Compressors

Compressors
COMPRESSORS
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COMPRESSORS
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235
Compressors
PURPOSES OF COMPRESSION
1. To transmit power, as in a compressed
air system for operating pneumatic
tools;
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tools;
2. To provide air for combustion;
3. To transport and distribute gas, as in
natural gas pipelines and city gas
distribution systems;
Compressors
PURPOSES OF COMPRESSION
4. To circulate a gas through a process
or a system; and,
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5. To produce and maintain reduced
pressure levels for many purposes.
Compressors
METHODS OF COMPRESSION
1. Trap consecutive quantities of gas in
some type of enclosure, reduce the
volume, thus increasing the pressure,
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then push the compressed gas out of
the enclosure.
Compressors
2. Trap consecutive quantities of gas in
some type of enclosure, reduce the
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then push the compressed gas out of
the enclosure.
Compressors
3. Compress the gas by the mechanical
action of rapidly rotating impellers or
bladed rotors that impart velocity and
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bladed rotors that impart velocity and
pressure to the flowing gas (velocity is
further converted into pressure in
stationary diffusers or blades).
Compressors
4. Entrain the gas in a high velocity jet of
the same or another gas and convert
the high velocity of the mixture into
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the high velocity of the mixture into
pressure in a diffuser.
Compressors
Types Of Compressors
Positive-Displacement
(Intermittent Flow)
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Rotary Reciprocating
Sliding-vane Straight-lobe
Liquid-Piston Helical-lobe
Compressors
Types Of Compressors
Dynamic
(Continuous Flow)
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Turbo compressor
Ejector
Centrifugal
Axial Flow Mixed Flow
Compressors
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Single-stage reciprocating
compressor
Rotary (sliding Vane)
compressor
1-Casing 2- rotor 3-Vane 4-Intake;
5-discharge nozzle
Compressors
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Two-stage centrifugal
compressor.
Axial-flow compressor (seven-stage).
1-rotating blades ; 2-compreasor
rotor, 3-stator blades
Compressors
SOME DEFINITIONS AND UNITS OF
MEASUREMENTS
The user of compression equipment
is interested primarily in the
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is interested primarily in the
quantity of gas handled between the
initial and final pressure and
temperature conditions and in the
power required.
Compressors
Pressure is expressed as a force (weight) per
unit of the area exposed to the pressure.
Pressure is usually measured by a gauge that
registers the difference between the pressure
SOME DEFINITIONS AND UNITS OF MEASUREMENTS
1-Pressure
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registers the difference between the pressure
in a vessel and the current atmospheric
pressure. It is usual to express pressure in:
Pounds/sq. in (psi)
Kilograms/sq. cm (kg/cm2)
Kilopascals (kPa)
Bar (10
5
Pa)
Compressors
The International Atmosphere is defined as the
weight of the column of air existing above the
earth's surface at45lat. and sea level. It is
equivalent to 14.696 psi or 1.0333
1-Pressure
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equivalent to 14.696 psi or 1.0333
Kg/cm2(1.0133 bar) and is usually expressed
as ata meaning atmospheres absolute.
Compressors
A gas is said to be under vacuum when its
pressure is below atmospheric. Vacuum is
usually measured by a differential gauge that
shows the difference in pressure between that
2- Vacuum
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shows the difference in pressure between that
in the system and the atmosphere. The
measured pressure is a gauge pressure and it
is usually expressed as mm Hg Vac, in Hg Vac
or psi Vac....
Compressors
2- Vacuum
Subtracting the vacuum reading from the
atmospheric pressure will give an absolute
pressure which is accurate. This may be
expressed as: in Hg abs., mm Hg abs., psi
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expressed as: in Hg abs., mm Hg abs., psi
abs...... The term torr means one mm Hg abs.
It is infrequently used.
Compressors
Atmospheric pressure
Vacuum
gauge pressure
absolute pressure
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absolute zero pressure
absolute pressure
Compressors
The compressor designer must determine the
actual volume of gas to be handled at the
inlet of most types of compressors.
3-Volume
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Volume flow rates may be expressed in:
Cu ft/min (cfm)
Standard Cu ft/min (Scfm)
Millions of Cu ft/24hr (MMCF/D)
Cubic meters/Sec (m
3
/s)
Compressors
In the US, the usual standard is 14.696 psia
and 60F. Europeans normally use one ata and
0C. MMCFD, called Million Cu ft per day is
originated in the natural gas pipeline industry
which it usually refers to volume at 14.4 pisa
3-Volume
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which it usually refers to volume at 14.4 pisa
and inlet temperature.
Volume or weight rates are often given as dry
(no water vapor). Specified conditions should
include a flat statement that the relative
humidity is zero, 100% or some in between
figure (partially saturated).
Compressors
The compressor engineer must determine the
energy flow during compression, not only to
properly size the driver needed, but to
provide cooling media as required. Units used
4-Power
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provide cooling media as required. Units used
are well-defined and as listed below are really
rates:
Horsepower (hp)
Kilowatt (kW)
Compressors
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Comparison between characteristics of different compressor types
Compressors
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Comparison of power characteristics of different compressor types
Compressors
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Compressors
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Compressors
Advantages of Positive Displacement- and Turbo-Compressors
Positive Displacement Turbocompressors
Advantages available for small and
large capacities
good rangeability
usually high efficiency
suitable for light and
heavy gases
large capacities
Steady flow
relatively small dimensions
for large capacities
little maintenance
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heavy gases
high reliability
no oil contamination
no valves
low maintenance cost
low wear
low noise
no severe vibration
problems
light foundation
Compressors
Disadvantages of Positive Displacement- and Turbo-Compressors
Positive Displacement Turbocompressors
Disadvantages much maintenance
required
low reliability
often noisy
often severe vibration
problems
not suitable for small
capacities
limited rangeability
(surge/stonewall)
efficiency much
dependent upon good
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problems
requires heavy foundation
not suitable for very large
capacities
dependent upon good
design and on operating
point
high compression ratio
difficult to obtain
less suitable for light
gases
Compressors
THERMODYNAMIC LAWS THERMODYNAMIC LAWS
The First Lawof Thermodynamics
This states that energy cannot be created
or destroyed during a process ( such as
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or destroyed during a process ( such as
compression and delivery of a gas ),
although it may change from one form of
energy to another. In other words,
whenever a quantity of one kind of energy
disappears, an exactly equivalent total of
other kinds of energy must be produced
Compressors
The Second Law of Thermodynamics
This is more abstract and can be stated
several ways.
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1. Heat cannot, of itself, pass from a
colder to a hotter body.
2. Heat can be made to go from a body at
lower temperature to one at higher
temperature only if external work is
done.
Compressors
3. The available energy of the isolated
system decreases in all real
processes.
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processes.
4. Heat or energy (like water), of itself,
will flow only downhill.
Compressors
In thermodynamics a measure of the
unavailability of energy has been devised
and is known as entropy .
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and is known as entropy .
It is defined by the differential equation:
T
dQ
ds =
Compressors
Ideal or Perfect Gas Laws Ideal or Perfect Gas Laws
An ideal or perfect gas is one to which
the laws of Boyle, Charles, and Amonton
apply. To the best of our knowledge there
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apply. To the best of our knowledge there
are no such gases, but these laws are
used and corrected by compressibility
factors based on experimental data.
Compressors
The Perfect Gas Formula
Starting with Charles' and Boyle's Laws, it is
possible to develop the formula for a given
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possible to develop the formula for a given
weight of gas.
pv=R
o
T
In this very useful form, R
o
is known as the
Universal Gas Constant.
Compressors
Partial Pressures
Vapor pressure created by one pure liquid
will not affect the vapor pressure of a
second pure liquid, when the liquids are
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second pure liquid, when the liquids are
insoluble and non reacting and the liquid
sand/or vapors are mixed within the
same system.
Compressors
Partial Pressures
There is complete indifference on the
part of each component to the existence
of all others. The total vapor pressure for
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of all others. The total vapor pressure for
the mixture is the sum of the vapor
pressures of the individual components.
This is Dalton's law and each individual
vapor has a partial pressure as
differentiated from the total pressure of
the mixture.
Compressors
Relative Humidity
Relative humidity is a term frequently
used to represent the quantity of
moisture (water vapor) present in a
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moisture (water vapor) present in a
mixture although it uses partial pressures
in so doing. It is expressed as:
Pa
Pv
temperture mixture exisiting of pressure vapor saturated
pressure vapor partial actual
RH
100
100
(%)
=
Compressors
Specific Humidity
Specific humidity, used in calculations
on certain types of compressors, is a
totally different term. It is the ratio of
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totally different term. It is the ratio of
the weight of water vapor to the weight
of dry air and is usually expressed as
pounds (or grains) of moisture per pound
of dry air.
