Ecosystem Dynamics

By Enger, E.D., Ross, F.C., Bailey, D.B.

BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
LEVELS OF ORANI!ATION IN ECOLO"
TRO#$IC LEVELS AND FOOD C$AINS% #ROD&CERS
TRO#$IC LEVELS AND FOOD C$AINS% CONS&MERS
TRO#$IC LEVELS AND FOOD C$AINS% DECOM#OSERS
T$E #"RAMID OF ENER"
T$E #"RAMID OF N&MBERS
T$E #"RAMID OF BIOMASS
T$E CARBON C"CLE
T$E $"DROLOIC C"CLE
T$E NITROEN C"CLE
T$E #$OS#$OR&S C"CLE
T$E CONVERSION OF ECOS"STEMS TO $&MAN &SE
T$E ENER" #"RAMID AND $&MAN N&TRITION
BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
Biotic 'actors are li(ing t)ings t)at a''ect an organism. "o* are a''ecte+ ,y many +i''erent ,iotic 'actors. "o*r
classmates, +isease organisms, t)e 'oo+ yo* eat, an+ t)e trees yo* see- 'or s)a+e are all ,iotic 'actors. A,iotic
'actors are nonli(ing t)ings t)at a''ect an organism. Common a,iotic 'actors are .in+, rain, t)e com/osition o' t)e
atmos/)ere, minerals in t)e soil, s*nlig)t, tem/erat*re, an+ ele(ation a,o(e sea le(el 0'ig*re 12.13.
C)aracteri4ing t)e en(ironment o' an organism is a com/le5 an+ c)allenging /rocess. T)ere are many t)ings to ,e
consi+ere+, an+ e(eryt)ing seems to ,e in'l*ence+ or mo+i'ie+ ,y ot)er 'actors. For e5am/le, consi+er a 'is) in a
stream6 many en(ironmental 'actors are im/ortant to its li'e. T)e tem/erat*re o' t)e .ater is e5tremely im/ortant as
an a,iotic 'actor, ,*t t)e tem/erat*re may ,e in'l*ence+ ,y t)e /resence o' trees 0,iotic 'actor3 along t)e stream
,an- t)at s)a+e t)e stream an+ /re(ent t)e S*n 'rom )eating it. O,(io*sly, t)e -in+ an+ n*m,er o' 'oo+ organisms
in t)e stream are im/ortant ,iotic 'actors as .ell. T)e ty/e o' material t)at ma-es */ t)e stream ,ottom an+ t)e
amo*nt o' o5ygen +issol(e+ in t)e .ater are ot)er im/ortant a,iotic 'actors, ,ot) o' .)ic) are relate+ to )o. ra/i+ly
t)e .ater is 'lo.ing.
Similarly, a /lant is in'l*ence+ ,y many 'actors +*ring its li'etime. T)e ty/es an+ amo*nts o' minerals in t)e soil,
t)e amo*nt o' s*nlig)t )itting t)e /lant, an+ t)e amo*nt o' rain'all are im/ortant a,iotic 'actors. T)e animals t)at eat
t)e /lant an+ t)e '*ngi t)at ca*se +isease are im/ortant ,iotic 'actors. Eac) item on t)is list can ,e '*rt)er
s*,+i(i+e+. For instance, ,eca*se /lants o,tain .ater 'rom t)e soil, rain'all is st*+ie+ in /lant ecology. B*t e(en t)e
st*+y o' rain'all is not sim/le. In some /laces, it rains only +*ring one /art o' t)e year6 in ot)er /laces, it rains
t)ro*g)o*t t)e year. Some /laces e5/erience )ar+, +ri(ing rains, .)ereas ot)ers e5/erience long, misty s)o.ers.
T)e -in+ o' rain'all a''ects )o. m*c) .ater soa-s into t)e gro*n+7)ea(y rains ten+ to r*n o'' into streams an+ ,e
carrie+ a.ay, .)ereas gentle rain ten+s to sin- into t)e soil.
LEVELS OF ORANI!ATION IN ECOLO"
Ecologists st*+y ecological relations)i/s at se(eral le(els o' organi4ation. Some ecologists 'oc*s on .)at )a//ens to
in+i(i+*al organisms an+ )o. t)ey interact .it) t)eir s*rro*n+ings. Ot)ers are intereste+ in gro*/s o' organisms o'
t)e same s/ecies, calle+ /o/*lations, an+ )o. t)ey c)ange. Interacting /o/*lations o' +i''erent s/ecies are calle+
comm*nities, an+ comm*nity ecologists are intereste+ in )o. (ario*s -in+s o' organisms interact in a s/eci'ic
location. T)e )ig)est le(el o' ecological organi4ation is t)e ecosystem .)ic) consists o' all t)e interacting
organisms in an area an+ t)eir interactions .it) t)eir a,iotic s*rro*n+ings. Fig*re 12.8 s)o.s )o. t)ese le(els o'
organi4ation are relate+ to one anot)er.
Ecology in(ol(es a great +eal o' +etaile+ -no.le+ge o' t)e /)ysical an+ li(ing .orl+s6 t)e relations)i/s ,et.een
organisms an+ t)eir en(ironments are 9*ite com/le5. $o.e(er, ecologists )a(e +e(elo/e+ se(eral ,roa+ conce/ts to
)el/ t)em *n+erstan+ t)is com/le5ity. T)ese incl*+e tro/)ic le(els in 'oo+ c)ains an+ )o. energy an+ matter 'lo.
t)ro*g) ecosystems.
TRO#$IC LEVELS AND FOOD C$AINS% #ROD&CERS
One o' t)e ,roa+ conce/ts o' ecology is t)at organisms 'it into categories, ,ase+ on )o. t)ey satis'y t)eir energy
re9*irements. T)ere is a /attern in t)e .ay energy mo(es t)ro*g) an ecosystem. In general, energy 'lo.s 'rom t)e
S*n to /lants an+ 'rom /lants to animals. $o.e(er, t)ere are recogni4a,le ste/s in t)is 'lo. o' energy. Eac) stage in
t)e 'lo. o' energy t)ro*g) an ecosystem is -no.n as a tro/)ic le(el. T)e series o' organisms 'ee+ing on one anot)er
is -no.n as a 'oo+ c)ain 0'ig*re 12.:3.
