiting devices in
the electrical, control, mechanical and
hydraulic systems are very important
in determining the load imposed on a
machine. This is an area which requires
close attention both in the design phase
and on site to ensure that the installed
devices perform the correct function.
AS4324.1 adopts a philosophy of not
overly relying on electrical protection
devices for structural integrity.
Application of AS4324.1 to
types of machines
AS4324.1 is intended to apply to both
rail-mounted yard machines and contin-
uous mining machines which are usually
mounted on crawlers. Appendix E in the
Standard gives illustrations of the types
of machines for which the Standard is in-
tended to apply. A description of some
AS4324.1-1995 standard for design of bulk
materials handling machines
The increasing level of mineral exports from Australia has resulted in the need for expansions to existing
facilities and new export facilities. Rail-mounted materials handling machines such as shiploaders,
stackers and reclaimers are signifcant investment items for the ports and mines involved in the supply
chain for export of these commodities. Australia is one of the few countries to have its own standard for
such equipment: AS4324.1.
Figure 1 - Stacker Reclaimer
By Richard Morgan, Aspec Engineering
ENGINEERING SERVICES
57 Australian Bulk Handling Review: September/October 2012
of the more common types of rail-mounted machines follows
below.
Stacker reclaimers
Figure 1 shows the components on an older style of stacker
reclaimer. The machine has a long travel motion along tracks
propelled by driven wheels on the bogie system. In the stack-
ing mode, bulk material is fed onto the machine from the yard
belt via a tripper which discharges onto the elevator. Material
travels on a conveyor up the elevator and discharges through a
chute onto the boom conveyor. The bulk material discharges
onto the stockpile from the end of the boom.
In reclaiming mode the boom conveyor reverses direction.
Bulk material is reclaimed from the stockpile by the bucket
wheel which rotates via a driven shaft. The buckets dig ma-
terial from the stockpile and discharge them onto the boom
conveyor. The boom conveyor discharges material through a
central chute onto the yard conveyor.
The boom can pivot in a vertical plane about a central bear-
ing to follow the stockpile terrain. This motion is driven by hy-
draulic cylinders and is termed luffing. The boom can also
rotate in the horizontal plane about a circular bearing. This mo-
tion is driven by a gear system and is termed slewing.
Machines of this type are sensitive to changes in balance
about the luffing pivot. Changes in weight and weight distribu-
tion need to be carefully monitored and controlled. The repeti-
tive loading due to the bucket wheel motion requires considera-
tion for metal fatigue of the structure and slew bearing. Other
machine configurations are used, e.g. a C frame configuration
can slew to both sides of the rail tracks without the need to ex-
tend the elevator away from the machine with the tow bridge.
Stackers
Stackers predominately long travel with limited slewing mo-
tions in order to lay the stockpiles for subsequent reclaiming by
a slewing or bridge type reclaimers. On modern designs luffing
is carried out by means of hydraulic cylinders. Stackers with
longer spans are often articulated to provide less variation in
load during the luffing motion.
Reclaimers
Bucket wheel boom type reclaimers are similar to a bucket
wheel stacker reclaimer (see Figure 1) but without the stacking
function, so they do not include a tripper and elevator. Bridge
reclaimers of the bucket wheel type are often used for reclaim-
ing on the face of a blended stockpile. Such machines have
rakes which are used to loosen material on the active face.
Shiploaders
Long travelling shiploaders with a wheelbase up to approxi-
mately 20 metres commonly have a portal structure spanning
the rails and a fixed boom gantry set at 90 degrees to the rail
track. The boom conveyor and shiploading chute shuttle in and
out to load the hatches and due to geometry, there are limita-
tions on the length of in-board travel of the shuttle. The shuttle
mechanism may vary the length of the boom or the boom may
be of fixed length with the shuttle within the boom. Another
configuration is the bridge type which has a large travelling
bridge spanning from the seaward rail to a second rail or pivot
point some distance behind the berth. A shuttling trolley sys-
tem, which supports the boom, tower, and luffing winch sys-
tem, travels along the bridge.
The portal slewing type shiploader is suitable for ships with-
out masts and cargo gear. Trimming of hatches is accomplished
by a combination of slewing and long travel motions. The portal
slewing and shuttling type shiploader allows for greater flexibil-
ity in loading different ship types than the portal slewing type.