Compressors
Specific Humidity
Wa
Wv
SH =
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Pa
Pv
Pv P
Pv
SH
also
622 . 0 622 . 0
=
=
Where Pa is partial air pressure
Compressors
Degree of Saturation
The degree of saturation denotes the
actual relation between the weight of
moisture existing in a space and the
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moisture existing in a space and the
weight that would exist if the space
saturated.
Pv P
Ps P
RH
saturated SH
actual SH
saturation of Degree
=
100
(%)
Compressors
Compressibility
All gases deviate from the perfect or
ideal gas laws to some degree. In some
cases the deviation is rather extreme. It
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cases the deviation is rather extreme. It
is necessary that these deviations be
taken into account in many compressor
calculations to prevent compressor and
driver sizes being greatly in error.
Compressors
Compressibility
The ideal gas equation is therefore
modified to:
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pv=ZR
o
T
OR OR
Z = pv /R
o
T
Compressors
Two basic compression cycles or
processes are applicable to both
positive displacement and dynamic
compressors.
Compression Cycles
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compressors.
Isothermal compression occurs when
the temperature is kept constant as
the pressure increases.
Compressors
This requires continuous removal of the
heat of compression.
Compression follows the formula:
Compression Cycles
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P
1
V
1
= P
2
V
2
= Constant
Compressors
Adiabatic compression is obtained when
there is no heat added to or removed from
the gas during compression.
Compression Cycles
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the gas during compression.
P
1
V
1
k
= P
2
V
2
k
= Constant
Compressors
Dynamic units, however, generally use the
polytropic cycle where the pV relationship
is:
Compression Cycles
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is:
P
1
V
1
n
= P
2
V
2
n
= Constant
Compressors
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
Isothermal
Polytypic uncooled
(Dynamic)
Adiabatic (k)
Polytypic cooled
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Compression cycles
Volume
Polytypic cooled
(Reciprocating)
Compressors
Compressor staging
All basic compressor elements regardless of
type, have certain limiting operating
conditions. When any limitation is involved
it becomes necessary to multistage the
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it becomes necessary to multistage the
compression process; that is, do it in two
or more steps. Each step will utilize at
least one basic element designed to
operate in series with the other elements
of the machine.
Compressors
Compressor staging
1. Discharge temperature - all types;
The limitations vary with the type of
compressor, but the most important include
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1. Discharge temperature - all types;
2. Pressure rise (or differential) - dynamic
units and most positive-displacement
types;
3. Compression ratio - dynamic units;
Compressors
Compressor staging
3.Effect of clearance - reciprocating
units (this ties in also with compression
ratio); and,
4.Desirability of saving power.
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4.Desirability of saving power.
Compressors
Compressor staging
A reciprocating compressor usually requires
a separate cylinder for each stage with
intercooling of the gas between stages.
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In a reciprocating unit, all cylinders are
commonly combined into one unit assembly
and driven from a single crankshaft.
Compressors
Compressor staging
Rotary positive-displacement compressors
can, in some instances, combine two stages
in one casing, but more often use two
separate machines properly sized for their
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separate machines properly sized for their
individual requirement, with cooling
between stages. They will often have a
common driver and a common base plate.
Compressors
Positive Displacement
Compressors
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Compressors
Compressors
Positive-displacement units are those in which
successive volumes of gas are confined within a
closed space and elevated to a higher pressure.
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closed space and elevated to a higher pressure.
Two methods are used to compress gas. These
methods are :
Compressors
1. Trap consecutive quantities of gas in some
type of enclosure, reduce the volume, thus
increasing the pressure, then push the
compressed gas out of the enclosure.
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2. Trap consecutive quantities of gas in some
type of enclosure, carry it without volume
change to the discharge opening, compress
the gas by backflow from the discharge
system, then push the compressed gas out of
the enclosure.
Compressors
The principle types of positive displacement
compressors are:
Reciprocating compressors are positive-displacement
machines in which the compressing and displacing
element is a piston having a reciprocating motion
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element is a piston having a reciprocating motion
within a cylinder.
Rotary positive-displacement compressors are
machines in which compression and displacement
is effected by the positive action of rotating
elements.
Compressors
Sliding-vane compressors are rotary
positive-displacement machines in which
axial vanes slide radialy in a rotor
eccentrically mounted in a cylindrical casing.
Gas trapped between vanes is compress and
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Gas trapped between vanes is compress and
displaced.
Liquid-piston compressors are rotary positive-
displacement machines in which water or
other liquid is used as the piston to compress
and displace the gas handled.
Compressors
Two-impeller straight-lobe compressors
are rotary positive-displacement machines in which
two straight mating lobed impellers trap gas and
carry it from intake to discharge. There is no
internal compression.
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internal compression.
Helical- or spiral-lobe compressors are
rotary positive-displacement machines in which
two intermeshing rotors, each with a helical form,
compress and displace the gas.
Compressors
The basic reciprocating compression element
is a single cylinder compressing on only one
side of the piston (single-acting). A unit
compressing on both sides of the piston
1. THE RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR
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compressing on both sides of the piston
(double-acting) consists of two basic single-
acting elements operating in parallel in one
casting.
Compressors
The reciprocating compressor uses automatic
spring loaded valves that open only when the
proper differential pressure exists across the
valve. Inlet valves open when the pressure in
1. THE RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR
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valve. Inlet valves open when the pressure in
the cylinder is slightly below the intake
pressure. Discharge valves open when the
pressure in the cylinder is slightly above the
discharge pressure
Compressors
Compressor Classification Compressor Classification Compressor Classification Compressor Classification
Heavy-duty compressor Moderate duty compressor
Vertical or Y-type trunk piston
Cross head type
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Vertical or Y-type trunk piston
Lubricated air cooled
Operating at high speed (high operating temperature)
Cross head type
Operating at low speeds
Compressors
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Two-stage compressor designs with pressure stage
in individual cylinders
Compressors
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Reciprocating compressor ;
schematic and indicator diagram.
compressor indicator diagram
showing cylinder clearance.
Compressors
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Effect of compression ratio on
compressor capacity
Two-stage uniflow differential-
piston compressor
Compressors
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Two-stage uniflow compressor. Theoretical indicator
diagram
Compressors
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Two-stage single acting
differential-piston compressor
Two-stage single acting
differential-piston compressor.
Theoretical indicator diagram
Compressors
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Three-stage differential-piston compressor
Three-stage differential-piston compressor
split in the first stage
six-stage differential-piston compressor
Compressors
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Indicator functional diagram
1-Compressor cylinder;2-Compressor piston ;3-rectifiying mechanism; 4-
indicator cylinder ; 5-indicator diagram; 6-reducing gear; 7- indicator
driver; 8- indicator driver cords; 9- indicator pen
Compressors
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Compressor indicator diagrams
Reciprocating compressor discharging into a given pipe line.
Characteristic curves for different rotative speeds.
Compressors
Six-stage angle
compressor
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Compressors
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Five-stage vertical
reciprocating compressor
Compressors
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Two-stage opposed air compressor
Compressors
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Plane of a four-cylinder, horizontal-opposed, heavy-duty compressor
(200 to more than 12000 HP)
Compressors
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Compressors
Disk piston
Differential piston of three-stages
compressors
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compressors
Compressors
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Stuffing box with split metal packing rings
Compressors
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Stuffing box with flexible metal packing rings
Compressors
Plate valve with
two annular slots
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Disk valve of low-capacity
compressor
Compressors
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Low-pressure uniflow valve design. principle of
operation
Compressors
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Conventional water-cooled compressor cylinder
Compressors
Clearance Control of Reciprocating Compressor Clearance Control of Reciprocating Compressor Clearance Control of Reciprocating Compressor Clearance Control of Reciprocating Compressor
The effect of added clearance is often use as a means of
capacity control. To obtain low clearance and a high
volumetric efficiency VE the designer finds that it
necessary to limit the size and number of valves. This
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necessary to limit the size and number of valves. This
may tend to lower the efficiency of compression and
raise the horsepower. If a double-acting cylinder is
considered there are two clearance pockets in each end
four in all.