#ro+*cers are organisms t)at tra/ s*nlig)t an+ *se it to /ro+*ce organic molec*les t)ro*g) t)e /rocess o'
/)otosynt)esis. #)otosynt)esis allo.s t)ese organisms to /ro+*ce organic material 'rom inorganic material. reen
/lants an+ ot)er /)otosynt)etic organisms, s*c) as algae an+ cyano,acteria, in e''ect, con(ert s*nlig)t energy into
t)e energy containe+ .it)in t)e c)emical ,on+s o' organic com/o*n+s. T)e creation o' t)ese c)emical ,on+s is t)e
res*lt o' t)e 'lo. o' energy 'rom t)e S*n into t)e li(ing matter o' /lants. Beca*se /ro+*cers are t)e 'irst ste/ in t)e
'lo. o' energy, t)ey occ*/y t)e 'irst tro/)ic le(el.
TRO#$IC LEVELS AND FOOD C$AINS% CONS&MERS
Beca*se only /ro+*cers are ca/a,le o' ca/t*ring energy 'rom t)e S*n, all ot)er organisms are +irectly or in+irectly
+e/en+ent on t)e /ro+*cer tro/)ic le(el to meet t)eir energy nee+s. Beca*se t)ese +e/en+ent organisms m*st
cons*me organic matter as a so*rce o' energy, t)ey are calle+ cons*mers. Cons*mers can ,e s*,+i(i+e+ into se(eral
categories, ,ase+ on )o. t)ey o,tain 'oo+.
$er,i(ores are animals t)at o,tain energy ,y eating /lants. Beca*se )er,i(ores o,tain t)eir energy 'rom eating
/lants, t)ey are also calle+ /rimary cons*mers, an+ t)ey occ*/y t)e secon+ tro/)ic le(el.
Carni(ores are animals t)at eat ot)er animals. T)ey are also re'erre+ to as secon+ary cons*mers. Carni(ores can ,e
s*,+i(i+e+ into +i''erent tro/)ic le(els, +e/en+ing on .)at animals t)ey eat. Animals t)at 'ee+ on )er,i(ores
occ*/y t)e t)ir+ tro/)ic le(el an+ are -no.n as /rimary carni(ores. Animals t)at 'ee+ on t)e /rimary carni(ores are
-no.n as secon+ary carni(ores, an+ t)ey occ*/y t)e 'o*rt) tro/)ic le(el. For e5am/le, a )*man may eat a 'is) t)at
ate a 'rog t)at ate a s/i+er t)at ate an insect t)at cons*me+ /lants 'or 'oo+.
Omni(ores are animals t)at )a(e generali4e+ 'oo+ )a,its an+ act as carni(ores sometimes an+ )er,i(ores ot)er
times. T)ey are classi'ie+ into +i''erent tro/)ic le(els +e/en+ing on .)at t)ey are eating at t)e moment. Most
)*mans are omni(ores.
TRO#$IC LEVELS AND FOOD C$AINS% DECOM#OSERS
Decom/osers are a s/ecial category o' cons*mers t)at o,tain energy .)en t)ey +ecom/ose t)e organic matter o'
+ea+ organisms an+ t)e .aste /ro+*cts o' li(ing organisms. Decom/osers are *s*ally not assigne+ to a tro/)ic le(el,
,eca*se t)ey ,rea- +o.n t)e organic matter /ro+*ce+ ,y all tro/)ic le(els. F*rt)ermore, t)e +ecom/oser category
incl*+es a .i+e (ariety o' organisms, s*c) as ,acteria, '*ngi, an+ ot)er microorganisms, t)at 'ee+ on one anot)er.
T)*s, t)ere are 'oo+ c)ains o' +ecom/osers.
Decom/osers e''iciently con(ert nonli(ing organic matter into sim/le inorganic molec*les, .)ic) /ro+*cers can
re*se in t)e /rocess o' tra//ing energy. T)*s, +ecom/osers are (ery im/ortant com/onents o' ecosystems t)at ca*se
materials to ,e recycle+. As long as t)e S*n s*//lies t)e energy, elements are cycle+ re/eate+ly t)ro*g) ecosystems.
Ta,le 12.1 s*mmari4es t)e categories o' organisms .it)in an ecosystem.
T$E #"RAMID OF ENER"
T.o '*n+amental /)ysical la.s o' energy are im/ortant .)en loo-ing at ecological systems 'rom an energy /oint o'
(ie.. T)e 'irst la. o' t)ermo+ynamics states t)at energy is neit)er create+ nor +estroye+. T)at means t)at .e s)o*l+
,e a,le to +escri,e t)e amo*nts o' energy in eac) tro/)ic le(el an+ 'ollo. energy as it 'lo.s t)ro*g) s*ccessi(e
tro/)ic le(els 0'ig*re 12.;3. T)e secon+ la. o' t)ermo+ynamics states t)at, .)en energy is con(erte+ 'rom one 'orm
to anot)er, some energy esca/es to t)e s*rro*n+ings as )eat. T)is means t)at, as energy /asses 'rom one tro/)ic
le(el to t)e ne5t, t)ere is a re+*ction in t)e amo*nt o' energy in li(ing t)ings an+ an increase in t)e amo*nt o' )eat
in t)eir s*rro*n+ings.
T)e energy .it)in an ecosystem can ,e meas*re+ in se(eral .ays. One sim/le .ay is to collect all t)e organisms
/resent at any tro/)ic le(el an+ ,*rn t)em. For e5am/le, all t)e /lants in a small 'iel+ 0/ro+*cer tro/)ic le(el3 can ,e
)ar(este+ an+ ,*rne+. T)e n*m,er o' calories o' )eat /ro+*ce+ ,y ,*rning is e9*i(alent to t)e energy content o' t)e
organic material collecte+. Similarly, all t)e )er,i(ores in t)e secon+ tro/)ic le(el co*l+ ,e collecte+ an+ ,*rne+.