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Loads
The following section describes some
of the important load conditions which
have been expanded or covered in more
detail in AS4324.1 than in the ISO or DIN
Standards.
Digging Resistance U and Abnormal
Digging Resistance UU
The calculation procedure for digging
resistance requires this load to be based
on drive motor torque. In the authors
experience site measurements generally
show that machines are driven to the
limits of the drive system.
Lateral Digging Resistance S
and Abnormal Lateral Digging
Resistance SS
AS4324.1 requires lateral digging resist-
ance to be based on available slew or
long travel drive capacity. Site measure-
ments generally support this approach,
even for bucket wheel reclaimers or oth-
er yard machines.
Permanent Dynamics D
The treatment of permanent dynamics
uses dynamic effects factors which mul-
tiply the appropriate dead and live loads.
The factors used in AS4324.1 include
additional values to cover rail-mounted
machines as well as crawler mounted
equipment.
Wind Loads Operating W and Wind
While Idle WW
Wind loads, either for operating condi-
tions or for extreme winds with the
machine out of operation, are referred
to the Australian Standard AS1170.2. Ad-
ditional requirements are included for
gust effects on the superstructure and
for wind at a 45 degree angle to the main
structure axes.
Travel Skew Forces LS
For rail-mounted machines, AS4324.1
nominates a calculation procedure for
travel skew forces which is similar to
that in the Crane Standard AS1418. This
includes consideration of asymmetrical
traction forces on each rail, commonly
encountered on bridge-type shiploaders.
Travel Device Obstructed LL
In AS4324.1, the approach adopted is to
assume that these loads are generated
where one side of a travelling machine
is suddenly obstructed and brought to
rest in 300 mm. Consideration of the dy-
namics of the event, including inertial
effects, is required.
Boom Collision Loads FS, FT
AS4324.1 considers the combined effect
of both inertia and drive torques for a
stopping distance of 300 mm. AS4324.1
includes load cases to address such acci-
dents for both slewing and non-slewing
machines. In the latter case, the limiting
long travel drive force rather than slew
torque will determine impact loads.
AS4324.1 includes a longitudinal boom
impact case, representing the situation
for a slewable boom machine, where the
impact might occur while the boom is
facing forward at a shallow angle to the
long travel direction.
Buffer Loads OO
The principle adopted is that rail-mount-
ed machines should be equipped with
buffers, and that the machine structure
should be capable of surviving a buffer
impact situation where the machine
is driven into the buffers at full long
travel speed. With this impact case as
well, both inertia and drive forces are
required to be considered concurrently.
Bucket Wheel Loss BL
AS4324.1 also includes a requirement to
design bucket wheel machines for the
situation following loss of the bucket
wheel, shaft and associated gearbox
from the boom, as a result of a bucket
wheel shaft failure or similar accident.
Inclusion of this load case was a result of
several failures of this type.
Non-Permanent Dynamic Effects DD
This applies to inertia forces due to dy-
namic load effects, such as abnormal ac-
celeration and braking of moving parts
occurring less than 20,000 times during
the life of the machine (e.g. emergency
braking). Allowance needs to be made
during the design phase for these ef-
fects. During the commissioning phase,
care needs to be taken in testing the
emergency stops on the machine. When
emergency stopping is via the braking
system, rather than via controlled elec-
trical stopping, severe forces can be im-
parted into the structure if the brakes or
rail clamps are not adjusted correctly and
are applied too quickly following power
deactivation of the electrical system.
Burying (ZZ)
This load case is for where collapse
of a stockpile or slippage of the bank
could cause the reclaiming or excavat-
ing component of an operating machine
to become partially or fully buried. The
Standard allows for the need for any such
appropriate loading to be addressed in
the procurement specification and gives
suggestions on how this may be covered.
Load combinations
AS4324.1 shows how different load
components should be considered in
combination. These are summarised
in Table 3.7 of AS4324.1, together with
safety factors and stability margins.
Loads are grouped according to their fre-
quency of occurrence, i.e. main loads,
additional loads and special loads. The
frequency of occurrence of these load
groups are similar to those stated in the
crane standard, AS1418.1 [8].