Compressors
There are five control steps. These are sized so that the
VE of either end with only one pocket open to the
cylinder is about half the fill load VE while with two
open; the VE is reduced to zero. Pockets may be
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open; the VE is reduced to zero. Pockets may be
opened and closed manually or automatically. Full 3/4
1/2 1/4 and no load indicating diagrams for the double-
acting cylinder arc determined as indicated in Fig. 12.
corresponding pockets in low and high pressure
cylinders are opened or closed at the same time.
Compressors
When clearance control is used to prevent driver
overload under variable pressure conditions the
pocket or pockets are often manually operated
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Compressors
Typical Hand Operated
Inlet Valve Unloader for
high pressure valves
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Compressors
Typical fixed volume
clearance pocket
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Compressors
Variable volume
clearance pocket
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Compressors
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The operation of five-step clearance control
Compressors
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Compressor capacity regulation
by suction throttling
Automatic system for capacity regulation
by suction throttling.
Compressors
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Capacity regulation by holding the inlet valve
open. schematic
Compressors
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Capacity regulation by holding the
inlet valve open.
Variable-clearance capacity control.
indicator diagram
Compressors
2. ROTARY COMPRESSORS
2.1 Sliding Vane Rotary Compressors
The rotary sliding-vane compressor has as its
basic element the cylindrical casing with its heads
and rotor assembly . When running at design
pressure, the theoretical indicator card is
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pressure, the theoretical indicator card is
identical to the reciprocator. There is one
difference of importance, however. The
reciprocating unit has spring-loaded valves that
open automatically on small pressure differentials
between the outside and inside of the cylinder
Compressors
ROTOR WITH NON-METALLIC SLIDING
VANES.
GAS IS GRADUALLY COMPRESSED AS
POCKETS GET SMALLER.
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AS ROTOR TURNS GAS IS TRAP- IN
POCKETS FORMAED BY VANES.
COMPRESSED GAS IS PUSHED OUT
THROUGH DISCHARGE PORT
Compressors
A. One used for stationary service is fitted for
standard lubrication is water jacketed and uses
water-cooled intercoolers on multistage unit.
This compressor has a narrow range of
capacity and pressure. The machine is built
in two types:
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water-cooled intercoolers on multistage unit.
B. One has a combination lubrication and cooling
system (a radiation type oil cooler) and a water-
cooled exchanger) consisting of a flood of oil to
the machine at all times.
Compressors
The stationary water-cooled unit
2. ROTARY COMPRESSORS
2.1 Sliding Vane Rotary Compressors
The larger single-stage machines are offered only for the
lower pressures. Figure 14 presents a section of two-stage
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lower pressures. Figure 14 presents a section of two-stage
unit with an intercooler. Single-stage boosters can be
supplied for working pressures up to 400 psig.
Compressors
When used as single-stage vacuum pumps unit sizes go to
approximately 686 mm Hg vacuum. Two-stage vacuum
pumps can be supplied for 759 mm Hg vacuum and three-
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pumps can be supplied for 759 mm Hg vacuum and three-
stage for an even higher vacuum (lower absolute pressure).
Speeds for this type of compressor ranges between 575 and
1750 rpm depending on size
Compressors
These These These These units units units units can can can can be be be be fitted fitted fitted fitted for for for for outdoor outdoor outdoor outdoor
installation installation installation installation or or or or for for for for use use use use in in in in a aa a duty duty duty duty atmosphere atmosphere atmosphere atmosphere. .. .
The The The The discharge discharge discharge discharge and and and and intake intake intake intake have have have have high high high high frequency frequency frequency frequency
Characteristics
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The The The The discharge discharge discharge discharge and and and and intake intake intake intake have have have have high high high high frequency frequency frequency frequency
pulsation pulsation pulsation pulsation. .. .
The The The The units units units units are are are are used used used used primarily primarily primarily primarily for for for for air air air air and and and and can can can can
handle handle handle handle other other other other dry dry dry dry gases gases gases gases or or or or gases gases gases gases containing containing containing containing
liquid liquid liquid liquid. .. .
40/48
Compressors
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A ROTARY VANE COMPRESSOR
Compressors
Lubricated units
This This This This type type type type for for for for ratings ratings ratings ratings of of of of 125 125 125 125 HP HP HP HP and and and and higher higher higher higher takes takes takes takes 6 66 6
to to to to 20 20 20 20 % %% % more more more more power power power power than than than than the the the the reciprocating reciprocating reciprocating reciprocating
compressor compressor compressor compressor per per per per cfm cfm cfm cfm compressed compressed compressed compressed. .. . For For For For this this this this reason reason reason reason it it it it
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compressor compressor compressor compressor per per per per cfm cfm cfm cfm compressed compressed compressed compressed. .. . For For For For this this this this reason reason reason reason it it it it
is is is is more more more more recently recently recently recently for for for for the the the the lower lower lower lower pressure pressure pressure pressure ranges ranges ranges ranges. .. .
water water water water cooled cooled cooled cooled vane vane vane vane type type type type rotates rotates rotates rotates may may may may generally generally generally generally be be be be
classed classed classed classed as as as as heavy heavy heavy heavy duty duty duty duty compressors compressors compressors compressors suitable suitable suitable suitable for for for for long long long long
periods periods periods periods at at at at fill fill fill fill load load load load. .. .
Compressors
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The The operating operating cycle cycle of of aa two two- -impeller impeller straight straight- -lobe lobe rotary rotary compressor compressor
Compressors
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Illustrative sections of a typical helical Illustrative sections of a typical helical- -lobe rotary compressor lobe rotary compressor
Compressors
A two A two A two A two- -- -impeller straight impeller straight impeller straight impeller straight- -- -lobe positive lobe positive lobe positive lobe positive
displacement compressor element consists of a displacement compressor element consists of a displacement compressor element consists of a displacement compressor element consists of a
casing containing duplicate symmetrical rotors or casing containing duplicate symmetrical rotors or casing containing duplicate symmetrical rotors or casing containing duplicate symmetrical rotors or
The Two-Impeller Straight-Lobe Compressor
Khalafallah 07/09
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casing containing duplicate symmetrical rotors or casing containing duplicate symmetrical rotors or casing containing duplicate symmetrical rotors or casing containing duplicate symmetrical rotors or
impellers usually having a figure eight cross impellers usually having a figure eight cross impellers usually having a figure eight cross impellers usually having a figure eight cross
section. Some have three lobes. These intermesh, section. Some have three lobes. These intermesh, section. Some have three lobes. These intermesh, section. Some have three lobes. These intermesh,
are kept in phase by external timing gears, and are kept in phase by external timing gears, and are kept in phase by external timing gears, and are kept in phase by external timing gears, and
rotors in opposite directions. The term rotors in opposite directions. The term rotors in opposite directions. The term rotors in opposite directions. The term cycloidal cycloidal cycloidal cycloidal
often is used for this type even though the often is used for this type even though the often is used for this type even though the often is used for this type even though the
impellers may have other than cycloidal form impellers may have other than cycloidal form impellers may have other than cycloidal form impellers may have other than cycloidal form
Compressors
The Two-Impeller Straight-Lobe Compressor
There There There There is is is is no no no no compression compression compression compression or or or or reduction reduction reduction reduction of of of of gas gas gas gas
volume volume volume volume during during during during the the the the turning turning turning turning of of of of the the the the rotors rotors rotors rotors. .. . The The The The
rotors rotors rotors rotors merely merely merely merely move move move move the the the the gas gas gas gas from from from from the the the the inlet inlet inlet inlet to to to to the the the the
Khalafallah 07/09
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rotors rotors rotors rotors merely merely merely merely move move move move the the the the gas gas gas gas from from from from the the the the inlet inlet inlet inlet to to to to the the the the
discharge discharge discharge discharge. .. . Compression Compression Compression Compression is is is is by by by by back back back back flow flow flow flow into into into into the the the the
casing casing casing casing from from from from the the the the discharge discharge discharge discharge line line line line at at at at the the the the time time time time the the the the
discharge discharge discharge discharge port port port port is is is is uncovered uncovered uncovered uncovered. .. . I II I Displacement Displacement Displacement Displacement of of of of
the the the the compressed compressed compressed compressed gas gas gas gas into into into into the the the the discharge discharge discharge discharge system system system system
then then then then takes takes takes takes place place place place. .. . There There There There are are are are no no no no valves valves valves valves. .. .
Compressors
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Steps in compression by a typical helical-lobe rotary compressor
Compressors
Diagram Diagram A A - The chamber of lobe A is full of gas at inlet
pressure and further intake will soon stop. Lobe B is
delivering gas at discharge pressure.
Diagram Diagram B B - Lobe A has closed the intake but has not yet
passed the edge of the discharge port. Lobe B is still
discharge.