T)en yo* co*l+ com/are t)e amo*nt o' )eat generate+ ,y /ro+*cers an+ )er,i(ores an+ get an i+ea o' )o. m*c)
energy is lost as yo* go 'rom t)e /ro+*cer to t)e )er,i(ore tro/)ic le(el.
Anot)er .ay o' +etermining t)e energy /resent is to meas*re t)e rate o' /)otosynt)esis an+ res/iration o' a gro*/ o'
/ro+*cers. T)e +i''erence ,et.een t)e rates o' res/iration an+ /)otosynt)esis is t)e amo*nt o' energy tra//e+ in t)e
li(ing material o' t)e /lants.
<)en .e e5amine a .i+e (ariety o' ecosystems, .e 'in+ t)at t)e /ro+*cer tro/)ic le(el )as t)e most energy, t)e
)er,i(ore tro/)ic le(el )as less, an+ t)e carni(ore tro/)ic le(el )as t)e least. In general, t)ere is a,o*t a =>? loss o'
energy 'rom one tro/)ic le(el to t)e ne5t )ig)er le(el. Act*al meas*rements (ary 'rom one ecosystem to anot)er.
Some may lose as m*c) as ==?, .)ereas ot)er, more e''icient systems may lose only @>?, ,*t =>? is a goo+ r*le
o' t)*m,. T)is loss in energy content at t)e secon+ an+ s*,se9*ent tro/)ic le(els is /rimarily +*e to t)e secon+ la.
o' t)ermo+ynamics. 0<)ene(er energy is con(erte+ 'rom one 'orm to anot)er, some energy is lost to t)e
s*rro*n+ings as )eat.3
T)in- o' any energyAcon(erting mac)ine6 a certain amo*nt o' energy enters t)e mac)ine an+ a certain amo*nt o'
.or- is +one. $o.e(er, it also releases a great +eal o' )eat energy. For e5am/le, an a*tomo,ile engine m*st )a(e a
ing system to get ri+ o' t)e )eat energy /ro+*ce+. Similarly, electrical energy is *se+ in an incan+escent lig)t,*l, to
/ro+*ce lig)t, ,*t t)e ,*l, also /ro+*ces large amo*nts o' )eat. Alt)o*g) li(ing systems are some.)at +i''erent,
t)ey 'ollo. t)e same energy r*les.
In a++ition to t)e loss o' energy as a res*lt o' t)e secon+ la. o' t)ermo+ynamics, t)ere is an a++itional loss in(ol(e+
in t)e ca/t*re an+ /rocessing o' 'oo+ material ,y )er,i(ores an+ carni(ores. Alt)o*g) )er,i(ores +onBt nee+ to
c)ase t)eir 'oo+, t)ey +o nee+ to tra(el to .)ere 'oo+ is a(aila,le, t)en gat)er, c)e., +igest, an+ meta,oli4e it
0'ig*re 12.23. All o' t)ese /rocesses re9*ire energy. C*st as t)e )er,i(ore tro/)ic le(el e5/eriences a =>? loss in
energy content, t)e )ig)er tro/)ic le(els o' /rimary carni(ores, secon+ary carni(ores, an+ tertiary carni(ores also
e5/erience a re+*ction in t)e energy a(aila,le to t)em. Fig*re 12.D s)o.s t)e 'lo. o' energy t)ro*g) an ecosystem.
At eac) tro/)ic le(el, t)e energy content +ecreases ,y a,o*t =>?.
T$E #"RAMID OF N&MBERS
Beca*se it is +i''ic*lt to meas*re t)e amo*nt o' energy at any one tro/)ic le(el o' an ecosystem, scientists o'ten *se
ot)er met)o+s to 9*anti'y tro/)ic le(els. One met)o+ is sim/ly to co*nt t)e n*m,er o' organisms at eac) tro/)ic
le(el. T)is generally gi(es t)e same /yrami+ relations)i/, calle+ a /yrami+ o' n*m,ers 0'ig*re 12.@3. T)is is not a
(ery goo+ met)o+ to *se i' t)e organisms at t)e +i''erent tro/)ic le(els are o' greatly +i''ering si4es. For e5am/le, i'
yo* co*nte+ all t)e small insects 'ee+ing on t)e lea(es o' one large tree, yo* .o*l+ act*ally get an in(erte+ /yrami+.
T$E #"RAMID OF BIOMASS
One .ay to o(ercome some o' t)e /ro,lems associate+ .it) sim/ly co*nting organisms is to meas*re t)e ,iomass at
eac) tro/)ic le(el. Biomass is t)e amo*nt o' li(ing material /resent6 it is *s*ally +etermine+ ,y collecting all t)e
organisms at one tro/)ic le(el an+ meas*ring t)eir +ry .eig)t. T)is eliminates t)e si4eA+i''erence /ro,lem
associate+ .it) a /yrami+ o' n*m,ers, ,eca*se all t)e organisms at eac) tro/)ic le(el are .eig)e+. T)e /yrami+ o'
,iomass also s)o.s t)e ty/ical =>? loss at eac) tro/)ic le(el.
Alt)o*g) a /yrami+ o' ,iomass is ,etter t)an a /yrami+ o' n*m,ers in meas*ring some ecosystems, it )as some
s)ortcomings. Some organisms ten+ to acc*m*late ,iomass o(er long /erio+s o' time, .)ereas ot)ers +o not. Many
trees li(e 'or )*n+re+s o' years6 t)eir /rimary cons*mers, insects, generally li(e only 1 year. Li-e.ise, a .)ale is a
longAli(e+ animal, .)ereas its 'oo+ organisms are relati(ely s)ortAli(e+. Fig*re 12.E s)o.s t.o /yrami+s o'
,iomass.