Stability against overturning
In order to check safety against over-
turning, AS43241.1 requires the stabil-
ity ratio, (M
s
/M
o
) to be calculated for the
prescribed load case combinations. M
s

is the minimum stabilising moment due
to the total permanent load referred to
a possible axis of tipping and M
o
is the
maximum overturning moment due to
the prescribed load case combination of
vertical and horizontal non-permanent
overturning forces referred to the same
axis of tipping.
The Standard nominates minimum
stability ratios against overturning to be
applied to load case combinations vary-
ing between 1.5 and 1.1, being higher
(1.5) for more frequent operational load-
ing conditions, lower (1.33) for less fre-
quent operational loading conditions,
and lower again (1.2 or 1.1) for much less
frequent abnormal loading conditions.
Fatigue
AS4324.1 refers to AS4100 [7] for fatigue
design. AS4100 reflects current practice
for the design of welded steel structures
subject to fatigue loads. There are im-
portant differences between AS4324.1
and ISO5049.1. AS4324.1 is prescriptive
and gives detailed guidance on how to
calculate the load cases and which load
combinations to consider. ISO5049.1 uses
an outdated mean stress approach to
fatigue design which is not adapted to
modern standards. It should also be noted
that structures affected by fatigue must
be regularly inspected for fatigue damage
for design code rules such as AS4100 to
apply.
For combining the effects of cyclical
load components, the AS4324.1 approach
is to consider the fatigue damage result-
ing from the cyclical stresses produced by
each component of the loading spectrum
and carrying out a cumulative damage
assessment by miners rule summation.
AS4100 requires a capacity factor of 0.7 to
be applied for non-redundant load paths
and inaccessible areas for inspection.
Strength assessment
AS4324.1 allows for the use of either the
permissible stress method (also termed
working stress) to AS3990 [9] or limit
states method to AS4100 to be used for
strength design.
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Buckling assessment
AS4324.1 permits buckling assessment, either to the limit state
procedures of AS4100 or to the permissible stress procedures
of AS3990. This is directly applicable to design of beams and
columns. Design of plate work structures for the base and oth-
er major components to resist buckling and to accommodate
shear lag effects is not well covered in the steel design stand-
ards AS4100 or AS3990. AS4324.1 covers this to some extent in
section 5.4 and Appendix J.
Machine procurement specification
The standard method for procuring bulk materials handling
machines is a design and construct contract with the contrac-
tor having responsibility for design, manufacture, supply and
installation. The procurement specification needs to be written
to ensure that the configuration and performance parameters
upon which the requirements for the machine were determined
can be met realistically in practice. Appendix B in AS4324.1
gives guidance on issues which should be covered specifically
in the purchase specification.
Design audit
Appendix K in AS4324.1 gives guidance for design auditing and
certification by an independent third party engineering con-
sultant. This may be by means of independent calculations or
by checking and reviewing the original design calculations and
by computer analysis.
Weighing
AS4324.1 requires that after a machine has been constructed,
the mass and centre of gravity of the machine as built should
be accurately determined. The final weight of a machine is of-
ten greater than that advised at the time of tender even when
the supplier has carried out an upfront concept design phase.
AS4324.1 stipulates that if the construction mass exceeds the
mass used in the calculation of static loads by more than five
percent, the stresses in the machine should be re-checked.
Experience with AS4324.1 and suggested
changes
The following section covers some of the areas where the
authors organisation has found issues in the application of
AS4324.1 that required resolution. Areas that may need to be
addressed in revisions to AS4324.1 are also identified.
Fatigue Non-Redundant Load Paths
The requirement in AS4100 to allow for a capacity factor of
0.7 for non-redundant load paths or for areas which cannot be
readily inspected has caused difficulties and can be subject to
quite different interpretation by different parties. Procurement
specifications should be specific in this respect to avoid differ-
ing interpretations.
Treatment of Burying Load Case
The burying load case is applicable to reclaimers and particular-
ly covers the situation where material from the bank or stock-
pile slumps onto the end of the boom. One way of handling
this, as suggested in AS4324.1, is to assume that the boom can
support the full weight of this material. Another way this has
been handled is to allow the luffing hydraulic system to relieve
and the boom to be partially supported by the stockpile. Pro-
curement specifications should be specific in this respect.