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Diagram Diagram CC - Lobe A has passed the discharge port
permitting discharge gas to flow into the chamber,
compressing the gas therein. The other side of Lobe A is
starting the intake cycle. Lobe B is still discharging.
Diagram Diagram DD - Lobe A is still discharging on one side and
filling its other chamber with intake gas. Lobe B has
completed intake for its second chamber and is about pass
the discharge port.
Compressors
Helical-Lobe Rotary Compressors
This machine is a two-rotor positive displacement
rotary unit compressing gas between the
intermeshing helical lobes and the rotor chambers of
the housing. The basic elements is the housing with
its enclosed rotor assemblies. The lobes on the two
Khalafallah 07/09
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its enclosed rotor assemblies. The lobes on the two
rotors are not identical. The male , or driven, rotor (
main rotor ) has a form that fits into the pocket of the
female, or gate, rotor. About 85 to 90 percent of the
power is used by the main rotor, the gate requiring
only 10 to 15 percent of the total power at the most.
Compressors
Helical-Lobe Rotary Compressors
There are two types, one using timing gears to
properly phase the two rotors at all times. This kind
requires no lubrication and sealing is by close
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clearances. The second type uses a flood of oil
through the machine to lubricate and seal and to
cool the compressed gas. In this style, the timing
gears may, at times, be omitted.
Compressors
Reciprocating Compressor
Sizing
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Sizing
Compressors
Reciprocating Compressor Sizing
Once the suction and discharge pressures, the suction
gas temperature, the required flow rate and the gas
composition are determined, a compressor can be
selected to do the job.
The selection will depend on the relative importance of
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The selection will depend on the relative importance of
efficiency, reliability and cost, but certain principles will
always apply.
Compressors for a wide range of applications tend to
run with about the same piston speed. That is
compressors with a long stroke tend to run slower than
those with a short stroke. Further, short stroke
compressors tend to be of lighter construction with
lower allowable loads.
Compressors
For the best efficiency and reliability at the expense
of increased cost, a piston speed at the low end of
the normal range will be used.
The compressor speed and the stroke will then be
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The compressor speed and the stroke will then be
determined by the horsepower requirement. A low
horse power application will require a light, low
stroke, high speed compressor. A high horse power
application will require a heavy, long stroke, low
speed compressor. If possible, larger compressors
are directly coupled to the driver. Thus the speed
range of available drivers may influence the selection
of the compressor.
Compressors
The number of stages must then be selected. One
consideration here is the allowable discharge
temperature; another is the pressure ratio capability
of the available cylinders as determined by their
fixed clearance; another is efficiency. If the
calculated discharge temperature using one stage is
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calculated discharge temperature using one stage is
too high, obviously more stages are needed. During
preliminary sizing, the isentropic discharge
temperature can be used, but if a certain number of
stages creates a marginal situation, the discharge
temperature should be estimated more accurately.
As a first estimate, it can be assumed that equal
pressure ratios are used for all stages.
Compressors
In practice it is often good to take a higher pressure
ratio in the low pressure ratio stages and unload the
more critical higher pressure stages a little.
In almost all multi-stage applications the gas will be
cooled between stages. In this case, increasing the
number of stages, up to a limit, will increase the
efficiency of the compressor. This is because with
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efficiency of the compressor. This is because with
intercooling, the compression more closely
approximates an isothermal compression with
resulting lower power requirement. An alternative
way of looking at this is on a pressure volume
diagram. The work required to compress the gas is
given by the area of the pressure vs volume
diagram.
Compressors
The figure shows a single-
and a two-stage
compression for a given
application. The diagram
for single stage
compression is 1-2-3-4-1.
For two-stage
compression, it is 1-5-6-7-
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compression, it is 1-5-6-7-
3-8-4-1. As the interstage
gas is cooled (5-6), its
volume decreases. The
work done as given by the
areas of the diagrams is
obviously less in the two-
stage case than in the
single-stage case.
Effect of multistaging
Compressors
Further, if any liquids are condensed out of the gas
in the intercoolers, the liquids must be separated
from the gas and the mass of gas compressed
from that interstage to the final discharge is
reduced with a further resulting power reduction.
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reduced with a further resulting power reduction.
However as stages are added, the number of
compressor valves the gas must flow through in
series, and the amount of interstage piping and
coolers increase.
Compressors
If too many stages are used, the pressure losses in
the valves and piping will offset the gains from
intercooling and the efficiency will be reduced.
The cost of a compressor to do a given task usually
increases as the number of stages is increased
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increases as the number of stages is increased
because of the additional compressor cylinders,
coolers and piping.
In a few applications, there will be side streams
where gas either enters or leaves the process at
fixed pressures. These requirements may determine
the interstage pressures used.
Compressors
Once the number of stages is selected, the
cylinders for each stage can be selected. Usually a
selection will be made from cylinder designs
available. Knowing the inlet conditions and the
required capacity, and with the speed and stroke
already selected, the required cylinder bore can be
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already selected, the required cylinder bore can be
estimated. The available cylinders can then be
checked to see which, if any, meet the
requirements.
The following must be checked. First, the pressure
rating of the cylinder must be adequate to be safe
at the design and any upset conditions.
Compressors
The cylinder rating should be higher than the relief
valve setting. Second, the frame load, rod load and
degrees of reversal must be within the rating for the
frame components. Third, the capacity calculated
with the minimum cylinder clearance allowing for all
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with the minimum cylinder clearance allowing for all
losses must meet the requirements. Fourth, the
power requirement of this cylinder must not exceed
the power rating per throw of the frame
components. If all these requirements are met, a
suitable cylinder has been chosen. Additional
optimization may be needed to determine
Compressors
Additional optimization may be needed to
determine the best possible cylinder for this
application. If no cylinder can be found to meet
the requirements, then either a new cylinder must
be designed, a frame rated for a higher frame load
or horsepower per throw must be selected, or two
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or horsepower per throw must be selected, or two
or more, smaller cylinders must be chosen to run
in parallel to meet the required flow. Note that if
smaller cylinders are used, the frame load and the
power per throw will be reduced.
Compressors
It is usual for smaller cylinders to be available in
higher pressure ratio versions, so all the
requirements can usually be met by using
multiple cylinders per stage.
The basic compressor sizing is then complete,
but must be checked at alternate design or upset
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but must be checked at alternate design or upset
conditions. Additional factors such as the out-of-
balance force transmitted from the compressor to
the foundation, the potential for harmful torsional
vibrations in the crankshaft and drive train,
optimization of the compressor layout, efficiency,
and cost will be considered before the design is
finalized.
Compressors
Reciprocating compressors are categorized
primarily by the frame. Each style of frame has an
optimum horsepower range and speed range. Each
frame style also has an array of cylinders, varying in
Methods of Rating
Reciprocating Compressors
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frame style also has an array of cylinders, varying in
bore diameter and pressure rating, that are
designed for compatibility with the frame.
The primary considerations that limit the choice
of compressor style, presented somewhat in order
of relative importance, are:
Compressors
Number of services and/or stages;
Inlet volume capacity;
Discharge pressure;
Inlet pressure;
Physical characteristics of the gas including ratio
of heat capacity, molecular weight, and
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of heat capacity, molecular weight, and
compressibility;
Inlet temperature;
Anticipated allowable down-time;
Type of motive power available.
Other factors such as chemical corrosiveness,
chemical toxicity, available foundation space, or
special oil-contamination limitations may also take on
varying degrees of importance.
Compressors
A preliminary calculation of the horsepower can be
arrived using the first six parameters listed above.
Allowances must be made for the mechanical
efficiency and the compression efficiency. At this
point, the design engineer must rely on model
availability data from manufacturers. The
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availability data from manufacturers. The
anticipated maximum horsepower will place the
service in a range of frame styles. However,
consideration of the seventh parameter, allowable
downtime, will narrow the range considerably.
Higher speed units, although less expensive, will
tend to have shorter run times between service
periods than slower speed units.
Compressors
The selection of a frame style from any individual
manufacturer will fix the range of compatible
cylinders that are available. Each cylinder has a
specific internal diameter and a maximum working
pressure. The total piston displacement of the
cylinder being considered is determined by the
internal area of the cylinder, the size of the piston
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internal area of the cylinder, the size of the piston
rod, the stroke (piston travel distance allowed by the
crankshaft), and the rotational speed of the
crankshaft.
Consideration of piston displacements, which must
be greater than the CFM of the intended service,
together with the cylinder pressure ratings will
narrow the range of cylinders for the application.