T$E CARBON C"CLE
All li(ing t)ings are com/ose+ o' organic molec*les t)at contain atoms o' t)e element car,on. T)e car,on cycle
incl*+es t)e /rocesses an+ /at).ays in(ol(e+ in ca/t*ring inorganic car,onAcontaining molec*les, con(erting t)em
into organic molec*les t)at are *se+ ,y organisms, an+ t)e *ltimate release o' inorganic car,on molec*les ,ac- to
t)e a,iotic en(ironment.
T)e same car,on atoms are *se+ o(er an+ o(er again. In 'act, yo* are not e5actly t)e same /erson to+ay t)at yo*
.ere yester+ay. Some o' yo*r car,on atoms are +i''erent. F*rt)ermore, t)ose car,on atoms )a(e ,een in(ol(e+ in
many ot)er -in+s o' li(ing t)ings o(er t)e /ast se(eral ,illion years. Some o' t)em .ere tem/orary resi+ents in
+inosa*rs, e5tinct trees, or insects, ,*t at t)is instant, t)ey are /art o' yo*. Ot)er organic molec*les )a(e ,ecome
/art o' 'ossil '*els.
1. T)e Role o' #ro+*cers
Car,on an+ o5ygen com,ine to 'orm t)e molec*le car,on +io5i+e 0CO83, .)ic) is /resent in small 9*antities as a
gas in t)e atmos/)ere an+ +issol(e+ in .ater. D*ring /)otosynt)esis, car,on +io5i+e 'rom t)e atmos/)ere is ta-en
into t)e lea(es o' /lants .)ere it is com,ine+ .it) )y+rogen 'rom .ater molec*les 0$8O3, .)ic) are a,sor,e+ 'rom
t)e soil ,y t)e roots an+ trans/orte+ to t)e lea(es. Many -in+s o' a9*atic organisms s*c) as algae an+ some ,acteria
also /er'orm /)otosynt)esis ,*t a,sor, car,on +io5i+e an+ .ater molec*les 'rom t)e .ater in .)ic) t)ey li(e.
0Act*ally a,o*t 2>? o' /)otosynt)etic acti(ity ta-es /lace in t)e oceans.3
T)e energy nee+e+ to /er'orm /)otosynt)esis is /ro(i+e+ ,y s*nlig)t. As a res*lt o' /)otosynt)esis, com/le5
organic molec*les s*c) as car,o)y+rates 0s*gars3 are 'orme+. #ro+*cer organisms *se t)ese s*gars to /ro(i+e
energy an+ to ma-e ot)er -in+s o' organic molec*les nee+e+ 'or gro.t) an+ re/ro+*ction. At t)e same time t)at
car,on is ,eing incor/orate+ into organic molec*les, o5ygen molec*les 0O83 are release+ into t)e atmos/)ere or
.ater7,eca*se +*ring t)e /rocess o' /)otosynt)esis, .ater molec*les are s/lit to /ro(i+e )y+rogen atoms
necessary to man*'act*re car,o)y+rate molec*les.
8. T)e Role o' Cons*mers
$er,i(ores can *se t)e com/le5 organic molec*les o' /ro+*cers as 'oo+. <)en an )er,i(ore eats /lants or algae,
t)e com/le5 organic molec*les are ,ro-en +o.n into sim/ler organic molec*lar ,*il+ing ,loc-s, s*c) as sim/le
s*gars, amino aci+s, glycerol, an+ 'atty aci+s, .)ic) can ,e reassem,le+ into t)e s/eci'ic organic molec*les t)at are
/art o' t)e )er,i(oreBs c)emical str*ct*re. T)*s, t)e atoms in t)e )er,i(oreBs ,o+y can ,e trace+ ,ac- to t)e /lants it
ate. Nearly all organisms also carry on t)e /rocess o' res/iration, in .)ic) o5ygen 'rom t)e atmos/)ere is *se+ to
,rea- +o.n large organic molec*les into car,on +io5i+e an+ .ater. M*c) o' t)e c)emicalA,on+ energy release+ ,y
res/iration is lost as )eat, ,*t t)e remain+er is *se+ ,y t)e )er,i(ore 'or mo(ement, gro.t), an+ ot)er acti(ities.
In similar 'as)ion, .)en an )er,i(ore is eaten ,y a carni(ore, some o' t)e car,onAcontaining molec*les o' t)e
)er,i(ore ,ecome incor/orate+ into t)e ,o+y o' t)e carni(ore. T)e remaining organic molec*les are ,ro-en +o.n in
t)e /rocess o' res/iration to o,tain energy, an+ car,on +io5i+e an+ .ater are release+.
:. T)e Role o' Decom/osers
T)e organic molec*les containe+ in animal .aste /ro+*cts an+ +ea+ organisms are acte+ */on ,y +ecom/osers
t)at *se t)ese organic materials as a so*rce o' 'oo+. T)e +ecay /rocess o' +ecom/osers in(ol(es res/iration an+
releases car,on +io5i+e an+ .ater so t)at nat*rally occ*rring organic molec*les are ty/ically recycle+. Fig*re 12.=
s*mmari4es t)e roles o' t)e (ario*s organisms in(ol(e+ in t)e car,on cycle.
T$E $"DROLOIC C"CLE
<ater molec*les are t)e most common molec*les in li(ing t)ings. Beca*se all t)e meta,olic reactions t)at occ*r in
organisms ta-e /lace in a .atery en(ironment, .ater is essential to li'e. D*ring /)otosynt)esis, t)e )y+rogen atoms
0$3 'rom .ater molec*les 0$8O3 are a++e+ to car,on atoms to ma-e car,o)y+rates an+ ot)er organic molec*les. At
t)e same time, t)e o5ygen atoms in .ater molec*les are release+ as o5ygen molec*les 0O83. T)e mo(ement o' .ater
molec*les can ,e trace+ as a )y+rologic cycle 0'ig*re 12.1>3
Most o' t)e 'orces t)at ca*se .ater to ,e cycle+ +o not in(ol(e organisms ,*t, rat)er, are t)e res*lt o' normal
/)ysical an+ geologic /rocesses. Beca*se o' t)e -inetic energy /ossesse+ ,y .ater molec*les, at normal Eart)
tem/erat*res li9*i+ .ater e(a/orates into t)e atmos/)ere as .ater (a/or. T)is can occ*r .)ere(er .ater is /resent6
it e(a/orates 'rom la-es, ri(ers, soil, an+ t)e s*r'aces o' organisms. Beca*se t)e oceans contain most o' t)e .orl+Bs
.ater, an e5tremely large amo*nt o' .ater enters t)e atmos/)ere 'rom t)e oceans.