Blocked Chute Flooded Belt
The case of blocked chutes and conveyor-flooded belts happen-
ing concurrently can be onerous and there is a temptation by
designers to try to relax requirements to design for a flooded
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875_Layout 1 1/13/12 8:54 AM Page 1
60 Australian Bulk Handling Review: September/October 2012
belt by measures such as installing a
profile plate in the feed chute. This ap-
proach should be treated with caution
as the machine can easily be modified in
service to remove the profile plate with-
out reference to the designer. Similarly,
designers may tend to rely on blocked
chute cut-off switches to limit the load
from material overflowing from the top
of a clogged chute. In practice, these
cut-offs are not instantaneous or may
malfunction, causing greater loadings
than assumed.
Design Audit
Qualifications of the design audit engi-
neer and the need to audit mechanical
and electrical items are not covered in
AS4324.1. Where the audit engineers
function is provided as part of the con-
tract for the machine, the purchase spec-
ifications should be specific in this re-
spect to avoid differing interpretations.
Boom Collision on Non-Slewing
Machines
On non-slewing machines such as ship-
loaders and stackers where the boom is
fixed at right angles to the long travel
tracks, it is usually not practical to de-
sign for the boom collision load case
and it may be necessary to rely on anti-
collision systems. It is suggested that
further guidance be given in revisions to
AS4324.1.
Travel Device Obstructed On Bridge
Machines
On long span bridge machines such as
shiploaders and reclaimers it is usually
not practical to design for the travel de-
vice-obstructed load case and it is nec-
essary to rely on anti-collision and skew
control systems. It is suggested that fur-
ther guidance be given in revisions to
AS4324.1.
Digging Cut-Off Settings and
Protection Systems
Typically, bucket wheel drives are sized
to provide sufficient power to dig and
lift the stockpile material. The drive is
sized to operate at about 100% of motor-
rated torque for the majority of its op-
erating time. During operation the dig-
ging torque will vary based on a number
of factors, such as the type of material
being reclaimed and stockpile slumps.
The primary and secondary protection
settings are provided so that the load on
the machine is not excessive and the ma-
chine can continue to operate without
too many overload stoppages. The nor-
mal digging resistance (U) is calculated
based on 1.1 times the first protection
setting but not less than 1.1 times the mo-
tor-rated torque. The abnormal digging
resistance (UU) is calculated based on
1.1 times the greatest protection setting
but not less than 1.5 times the motor-rate
torque. Diversity for protection systems
is particularly beneficial. For example,
a protection system implemented using
one mechanical protective device and
one electrical protective device has a
high diversity component.
Fluid couplings of any type on the
bucket wheel drive train are not general-
ly suitable as a torque limiting device for
normal digging or associated lateral dig-
ging and it is suggested that the Standard
be revised so as not to refer to fluid cou-
plings as a load limiting device.
Permanent Dynamics D
In general more guidance on the ap-
plication of permanent dynamic ef-
fects would be a useful addition to the
standard.
For stability calculations, a uni-
form dynamic multiplier as adopted in
AS4324.1 can produce non-conservative
results. A triangular-distributed accel-
eration as shown in Figure 2 is more
appropriate.
Redundancy of Stays, Ropes and
Hydraulic Cylinders
In cases where an operators cab is lo-
cated on a boom, there is a requirement
for the boom support to be redundant,
with two totally independent support
systems. The design of ropes or stays is
required to consider the dynamic load-
ing which would occur following failure
of one of the support systems. The mag-
nitude of the dynamic load multiplier
and the need to have this on top of the
safety factors is an area which can be
subject to quite different interpretation
by different parties. It is suggested that
further guidance be given in revisions to
AS4324.1.
Loss of Bucket Wheel
This load case was introduced primarily
for situations where the bucket wheel is
on a cantilevered section of shaft. Where
the bucket wheel is not cantilevered
but held captive by the boom support
structure and the discharge/circular
chute in case of shaft failure, this load
event may not be applicable. It would be
appropriate to revise the Standard to re-
flect this.