Compressors
Consideration must also be given to the "rod
load" or "pin load" rating of the compressor
frame. This must be compared to the maximum
force imposed by the differential pressure on the
cylinders, since this force is transmitted down the
piston rod and/or connecting rod and onto the
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piston rod and/or connecting rod and onto the
running gear and bearings within the frame.
When the range of cylinders has been narrowed
to this point, a closer approximation of the gas
handling capabilities of a cylinder may be
obtained by an evaluation of the volumetric
efficiency.
Compressors
Evaluation of the volumetric efficiency requires a
knowledge of the cylinder clearance volume, which
is commonly expressed as a percentage of the
piston displacement. In most cases, the clearance
designed into a cylinder will be between 3 and 16%.
Precise evaluation of the volumetric efficiency also
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Precise evaluation of the volumetric efficiency also
requires information concerning the pressure losses
at the inlet valves, as well as empirical data
concerning the rate at which a particular gas slips
past the piston rings, rod packing, and cylinder
valves. Reliance on the manufacturer's method of
calculation is, of course, necessary for guaranteed
performance.
Compressors
There are several items regarding the application
of reciprocating compressors that must be
considered. If these items are neglected, they may
cause a great deal of concern when the inevitable
problem occurs.
Application Notes
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Reciprocating compressors are not fond of liquids
of any sort, particularly when delivered with the
inlet gas stream. For any application a good sized
suction drum with drain provision is in order. It
may be a part of the pulsation control if properly
done.
Compressors
If the stream is near saturation or has a
component near saturation, consideration should
be given to using a horizontally oriented cylinder
configuration, with the discharge nozzle on the
bottom side of the cylinder. While on the subject of
condensation, for the same gas near saturation,
cylinder cooling must be monitored and controlled
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cylinder cooling must be monitored and controlled
to prevent gas condensation inside the cylinder.
It would appear obvious for startup, and in some
cases full time operation, that a suction strainer or
filter is mandatory. The reason for the strainer is to
keep junk and pipe scale out of the compressor.
Compressors
Fines from pipe scale and rust will make short
work of the internal bore of a cylinder and are not
all that good for the balance of the components. In
some severe cases cylinders have been badly
damaged in a matter of a few weeks. The strainer
should be removable in service for cleaning,
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should be removable in service for cleaning,
particularly when it is intended for permanent
installation. Provision must be made to monitor
the condition of the strainer. Much frustration has
been expended because a compressor was
overheating or losing capacity and no one knew if
the strainer had fouled or blinded.
Compressors
The discharge temperature should be limited to
300F as recommended by API 618. Higher
temperatures cause problems with lubricant
coking and valve deterioration. In non-lube service
the ring material is also a factor in setting the
temperature limit. While 300F doesn't seem all
that hot, it should be remembered that this is an
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that hot, it should be remembered that this is an
average outlet temperature, whereas the cylinder
will have "hot" spots exceeding this temperature.
Finally, planning may save money and time if
process changes are foreseeable. For instance,
capacity increase, or an increase in molecular
weight due to a catalyst change, results in
decreased volumetric flow.
Compressors
Although the cylinders must be sized for
economical operation at the present rate, the
frame can be sized for future applications. When
the future conditions become a reality, the
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the future conditions become a reality, the
cylinders can be changed while keeping the
same frame. This saves the investment cost and
delivery time of a complete new compressor
without the penalty of over-sizing and its
inherent inefficient operation.
Compressors
BASIC THEORY OF
TURBOCOMPRESSORS
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TURBOCOMPRESSORS
Compressors
BASIC THEORY
Turbo-compressors belong to the group of
compressors which are based on the dynamic
principle where kinetic energy is imparted by a
rotating impeller to a gas in order to keep it
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rotating impeller to a gas in order to keep it
continuously flowing, while a suitable diffuser
converts this kinetic energy into pressure energy.
When the gas flow with respect to the shaft is in the
radial direction, the compressor is called centrifugal
or radial compressor.
Compressors
When the main direction of flow is parallel to the
shaft, the compressor is called axial flow compressor.
The basic theory of both types of turbo compressors
is the same and is based on Eulers turbine equation
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is the same and is based on Eulers turbine equation
which will be derived for a general case of flow and
then for a radial stage in the following.
Compressors
C2
C1
C1
C2
F
m
o
C
u2
C
r2
C
r2
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C1
R
+
m
o
C
u1
C
r1
r1
r2
F= m
o
(
2
-
1
)
T= m
o
(
2
.
2

1
.
1
)
Compressors
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Flow through a radial impeller
Compressors
( )
( )
1 1 2 2
/
u u
o
U C U C m P W
r C r C m T
= =
=
(1)
(2)
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( )
( )
1 2
1 1 2 2
/
u u
u u
C C U W
U C U C m P W
=
= = (2)
(3)
For axial stages
Compressors
Comparing equations (2) and (3), it is clear that
the work in a radial stage could be bigger than the
work in an axial stage and consequently the radial
stage gives a pressure ratio higher than the axial
one.
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AFFINITY LAWS
These consider the effect of size and speed
on performance :
Volume flow rate N D
Specific work N
2
D
2
Power N
3
D
5
Compressors
Gas Pressure Ratio
Neglecting heat loss,
o o p
C
T
C
T c
T T c w
1
2
2
2
1 2
) (
(
(
|
|
|
|
+
|
|
|
|
+ =
=
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( )
p
u u
p
c
C U C U
C C
T
T
C
T
C
T c
1 1 2 2
2
2
1
2
1
2
1
1
2
2
2 2
2 2
+
|
|
\
|
+
=
(
|
|
\
+
|
|
\
+ =
Compressors
( ) ( )
3 2
2
2
1
1
2 2
1
1 1 2 2
2
2
1
2
1
1 2
C C
ho ho
C U C U C C
T c
P P
n
n
u u
p
=
(
(
+ + =
(4)
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The compression process through a compressor stage
is illustrated on the h-s chart :
2 2
3
2
3
2
2
2
C
T c
C
T c
p p
+ = +
(5)
Compressors
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H-s diagram for a compressor
Compressors
( )
( )
( )
1
1 2
1 2
) 1 (
1
o p
o o
o s o
is
C U C U
T c
h h
h h
k
k
(6)
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( )
1
1
1 1 2 2
1 1 2 2
1
(
(
=
k
k
o p
u u is
u u
T c
C U C U
C U C U
(7)
Compressors
PERFORMANCE OF CENTRIFUGAL
COMPRESSORS
IDEAL PERFORMANCE
The ideal characteristics of centrifugal compressors
depends essentially on the impeller exit angle 2.
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depends essentially on the impeller exit angle 2.
The relation between specific work and
dimensionless flow rate is a straight line
relationship.
Compressors
At the design point, the minimum energy loss takes
place. At off design conditions the energy loss will be
higher. So, the shape of characteristic curve deviates
from the straight line relation ship.
Taking into consideration effect of leakage loss the
curve is shifted to the lift.
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curve is shifted to the lift.
Surge effects will limit the relation ship at a certain
minimum value which represents the stability limit of
operation.
Choking limits flow rate to a certain maximum value
(on the right hand side of the performance curve -
stone wall).
Compressors
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Performance of compressors
Compressors
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS
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CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS
Compressors
The centrifugal compressor has a limited stable
operating range. This may affect the economics of
operation at part load. The minimum capacity may vary
from 45 to 90% of rated capacity.
For commercial machines, an exit volume of
approximately 300 to 400 CFM from the last impeller is
Characteristics of Centrifugal Compressors
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For commercial machines, an exit volume of
approximately 300 to 400 CFM from the last impeller is
generally considered the lower limit. These units
usually operate at 20,000 rpm or lower, with the trend
upward. They are well suited for direct connection to
steam-or gas-turbine drivers which permit variable-
speed control.
Compressors
Other features of these compressors include:
- high availability, they frequently operate;
without shutdown for 2 or 3 years;
- less maintenance and attendance costs as
Characteristics of Centrifugal Compressors
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- less maintenance and attendance costs as
compared with reciprocators;
- require small and relatively inexpensive
foundations;
- have greater volume capacity per unit of building
space;
- bearings and seals can be designed so that no oil
can enter the gas stream.