<ater molec*les also enter t)e atmos/)ere as a res*lt o' trans/iration ,y /lants. Trans/iration is a /rocess
.)ere,y .ater is lost 'rom lea(es t)ro*g) small o/enings calle+ stomates. T)e .ater t)at is lost is a,sor,e+ 'rom
t)e soil into roots an+ trans/orte+ 'rom t)e roots to lea(es, .)ere it is *se+ in /)otosynt)esis or e(a/orates. T)is
mo(ement o' .ater carries n*trients to t)e lea(es, an+ t)e e(a/oration o' t)e .ater 'rom t)e lea(es assists in t)e
mo(ement o' .ater */.ar+ in t)e stem. T)*s, trans/ire+ .ater can ,e mo(e+ 'rom +ee/ layers o' t)e soil to t)e
atmos/)ere.
Once t)e .ater molec*les are in t)e atmos/)ere, t)ey are mo(e+ along .it) ot)er atmos/)eric gases ,y /re(ailing
.in+ /atterns. I' .arm, moist air enco*nters cooler tem/erat*res, .)ic) o'ten )a//ens o(er lan+masses, t)e .ater
(a/or con+enses into +ro/lets an+ 'alls as rain or sno.. <)en t)e /reci/itation 'alls on lan+, some o' it r*ns o'' t)e
s*r'ace, some o' it e(a/orates, an+ some /enetrates into t)e soil. T)e .ater t)at r*ns o'' t)e s*r'ace ma-es its .ay
t)ro*g) streams an+ ri(ers to t)e ocean. T)e .ater in t)e soil may ,e ta-en */ ,y /lants an+ trans/ire+ into t)e
atmos/)ere, or it may ,ecome gro*n+.ater. M*c) o' t)e gro*n+.ater e(ent*ally ma-es its .ay into la-es an+
streams an+ *ltimately arri(es at t)e ocean, 'rom .)ic) it originate+.
T$E NITROEN C"CLE
T)e nitrogen cycle in(ol(es t)e cycling o' nitrogen atoms ,et.een t)e a,iotic an+ ,iotic com/onents an+ among t)e
organisms in an ecosystem. Nitrogen is essential in t)e 'ormation o' amino aci+s, .)ic) are nee+e+ to 'orm /roteins,
an+ in t)e 'ormation o' nitrogeno*s ,ases, .)ic) are a /art o' AT# an+ t)e n*cleic aci+s, DNA an+ RNA. Nitrogen
is 'o*n+ as molec*les o' nitrogen gas 0N83 in t)e atmos/)ere. Alt)o*g) nitrogen gas 0N83 ma-es */ a//ro5imately
E>? o' t)e eart)Fs atmos/)ere, it is not rea+ily a(aila,le to most organisms ,eca*se t)e t.o nitrogen atoms are
,o*n+ (ery tig)tly to eac) ot)er an+ (ery 'e. organisms are a,le to *se nitrogen in t)is 'orm. Since /lants an+ ot)er
/ro+*cers are at t)e ,ase o' nearly all 'oo+ c)ains, t)ey m*st ma-e ne. nitrogenAcontaining molec*les, s*c) as
/roteins an+ DNA. #lants an+ ot)er /ro+*cers are *na,le to *se t)e nitrogen in t)e atmos/)ere an+ m*st get it in t)e
'orm o' nitrate 0NO:G3 or ammonia 0N$:3.
1. T)e Role o' NitrogenAFi5ing Bacteria
Beca*se atmos/)eric nitrogen is not *sa,le ,y /lants, nitrogenAcontaining com/o*n+s are o'ten in s)ort s*//ly,
an+ t)e a(aila,ility o' nitrogen is o'ten a 'actor t)at limits t)e gro.t) o' /lants. 0Most a9*atic ecosystems are limite+
,y t)e amo*nt o' /)os/)or*s rat)er t)an t)e amo*nt o' nitrogen.3 T)e /rimary .ay in .)ic) /lants o,tain nitrogen
com/o*n+s t)ey can *se is .it) t)e )el/ o' ,acteria t)at li(e in t)e soil.
Some ,acteria, calle+ nitrogenA'i5ing ,acteria, are a,le to con(ert t)e nitrogen gas 0N83 t)at enters t)e soil into
ammonia t)at /lants can *se. Certain -in+s o' t)ese ,acteria li(e 'reely in t)e soil an+ are calle+ 'reeAli(ing nitrogenA
'i5ing ,acteria. Ot)ers, -no.n as sym,iotic nitrogenA'i5ing ,acteria, )a(e a m*t*alistic relations)i/ .it) certain
/lants an+ li(e in no+*les in t)e roots o' /lants s*c) as leg*mes 0/eas, ,eans, an+ clo(er3 an+ certain trees s*c) as
al+ers. Some grasses an+ e(ergreen trees a//ear to )a(e a similar relations)i/ .it) certain root '*ngi t)at seem to
im/ro(e t)e nitrogenA'i5ing ca/acity o' t)e /lant.
8. T)e Role o' #ro+*cers an+ Cons*mers
Once /lants an+ ot)er /ro+*cers )a(e nitrogen a(aila,le in a 'orm t)ey can *se, t)ey can constr*ct /roteins,
DNA, an+ ot)er im/ortant nitrogenAcontaining organic molec*les. <)en )er,i(ores eat /lants, t)e /lant /rotein
molec*les are ,ro-en +o.n to smaller ,*il+ing ,loc-s calle+ amino aci+s. T)ese amino aci+s are t)en reassem,le+
to 'orm /roteins ty/ical 'or t)e )er,i(ore. D*ring t)e animalBs mani/*lation an+ trans'ormation o' amino aci+s,
some nitrogencontaining com/o*n+s are lost in t)e .aste /ro+*cts as ammonia, *rea, or *ric aci+. T)ese same
/rocesses occ*r .)en carni(ores eat )er,i(ores.