Wind Loads
The Standard is written with reference
to the 1989 edition of AS1170.2 and uses
wind forces for permissible stress de-
sign, V
p
rather than wind forces for ul-
timate design V
u
. Subsequent editions of
the wind load standard, AS1170.2 pub-
lished in 2002 and 2011 only include V
u

and do not include V
p
. specifically. This
is an area where revision would be ap-
propriate. It may be necessary to define
an intermediate wind speed for reloca-
tion to the storm park position and for
parking with rail clamps. Care needs to
be taken in cyclonic areas where wind is
a controlling load case, as use of permis-
sible stress design wind speed may be
non-conservative.
Plate Buckling
The AS4324.1 assessment method for
plate bucking can be difficult to apply.
In practice, plate bucking is generally
handled by finite element analysis and
alternative design standards such as
BS5400 [1] or the Merrison Committee
recommendations [4] are used. It is sug-
gested that revisions to AS4324.1 should
address this.
Limit States Code Calibration
Table 3.7 of AS4324.1 gives load multi-
plying factors to be used with the limit
states method to AS4100. Normally, the
limit states design method uses partial
load factors vP, which differ for each
type of load and range generally between
1.2 and 1.5 depending on the statistical
variability of the load type. However, for
AS4324.1 this factor is taken as the same
for all load components. In AS1418.1 for
cranes, the standard notes that where
the limit states design method is used,
care needs to be taken so that the design
gives a degree of safety not less than that
for the permissible stress design method
to AS3990. Such a cautionary note could
be included in a revision to AS4324.1 in
the short term. Ultimately a full code
calibration of the load multipliers should
be carried out in a similar manner to that
carried out by Warren et al [11] for crane
girders.
Conclusions
AS4324.1 has been in use for over 16 years
and major machine suppliers and design
audit engineers operating in Australia
are now familiar with the document.
Since the introduction of AS4324.1, the
majority of new machines in Australia
have been subject to a third party de-
sign audit. Its application in the procure-
ment of bulk handling equipment for
Figure 2 - Triangular Distribution of Acceleration.
ENGINEERING SERVICES
Australian ports and mines has generally resulted in robust and
reliable machines which are expected to offer long-term ben-
efits. Some areas in the Standard have caused issues and pend-
ing revisions to the Standard, this has generally been covered
in purchase specifications. Now that most industry participants
are familiar with the Standard, revisions would be appropriate as
part of continuous improvement in the industry.
References
1. British Standards Institute (1982). BS5400: Steel, Concrete
and Composite Bridges.
2. German Institute for Standardization (2006), DIN 22261-2
Excavators, Stackers and Ancillary Equipment in Brown Coal
Open Cut Mines Part 2 Calculation Principals
3. International Organization for Standardization (1994).
ISO5049.1: Mobile Equipment for the Continuous Handling of
Bulk Materials Part 1 Rules for the Design of Steel Structures.
4. Merrison, A. W., Flint, A. R., Harper, W. J., Horne, M. R. and
Scruby, G. F. B. (1973). HMSO Merrison Committee Report
on the Design and Erection of Steel Box Girder Bridges, Part
1 to Part 4.
5. Morgan, R. C. (2011) Design of Materials Handling Machines
to AS4324.1-1995, Australasian Structural Engineering Con-
ference, Perth, 12 July 2012
6. Morrison, W. R. B. et al. (1996). A New Australian Standard
for Continuous Bulk Materials Handling Machines, National
Conference on Bulk Materials Handling 30 September - 2 Oc-
tober 1996, Melbourne.
7. Standards Australia (2008). AS4100: Steel Structures.
8. Standards Australia (2002). AS1418.1: Cranes, hoists and
winches - General requirements.
9. Standards Australia (1993). AS3990: Mechanical Equipment
Steelwork.
10. Standards Australia (1995). AS4324.1: Mobile equipment for
continuous handling of bulk materials Part 1 - General re-
quirements for the design of steel structures.
11. Warren, J. S. et al. (2005). Reliability models of overhead
traveling crane loading for code calibration, ICOSSAR, Mill-
press, Rotterdam.
Every effort has been made to ensure that the information contained in this
article is correct. However, Aspec Engineering Pty Ltd or its employees take no
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