Compressors
CASING TYPE
APPROXIMATE MAXIMUM RATINGS
Pressure Capacity-inlet Power
PsiG KpaG CFM m
3
/min BHP kW
A. Sectionalized
usually multistage
10 69 20,000 566 600 448
CLASSIFICATION CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS
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usually multistage
10 69 20,000 566 600 448
B. Horizontally split
Single stage (double suction)
Multistage
15
1,000
103
6,900
650,000
200,000
18,408
5,664
10,000
35,000
7,640
26,110
C. Vertically split
Single stage (double suction)
Overhung Pipeline
Multistage
30
1,200
5,500+
207
8,275
37,900
250,000
25,000
20,000
7,080
708
566
10,000
20,000
15,000
7,460
14,920
11,190
Compressors
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Compressors
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Compressors
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Compressors
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Multi-stage centrifugal compressor with intercooling
Compressors
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Compressors
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Compressors
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Compressors
Classification of Centrifugal Compressors
Sectionalized units are an assembly of similar sections, as
many sections are used as required to obtain the desired
number of stages. Casings are of fabricated steel or cast iron.
Such machines are simple and require limited supervision
and maintenance.
1-Sectionalized casing
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and maintenance.
This design is used extensively in supplying air for
combustion in furnaces, ovens, as well as in pneumatic
conveying of materials, agitation and aeration, and many
miscellaneous applications requiring relatively low pressure
and small volumes.
Sectionalized units are normally built to standard sizes and
ratings.
Compressors
2-Horizontally split casing
This is the preferred construction for the larger multistage
units and for some single stage machines, both within
pressure limitations.
The casing is usually of cast construction (iron or steel).
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The casing is usually of cast construction (iron or steel).
Other materials may be used where necessary. The interior,
including shaft, impellers, bearings, and seals is readily
accessible for inspection and repair by removal of the top
half.
These units are used for a wide range of air and gas
applications and are well suited to process service.
Compressors
3-Vertically split casing
This is available in three distinct single-stage (double suction)
and multistage designs.
The single stage design includes:
1.Low pressure with impeller overhung on motor shaft
2.Impeller overhung on a shaft carried by compressor
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2.Impeller overhung on a shaft carried by compressor
bearings.
3. High pressure booster compressor (pipeline-type).
The multistage designs include:
1. Single shaft.
2. Multiple shaft for optimum speeds and efficiency.
Compressors
- Impellers
Impellers may be classed as open, semiclosed
and closed. The open and semiclosed impellers
may be cast, milled from a forging, or built by
welding.
Major Centrifugal Compressor Details
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welding.
- Diaphragms
- lnterstage packings
- Journal & thrust bearings
- Balancing drum
- Shaft seals
- Gas cooling
Compressors
Three general methods are used to control
centrifugal compressors with variations and
refinements within each method. Control may be
designed to maintain constant inlet or discharge
pressure, inlet volume or inlet gas weight. These
methods include:
Methods of Control
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pressure, inlet volume or inlet gas weight. These
methods include:
1. Variable speed steam turbine, variable speed
motor and hydraulic or magnetic coupling.
2. Blow off of unwanted output (to atmosphere or
recirculated).
3.Throttle intake, butterfly valve or inlet guide
vanes.
Compressors
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Compressors
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Compressors
AXIAL COMPRESSORS AXIAL COMPRESSORS AXIAL COMPRESSORS AXIAL COMPRESSORS
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Compressors
Axial Axial Axial Axial compressors compressors compressors compressors within within within within the the the the industrial industrial industrial industrial field field field field fit fit fit fit
principally principally principally principally into into into into the the the the low low low low- -- - and and and and moderate moderate moderate moderate- -- - pressure, pressure, pressure, pressure,
large large large large- -- -capacity capacity capacity capacity range range range range. .. . Compression Compression Compression Compression ratios ratios ratios ratios on on on on air air air air vary vary vary vary
between between between between 2 22 2 and and and and 5 55 5, ,, , with with with with a aa a maximum maximum maximum maximum of of of of about about about about 7 77 7 for for for for a aa a
large large large large unit unit unit unit in in in in one one one one casing casing casing casing. .. . Special Special Special Special designs designs designs designs for for for for higher higher higher higher
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between between between between 2 22 2 and and and and 5 55 5, ,, , with with with with a aa a maximum maximum maximum maximum of of of of about about about about 7 77 7 for for for for a aa a
large large large large unit unit unit unit in in in in one one one one casing casing casing casing. .. . Special Special Special Special designs designs designs designs for for for for higher higher higher higher
ratios ratios ratios ratios are are are are available, available, available, available, but but but but are are are are not not not not generally generally generally generally applied applied applied applied
industrially industrially industrially industrially. .. .
Compressors
Some Some Some Some of of of of the the the the more more more more important important important important applications applications applications applications include include include include
supplying supplying supplying supplying air air air air for for for for: :: :
- -- - Gas Gas Gas Gas turbine turbine turbine turbine combustion combustion combustion combustion
- -- - Wind Wind Wind Wind tunnels tunnels tunnels tunnels
- -- - Blast Blast Blast Blast furnaces furnaces furnaces furnaces
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- -- - Blast Blast Blast Blast furnaces furnaces furnaces furnaces
- -- - Air Air Air Air separation separation separation separation plants plants plants plants
- -- - Steam Steam Steam Steam boiler boiler boiler boiler pressurized pressurized pressurized pressurized forced forced forced forced draft draft draft draft
- -- - Agitation Agitation Agitation Agitation of of of of sewage sewage sewage sewage
- -- - Ventilation Ventilation Ventilation Ventilation
- -- - combustion combustion combustion combustion air air air air for for for for oil oil oil oil refinery refinery refinery refinery processes processes processes processes
Compressors
They They They They are are are are used used used used to to to to handle handle handle handle other other other other gases gases gases gases in in in in the the the the
following following following following applications applications applications applications: :: :
- -- - Catalytic Catalytic Catalytic Catalytic cracking cracking cracking cracking
- -- - Atomic Atomic Atomic Atomic reactor reactor reactor reactor gas gas gas gas cooling cooling cooling cooling
- -- - Petrochemical Petrochemical Petrochemical Petrochemical manufacture manufacture manufacture manufacture
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- -- - Petrochemical Petrochemical Petrochemical Petrochemical manufacture manufacture manufacture manufacture
- -- - Natural Natural Natural Natural gas gas gas gas boosting boosting boosting boosting
The The The The capacities capacities capacities capacities now now now now being being being being handled handled handled handled in in in in axial axial axial axial compressors compressors compressors compressors of of of of
the the the the industrial industrial industrial industrial type type type type vary vary vary vary from from from from 25 25 25 25, ,, ,000 000 000 000 to to to to above above above above 1 11 1, ,, ,000 000 000 000, ,, ,000 000 000 000
inlet inlet inlet inlet CFM CFM CFM CFM ( (( (700 700 700 700 to to to to 28 28 28 28, ,, ,000 000 000 000 m mm m
3 33 3
/min) /min) /min) /min). .. .
Pressures Pressures Pressures Pressures are are are are generally generally generally generally well well well well below below below below 100 100 100 100 psig psig psig psig ( (( (690 690 690 690 kPag), kPag), kPag), kPag),
but but but but may may may may be be be be as as as as high high high high as as as as 500 500 500 500 psig psig psig psig ( (( (3450 3450 3450 3450 kPag) kPag) kPag) kPag). .. .
Compressors
The The The The axial axial axial axial- -- -flow flow flow flow compressor compressor compressor compressor is is is is usually usually usually usually made made made made up up up up of of of of
several several several several stages stages stages stages. .. . Each Each Each Each stage stage stage stage comprises comprises comprises comprises a aa a set set set set of of of of rotating rotating rotating rotating
blades blades blades blades and and and and stationary stationary stationary stationary blades, blades, blades, blades, both both both both being being being being circular circular circular circular two two two two- -- -
dimensional dimensional dimensional dimensional cascades cascades cascades cascades of of of of blades blades blades blades. .. . The The The The rotating rotating rotating rotating blades blades blades blades
are are are are attached attached attached attached to to to to rotor rotor rotor rotor disks disks disks disks or or or or a aa a drum drum drum drum and and and and the the the the stationary stationary stationary stationary
Axial-flow Compressor Stage
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are are are are attached attached attached attached to to to to rotor rotor rotor rotor disks disks disks disks or or or or a aa a drum drum drum drum and and and and the the the the stationary stationary stationary stationary
blades blades blades blades are are are are rigidly rigidly rigidly rigidly fixed fixed fixed fixed in in in in the the the the compressor compressor compressor compressor casing casing casing casing. .. .