:. T)e Role o' Decom/osers an+ Ot)er Soil Bacteria
Bacteria an+ ot)er ty/es o' +ecay organisms are in(ol(e+ in t)e nitrogen cycle also. Dea+ organisms an+ t)eir
.aste /ro+*cts contain molec*les, s*c) as /roteins, *rea, an+ *ric aci+, t)at contain nitrogen. Decom/osers ,rea-
+o.n t)ese nitrogenAcontaining organic molec*les, releasing ammonia, .)ic) can ,e *se+ +irectly ,y many -in+s o'
/lants. Still ot)er -in+s o' soil ,acteria, calle+ nitri'ying ,acteria, are a,le to con(ert ammonia to nitrite, .)ic) can
,e con(erte+ ,y ot)er ,acteria to nitrate. #lants can *se nitrate as a so*rce o' nitrogen 'or synt)esis o' nitrogenA
containing organic molec*les.
Finally, ,acteria -no.n as +enitri'ying ,acteria are, *n+er con+itions .)ere o5ygen is a,sent, a,le to con(ert
nitrite to nitrogen gas 0N83, .)ic) is *ltimately release+ into t)e atmos/)ere. Atmos/)eric nitrogen can reenter t)e
cycle .it) t)e ai+ o' nitrogenA'i5ing ,acteria.
;. &ni9*e Feat*res o' t)e Nitrogen Cycle
Alt)o*g) a cyclic /attern is /resent in ,ot) t)e car,on cycle an+ t)e nitrogen cycle, t)e nitrogen cycle s)o.s t.o
signi'icant +i''erences. First, most o' t)e +i''ic*lt c)emical con(ersions are ma+e ,y ,acteria an+ ot)er
microorganisms. <it)o*t t)e acti(ities o' ,acteria, little nitrogen .o*l+ ,e a(aila,le an+ t)e .orl+ .o*l+ ,e a (ery
+i''erent /lace. Secon+, alt)o*g) nitrogen enters organisms ,y .ay o' nitrogenA'i5ing ,acteria an+ ret*rns to t)e
atmos/)ere t)ro*g) t)e actions o' +enitri'ying ,acteria, t)ere is a secon+ary loo/ in t)e cycle t)at recycles nitrogen
com/o*n+s 'rom +ea+ organisms an+ .astes +irectly ,ac- to /ro+*cers. Fig*re 12.11 s*mmari4es t)e roles o'
(ario*s organisms in t)e nitrogen cycle.
2. Agric*lt*re an+ t)e Nitrogen Cycle
In nat*rally occ*rring soil, nitrogen is o'ten a limiting 'actor o' /lant gro.t). To increase yiel+s, 'armers /ro(i+e
e5tra so*rces o' nitrogen in se(eral .ays. Inorganic 'ertili4ers are a /rimary met)o+ o' increasing t)e nitrogen
a(aila,le. T)ese 'ertili4ers may contain ammonia, nitrate, or ,ot).
Since t)e man*'act*re o' nitrogen 'ertili4er re9*ires a large amo*nt o' energy an+ *ses nat*ral gas as a ra.
material, 'ertili4er is e5/ensi(e. T)ere'ore, 'armers *se alternati(e met)o+s to s*//ly nitrogen an+ re+*ce t)eir cost
o' /ro+*ction. Se(eral +i''erent tec)ni9*es are e''ecti(e. Farmers can alternate nitrogenAyiel+ing cro/s s*c) as
soy,eans .it) nitrogenA+eman+ing cro/s s*c) as corn. Since soy,eans are leg*mes t)at )a(e sym,iotic nitrogenA
'i5ing ,acteria in t)eir roots, i' soy,eans are /lante+ one year, t)e e5cess nitrogen le't in t)e soil can ,e *se+ ,y t)e
corn /lants gro.n t)e ne5t year. Some 'armers e(en /lant alternating stri/s o' soy,eans an+ corn in t)e same 'iel+.
A slig)tly +i''erent tec)ni9*e in(ol(es gro.ing a nitrogenA'i5ing cro/ 'or a s)ort /erio+ o' time an+ t)en /lo.ing
t)e cro/ into t)e soil an+ letting t)e organic matter +ecom/ose. T)e ammonia release+ ,y +ecom/osition ser(es as
'ertili4er to t)e cro/ t)at 'ollo.s. T)is is o'ten re'erre+ to as green man*re. Farmers can also a++ nitrogen to t)e soil
,y s/rea+ing man*re 'rom animal /ro+*ction o/erations or +airy 'arms on t)e 'iel+ an+ relying on t)e soil ,acteria
to +ecom/ose t)e organic matter an+ release t)e nitrogen 'or /lant *se.
T$E #$OS#$OR&S C"CLE
#)os/)or*s is anot)er -in+ o' atom common in t)e str*ct*re o' li(ing t)ings. It is /resent in many im/ortant
,iological molec*les, s*c) as DNA, an+ in t)e mem,rane str*ct*re o' cells. In a++ition, animal ,ones an+ teet)
contain signi'icant 9*antities o' /)os/)or*s. Most o' t)e /rocesses in(ol(e+ in t)e /)os/)or*s cycle are t)e geologic
/rocesses o' erosion an+ +e/osition. T)e *ltimate so*rce o' /)os/)or*s atoms is roc-. In nat*re, ne. /)os/)or*s
com/o*n+s are release+ ,y t)e erosion o' roc- an+ are +issol(e+ in .ater. #lants *se t)e +issol(e+ /)os/)or*s
com/o*n+s to constr*ct t)e molec*les t)ey nee+. Animals o,tain /)os/)or*s .)en t)ey cons*me /lants or ot)er
animals. <)en an organism +ies or e5cretes .aste /ro+*cts, +ecom/oser organisms recycle t)e /)os/)or*s
com/o*n+s ,ac- into t)e soil, .)ere t)ey can ,e re*se+.