The The The The first first first first stage stage stage stage of of of of a aa a compressor compressor compressor compressor may may may may be be be be built built built built with with with with or or or or
without without without without inlet inlet inlet inlet guide guide guide guide vanes vanes vanes vanes. .. . The The The The last last last last stage stage stage stage is is is is always always always always
provided provided provided provided with with with with straightener straightener straightener straightener blades, blades, blades, blades, the the the the function function function function of of of of which which which which
is is is is to to to to remove remove remove remove swirl swirl swirl swirl from from from from the the the the flow flow flow flow and and and and to to to to reduce reduce reduce reduce energy energy energy energy
losses losses losses losses at at at at discharge discharge discharge discharge. .. .
Compressors
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Compressors
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Compressors
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Axial Axial Axial Axial- -- -flow Compressor Stage flow Compressor Stage flow Compressor Stage flow Compressor Stage
Compressors
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Blade Cascade of an Axial Blade Cascade of an Axial Blade Cascade of an Axial Blade Cascade of an Axial- -- -flow Compressor Stage flow Compressor Stage flow Compressor Stage flow Compressor Stage
Compressors
The The The The compressor compressor compressor compressor employs employs employs employs sleeve sleeve sleeve sleeve bearings bearings bearings bearings. .. . The The The The axial axial axial axial thrust thrust thrust thrust
is is is is taken taken taken taken by by by by a aa a thrust thrust thrust thrust bearing bearing bearing bearing on on on on the the the the driver driver driver driver side side side side. .. . The The The The intake intake intake intake
and and and and discharge discharge discharge discharge covers covers covers covers the the the the casing casing casing casing are are are are made made made made detachable detachable detachable detachable for for for for
ease ease ease ease of of of of manufacture manufacture manufacture manufacture. .. . The The The The inlet inlet inlet inlet and and and and outlet outlet outlet outlet shaft shaft shaft shaft seals seals seals seals are are are are of of of of
the the the the staggered staggered staggered staggered type type type type. .. .
Examples of Compressor Design Examples of Compressor Design Examples of Compressor Design Examples of Compressor Design
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the the the the staggered staggered staggered staggered type type type type. .. .
The The The The next next next next slide slide slide slide gives gives gives gives an an an an idea idea idea idea of of of of the the the the construction construction construction construction of of of of a aa a
stationary stationary stationary stationary axial axial axial axial flow flow flow flow compressor compressor compressor compressor. .. . The The The The compressor compressor compressor compressor design design design design
features features features features a aa a constant constant constant constant diameter diameter diameter diameter rotor rotor rotor rotor and and and and a aa a tapered tapered tapered tapered casing casing casing casing. .. . Air Air Air Air
is is is is taken taken taken taken and and and and discharged discharged discharged discharged in in in in a aa a crosswise crosswise crosswise crosswise direction direction direction direction through through through through
nozzles nozzles nozzles nozzles made made made made integral integral integral integral with with with with the the the the underside underside underside underside of of of of the the the the casing casing casing casing left left left left
and and and and right right right right halves halves halves halves. .. .
Compressors
The The The The next next next next slide slide slide slide shows shows shows shows a aa a longitudinal longitudinal longitudinal longitudinal section section section section of of of of a aa a twelve twelve twelve twelve stage stage stage stage
axial axial axial axial- -- -flow flow flow flow compressor compressor compressor compressor. .. . Provision Provision Provision Provision is is is is made made made made for for for for bleed bleed bleed bleed off off off off
downstream downstream downstream downstream the the the the eighth eighth eighth eighth stage stage stage stage so so so so the the the the compressor compressor compressor compressor delivers delivers delivers delivers air air air air
at at at at two two two two pressure pressure pressure pressure levels levels levels levels. .. .
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The The The The axially axially axially axially- -- -split split split split compressor compressor compressor compressor casing casing casing casing is is is is of of of of constant constant constant constant inner inner inner inner
diameter diameter diameter diameter. .. . The The The The air air air air is is is is drawn drawn drawn drawn and and and and discharged discharged discharged discharged in in in in an an an an axial axial axial axial
direction direction direction direction. .. . The The The The rotor rotor rotor rotor is is is is a aa a massive massive massive massive bulky bulky bulky bulky assembly assembly assembly assembly. .. .
Compressors
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1-radial bearing 2drum; 3casing 4bleeder 5diffuser; 6
adapters; 7radial trust bearing 8-rigid coupling flange
Axial Flow Compressor Axial Flow Compressor Axial Flow Compressor Axial Flow Compressor
Compressors
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Axial Flow Compressor with Constant Axial Flow Compressor with Constant Axial Flow Compressor with Constant Axial Flow Compressor with Constant- -- -hub Rotor hub Rotor hub Rotor hub Rotor
Compressors
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Compressors
In In In In view view view view of of of of its its its its great great great great length, length, length, length, the the the the casing casing casing casing is is is is split split split split into into into into two two two two halves halves halves halves
in in in in a aa a plane plane plane plane perpendicular perpendicular perpendicular perpendicular to to to to the the the the shaft shaft shaft shaft axis axis axis axis. .. .
The The The The unique, unique, unique, unique, lightened lightened lightened lightened rotor rotor rotor rotor design design design design comprises comprises comprises comprises the the the the rows rows rows rows of of of of
impeller impeller impeller impeller blades blades blades blades mounted mounted mounted mounted on on on on a aa a cylinder cylinder cylinder cylinder with with with with flanged flanged flanged flanged stub stub stub stub
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impeller impeller impeller impeller blades blades blades blades mounted mounted mounted mounted on on on on a aa a cylinder cylinder cylinder cylinder with with with with flanged flanged flanged flanged stub stub stub stub
shafts shafts shafts shafts pressed pressed pressed pressed in in in in on on on on each each each each end end end end. .. . The The The The compressor compressor compressor compressor employs employs employs employs
sleeve sleeve sleeve sleeve bearings bearings bearings bearings. .. . The The The The thrust thrust thrust thrust bearing bearing bearing bearing is is is is of of of of the the the the kingsbury kingsbury kingsbury kingsbury type type type type. .. .
The The The The shaft shaft shaft shaft journals journals journals journals are are are are protected protected protected protected with with with with suitable suitable suitable suitable sleeves sleeves sleeves sleeves at at at at the the the the
staggered staggered staggered staggered end end end end seals seals seals seals. .. . The The The The compressor compressor compressor compressor capacity capacity capacity capacity is is is is about about about about
70 70 70 70, ,, ,000 000 000 000 m mm m
3 33 3
/h /h /h /h at at at at a aa a compression compression compression compression ratio ratio ratio ratio of of of of 3 33 3. .. .4 44 4
Compressors
Axial Axial Axial Axial- -- -flow flow flow flow compressors compressors compressors compressors may may may may be be be be designed designed designed designed with with with with adjustable adjustable adjustable adjustable
stator stator stator stator blades blades blades blades. .. . This This This This permits permits permits permits a aa a large large large large stable stable stable stable control control control control range range range range at at at at
constant constant constant constant speed speed speed speed. .. . It It It It is is is is therefore therefore therefore therefore used used used used especially especially especially especially with with with with
electric electric electric electric motor motor motor motor drive drive drive drive. .. . Nevertheless, Nevertheless, Nevertheless, Nevertheless, this this this this type type type type is is is is being being being being
increasingly increasingly increasingly increasingly preferred preferred preferred preferred for for for for turbine turbine turbine turbine drives drives drives drives as as as as well well well well. .. . In In In In this this this this
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increasingly increasingly increasingly increasingly preferred preferred preferred preferred for for for for turbine turbine turbine turbine drives drives drives drives as as as as well well well well. .. . In In In In this this this this
particular particular particular particular case, case, case, case, the the the the stator stator stator stator blades blades blades blades control control control control facilitates facilitates facilitates facilitates either either either either
operation operation operation operation with with with with limited limited limited limited speed speed speed speed control control control control range range range range (increased (increased (increased (increased
reliability reliability reliability reliability of of of of operation operation operation operation for for for for certain certain certain certain turbine turbine turbine turbine types) types) types) types) or, or, or, or, in in in in
combination combination combination combination with with with with the the the the speed speed speed speed control, control, control, control, an an an an additional additional additional additional
extension extension extension extension of of of of the the the the operating operating operating operating range range range range and and and and an an an an improvement improvement improvement improvement of of of of
the the the the overall overall overall overall efficiency efficiency efficiency efficiency at at at at part part part part- -- -load load load load. .. .