#)os/)or*s com/o*n+s t)at are +issol(e+ in .ater are *ltimately /reci/itate+ as mineral +e/osits. T)is )as
occ*rre+ in t)e geologic /ast an+ ty/ically )as in(ol(e+ +e/osits in t)e oceans. eologic /rocesses ele(ate t)ese
+e/osits an+ e5/ose t)em to erosion, t)*s ma-ing /)os/)or*s a(aila,le to organisms. Animal .astes o'ten )a(e
signi'icant amo*nts o' /)os/)or*s. In /laces .)ere large n*m,ers o' sea,ir+s or ,ats )a(e congregate+ 'or )*n+re+s
o' years, t)eir +ro//ings 0calle+ g*ano3 can ,e a signi'icant so*rce o' /)os/)or*s 'or 'ertili4er 0'ig*re 12.183.
In many soils, /)os/)or*s is in s)ort s*//ly an+ m*st ,e /ro(i+e+ to cro/ /lants to get ma5im*m yiel+s.
#)os/)or*s is also in s)ort s*//ly in a9*atic ecosystems. Fertili4ers *s*ally contain nitrogen, /)os/)or*s, an+
/otassi*m com/o*n+s. T)e n*m,ers on a 'ertili4er ,ag in+icate t)e /ercentage o' eac) in t)e 'ertili4er. For e5am/le,
a DA8;A8; 'ertili4er )as D? nitrogen, 8;? /)os/)or*s, an+ 8;? /otassi*m com/o*n+s.
In a++ition to car,on, nitrogen, an+ /)os/)or*s6 /otassi*m an+ ot)er elements are cycle+ .it)in ecosystems. In
an agric*lt*ral ecosystem, t)ese elements are remo(e+ .)en t)e cro/ is )ar(este+. T)ere'ore, 'armers m*st not only
ret*rn t)e nitrogen, /)os/)or*s, an+ /otassi*m ,*t also analy4e 'or ot)er, less /rominent elements an+ a++ t)em to
t)eir 'ertili4er mi5t*re. A9*atic ecosystems are also sensiti(e to n*trient le(els. $ig) le(els o' nitrates or /)os/)or*s
com/o*n+s o'ten res*lt in t)e ra/i+ gro.t) o' a9*atic /ro+*cers. In a9*ac*lt*re, s*c) as t)at *se+ to raise cat'is),
'ertili4er is a++e+ to t)e ,o+y o' .ater to stim*late t)e /ro+*ction o' algae, .)ic) is t)e ,ase o' many a9*atic 'oo+
c)ains. E(en synt)etic materials t)at are /ro+*cts o' mo+ern tec)nology are cycle+ t)ro*g) ecosystems 0$o.
Science <or-s 12.13.
T$E CONVERSION OF ECOS"STEMS TO $&MAN &SE
T)e .ay )*mans *se ecosystems )as c)ange+ +ramatically o(er t)e /ast se(eral t)o*san+ years. Initially, )*mans 'it
into ecosystems as H*st anot)er cons*mer. T)ese -in+s o' societies are -no.n as )*nterAgat)erer societies ,eca*se
t)ey collect 'oo+ an+ ot)er nee+e+ materials +irectly 'rom t)e /lants an+ animals t)at are a nat*ral /art o' t)e
ecosystem. T)ere are still e5am/les o' /eo/les .)o li(e t)is .ay 0'ig*re 12.1:3.
$o.e(er, t)e +e(elo/ment o' agric*lt*re )as c)ange+ )o. )*mans interact .it) ot)er organisms in ecosystems.
<e )a(e altere+ certain ecosystems s*,stantially to increase /ro+*cti(ity 'or o*r o.n /*r/oses. In so +oing, .e
)a(e +estroye+ t)e original ecosystem, .it) all o' its com/le5ity, an+ )a(e re/lace+ it .it) a sim/ler agric*lt*ral
ecosystem. In a++ition, many o' t)e cro/s .e /lant are not nati(e to t)e region. For e5am/le, nearly all o' t)e reat
#lains region o' Nort) America )as ,een con(erte+ to agric*lt*re. T)e original ecosystem incl*+e+ t)e Nati(e
Americans, .)o *se+ ,*''alo an+ ot)er /lants an+ animals as a so*rce o' 'oo+. T)ere .as m*c) grass, many
,*''alo, an+ 'e. )*mans. T)ere'ore, in t)e Nati(e AmericansB /yrami+ o' energy, t)e ,ase .as more t)an am/le.
$o.e(er, .it) t)e e5/loitation an+ settling o' America, t)e /o/*lation in Nort) America increase+ at a ra/i+ rate.
T)e to/ o' t)e /yrami+ ,ecame larger. T)e 'oo+ c)ain 0/rairie grassG,*''aloG)*man3 co*l+ no longer s*//ly t)e
'oo+ nee+s o' t)e gro.ing /o/*lation. As t)e to/ o' t)e /yrami+ gre., t)e /ro+*cer ,ase )a+ to gro. larger.
Beca*se .)eat an+ corn yiel+ more ,iomass 'or )*mans t)an t)e original /rairie grasses co*l+, t)e settlersB
+omestic grain an+ cattle re/lace+ t)e /rairie grass an+ ,*''alo. T)is .as 'ine 'or t)e settlers, ,*t +e(astating 'or t)e
,*''alo an+ Nati(e Americans 0'ig*re 12.1;3. In similar 'as)ion, t)e +eci+*o*s 'orests o' t)e East .ere c*t +o.n an+
,*rne+ to /ro(i+e lan+ 'or cro/s. T)e cro/s .ere a,le to /ro(i+e more 'oo+ t)an +i+ )ar(esting game an+ /lants
'rom t)e 'orest.
Many ecosystems, /artic*larly t)e +rier grasslan+s, cannot s*//ort t)e raising o' cro/s. $o.e(er, t)ey can still ,e
*se+ as gra4ing lan+ to raise li(estoc-. Li-e t)e raising o' cro/s, gra4ing o'ten signi'icantly alters t)e original
grasslan+ ecosystem. Some attem/ts )a(e ,een ma+e to )ar(est nati(e s/ecies o' animals 'rom grasslan+s, ,*t t)e
s/ecies /rimarily in(ol(e+ are +omesticate+ cattle, s)ee/, an+ goats. T)e s*,stit*tion o' t)e +omesticate+ animals
+is/laces t)e animals t)at are nati(e to t)e area an+ alters t)e -in+s o' /lants /resent, /artic*larly i' too many
animals are allo.e+ to gra4e.
E(en a9*atic ecosystems )a(e ,een signi'icantly altere+ ,y )*man acti(ity. T)e Foo+ an+ Agric*lt*re
Organi4ation o' t)e &nite+ Nations states t)at nearly all t)e 'is)eries o' t)e .orl+ are ,eing 'is)e+ at ca/acity or
o(er'is)e+. O(er'is)ing in many areas o' t)e ocean )as res*lte+ in t)e loss o' some im/ortant commercial s/ecies.
For e5am/le, t)e co+'is)ing in+*stry along t)e East Coast o' Nort) America )as ,een +estroye+ ,y o(er'is)ing.
T$E ENER" #"RAMID AND $&MAN N&TRITION
Any.)ere in t)e .orl+ t)e )*man /o/*lation increases, nat*ral ecosystems are re/lace+ .it) agric*lt*ral
ecosystems. In many /arts o' t)e .orl+, t)e )*man +eman+ 'or 'oo+ is so large t)at it can ,e met only i' )*mans
occ*/y t)e )er,i(ore tro/)ic le(el, rat)er t)an t)e carni(ore tro/)ic le(el. $*mans are omni(ores a,le to eat ,ot)
/lants an+ animals as 'oo+, so t)ey )a(e a c)oice. $o.e(er, as t)e si4e o' t)e )*man /o/*lation increases, it cannot
a''or+ t)e =>? loss t)at occ*rs .)en /lants are 'e+ to animals t)at are in t*rn eaten ,y )*mans. In m*c) o' t)e lessA
+e(elo/e+ .orl+, t)e /rimary 'oo+ is grain6 t)ere'ore, t)e /eo/le are alrea+y at t)e )er,i(ore le(el. It is only in t)e
+e(elo/e+ co*ntries t)at /eo/le can a''or+ to eat large 9*antities o' meat. T)is is tr*e 'rom ,ot) an energy /oint o'
(ie. an+ a monetary /oint o' (ie.. Fig*re 12.12 s)o.s a /yrami+ o' ,iomass )a(ing a /ro+*cer ,ase o' 1>>
-ilograms o' grain. T)e secon+ tro/)ic le(el )as only 1> -ilograms o' cattle ,eca*se o' t)e =>? energy loss ty/ical
.)en energy is trans'erre+ 'rom one tro/)ic le(el to t)e ne5t 0=>? o' t)e corn raise+ in t)e &nite+ States is *se+ as
cattle 'ee+3. T)e cons*mers at t)e t)ir+ tro/)ic le(el7)*mans, in t)is case7e5/erience a similar =>? loss.
T)ere'ore, only 1 -ilogram o' )*mans can ,e s*staine+ ,y t)e t.oAste/ energy trans'er. T)ere )as ,een a ==? loss
in energy% 1>> -ilograms o' grain are necessary to s*stain 1 -ilogram o' )*mans. Beca*se m*c) o' t)e .orl+Bs
/o/*lation is alrea+y 'ee+ing at t)e secon+ tro/)ic le(el, .e cannot e5/ect 'oo+ /ro+*ction to increase to t)e e5tent
t)at .e co*l+ 'ee+ 1> times as many /eo/le as e5ist to+ay.
It is *nli-ely, )o.e(er, t)at most /eo/le are a,le to '*l'ill all t)eir n*tritional nee+s ,y eating only grains. In
a++ition to calories, /eo/le nee+ a certain amo*nt o' /rotein in t)eir +iets, an+ one o' t)e ,est so*rces o' /rotein is
meat. Alt)o*g) /rotein is a(aila,le 'rom /lants, t)e concentration is greater 'rom animal so*rces. #eo/le in maHor
/arts o' A'rica an+ Asia )a(e +iets t)at are +e'icient in ,ot) calories an+ /rotein. T)ese /eo/le )a(e (ery little 'oo+,
an+ .)at 'oo+ t)ey +o )a(e is mainly 'rom /lant so*rces. T)ese are also t)e /arts o' t)e .orl+ .)ere )*man
/o/*lation gro.t) is t)e most ra/i+. In ot)er .or+s, t)ese /eo/le are /oorly no*ris)e+, an+ as t)e /o/*lation
increases t)ey .ill /ro,a,ly e5/erience greater calorie an+ /rotein +e'iciency. E(en .)en /eo/le li(e as cons*mers
at t)e secon+ tro/)ic le(el, t)ey may still not get eno*g) 'oo+6 e(en i' t)ey +o, it may not )a(e t)e /rotein necessary
'or goo+ )ealt). It is im/ortant to reali4e t)at c*rrently t)ere is eno*g) 'oo+ in t)e .orl+ to 'ee+ e(eryone, ,*t it is
not +istri,*te+ e9*ita,ly 'or a (ariety o' reasons. T)e /rimary reasons 'or star(ation are /olitical an+ economic.
<ars an+ ci(il *nrest +isr*/t t)e normal 'oo+Araising /rocess. #eo/le lea(e t)eir )omes an+ migrate to areas
*n'amiliar to t)em. #oor /eo/le an+ /oor co*ntries cannot a''or+ to ,*y 'oo+ 'rom t)e co*ntries t)at )a(e a s*r/l*s.