Compressors
Furthermore, Furthermore, Furthermore, Furthermore, it it it it offers offers offers offers the the the the advantage advantage advantage advantage of of of of quick quick quick quick adaptation adaptation adaptation adaptation
of of of of the the the the compressor compressor compressor compressor to to to to change change change change operating operating operating operating conditions conditions conditions conditions without without without without
acceleration acceleration acceleration acceleration of of of of the the the the set set set set - -- - a aa a characteristic characteristic characteristic characteristic which which which which is is is is of of of of great great great great
interest interest interest interest for for for for the the the the periodic periodic periodic periodic charging charging charging charging of of of of air air air air heaters heaters heaters heaters in in in in blast blast blast blast- -- -
furnace furnace furnace furnace blowing blowing blowing blowing plants plants plants plants. .. .
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furnace furnace furnace furnace blowing blowing blowing blowing plants plants plants plants. .. .
The The The The next next next next slide slide slide slide shows shows shows shows longitudinal longitudinal longitudinal longitudinal and and and and cross cross cross cross- -- -sectional sectional sectional sectional
views views views views of of of of an an an an adjustable adjustable adjustable adjustable stator stator stator stator- -- -blades blades blades blades compressor compressor compressor compressor. .. . The The The The
adjusting adjusting adjusting adjusting mechanism mechanism mechanism mechanism is is is is located located located located in in in in an an an an annular annular annular annular space space space space
between between between between casing casing casing casing and and and and blade blade blade blade carrier carrier carrier carrier. .. . The The The The adjusting adjusting adjusting adjusting
mechanism mechanism mechanism mechanism is is is is operated operated operated operated by by by by means means means means of of of of two two two two hydraulic hydraulic hydraulic hydraulic servo servo servo servo
motors motors motors motors which which which which are are are are affixed affixed affixed affixed laterally laterally laterally laterally to to to to the the the the casing casing casing casing. .. .
Compressors
Compared Compared Compared Compared to to to to the the the the centrifugal centrifugal centrifugal centrifugal compressor, compressor, compressor, compressor, the the the the axial axial axial axial- -- -
flow flow flow flow compressor compressor compressor compressor has has has has a aa a much much much much steeper steeper steeper steeper H HH H- -- -Q QQ Q curve curve curve curve. .. .
Hence Hence Hence Hence the the the the operating operating operating operating range range range range between between between between normal normal normal normal and and and and
surge surge surge surge is is is is much much much much less less less less. .. . It It It It can can can can be be be be extended extended extended extended by by by by the the the the use use use use of of of of
adjustable adjustable adjustable adjustable stator stator stator stator blades blades blades blades. .. . Next Next Next Next slide slide slide slide shows shows shows shows a aa a typical typical typical typical
comparison comparison comparison comparison including including including including the the the the effect effect effect effect of of of of changing changing changing changing the the the the axial axial axial axial
Characteristics of Axial Characteristics of Axial Characteristics of Axial Characteristics of Axial- -- -flow Compressors flow Compressors flow Compressors flow Compressors
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comparison comparison comparison comparison including including including including the the the the effect effect effect effect of of of of changing changing changing changing the the the the axial axial axial axial
stator stator stator stator blade blade blade blade angles angles angles angles. .. .
Efficiency Efficiency Efficiency Efficiency generally generally generally generally will will will will be be be be better better better better than than than than the the the the
corresponding corresponding corresponding corresponding centrifugal, centrifugal, centrifugal, centrifugal, depending depending depending depending upon upon upon upon size size size size and and and and
conditions conditions conditions conditions. .. . The The The The variation variation variation variation of of of of power power power power with with with with inlet inlet inlet inlet volume volume volume volume is is is is
opposite opposite opposite opposite to to to to the the the the centrifugal centrifugal centrifugal centrifugal units, units, units, units, Fig Fig Fig Fig. .. . 14 14 14 14. .. .
Compressors
For For For For the the the the same same same same conditions, conditions, conditions, conditions, the the the the axial axial axial axial will will will will generally generally generally generally be be be be
smaller smaller smaller smaller and and and and lighter lighter lighter lighter weight weight weight weight than than than than a aa a centrifugal, centrifugal, centrifugal, centrifugal,
requiring requiring requiring requiring smaller smaller smaller smaller foundation foundation foundation foundation with with with with easier easier easier easier erection erection erection erection. .. .
Characteristics of Axial Characteristics of Axial Characteristics of Axial Characteristics of Axial- -- -flow Compressors flow Compressors flow Compressors flow Compressors
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dsfgsd
Compressors
COMPRESSOR SEALS
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COMPRESSOR SEALS
Compressors
Compressor Seals
Every compressor must have some means of limiting
or eliminating gas leakage along the shaft where it
comes through the casing. This is accomplished
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comes through the casing. This is accomplished
using various types of shaft seals.
According to API standard 617, centrifugal
compressors for general refinery services, Shaft
seals may be divided into the following categories :
Compressors
Labyrinth Labyrinth
Restrictive Restrictive carbon carbon rings rings
Mechanical Mechanical (contact) (contact) type type
Liquid Liquid film film or or floating floating bashing bashing type type
Liquid Liquid film film--type type with with pumping pumping bushing bushing
TYPES OF SEALS TYPES OF SEALS
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Liquid Liquid film film--type type with with pumping pumping bushing bushing
Compressors
The first two seal categories are:
usually operated dry,
when casing pressure is less than 200 psig (13 bar),
the outer terminal exhausts to atmosphere,
the gases handled have low flammability and are
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the gases handled have low flammability and are
non-toxic in nature.
Compressors
The last three categories
require seal oil consoles either separately or
as part of the lube system
are used in flammable and toxic gas service.
None of these seals is a perfect
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None of these seals is a perfect
seal.
They are all controlled leakage
devices.
Compressors
Labyrinth seals are :
LABYRINTH SEALS
the oldest type seals,
simple to build and relatively trouble
free.
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free.
leakage rates are relatively high (1-2 %
of compressor flow on small units.
The normal operating limits are about 200 psi
maximum or 20 psi per inch of axial length for a
straight pass labyrinth seal. This works out to be
above 5 psi pen tooth.
Compressors
Straight labyrinth seals are used on:
an interstage shaft,
on suction eye seals and
on low pressure outside seals
Staggered Staggered and and tapered tapered diameters diameters
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Staggered Staggered and and tapered tapered diameters diameters
under under the the labyrinths labyrinths can can reduce reduce the the
leakage leakage as as much much as as 40 40 percent percent. .
Compressors
The The use use of of honeycomb honeycomb labyrinths labyrinths offers offers ever ever better better
control control of of leakage leakage sates sates (up (up to to 60 60 % % reduction reduction of of a a
straight straight pass pass type) type). . Honeycomb Honeycomb seals seals operate operate at at
approximately approximately one one half half the the radial radial clearance clearance of of
conventional conventional ll. .ss. .
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The clearance usually provided for turbomachinery shaft
seals using labyrinth blades, is maximum bearing
clearance plus one mil per inch of diameter of labyrinth.
conventional conventional ll. .ss. .
Compressors
Restrictive Carbon Ring Seals
These operate on the principle of capillary flow
through a close clearance with the sealing fluid,
usually a gas vapor.
Multiple stationary carbon rings, often segmented and
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Multiple stationary carbon rings, often segmented and
held together by a garter spring (as on steam
turbines) are used on certain process compressors.
The seal may by operated dry ( as in the labyrinth
type), with a sealing liquid (as in the mechanical
type) or with a buffer gas.
Compressors
An exception is where lube-oil is applied to carbon-
ring seals by drop-feed lubricators This is done to
reduce the fictional heat of the higher pressure seal
contacts and where lube oil is not a nuisance.
General operating limits are about 200 psi maximum or 25
psi per active ring.
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psi per active ring.
The basic advantage of carbon ring seal lies in reduced
leakage if proper clearances are maintained (about two
mils total at operating pressures and temperatures).
Carbon rings can chatter easily and can only be used in a
relatively clear gas service.
Compressors
Liquid- Film or bushing Seal
An oil film or bushing seal is simply a close
clearance bushing surrounding the shaft. Sealing is
accomplished by the sealing face between the end
of the bushing and its housing, and by the restriction
of the small clearance area between the bushing
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of the small clearance area between the bushing
and the shaft.
An oil- film shaft seal consists of two bushings which
are pressurized with 2 to 4 gpm of seal oil at a mid
point about 5-15 psi greater then the gas chamber
pressure.
Compressors
The inner bushing facing the gas is shorter than the outer
bushing. Tight clearances limit leakage to a few gallons
per day. The bushings are usually made of babbit lined
steel 3/4 to 2 inches long with 0.004 to 0.006 inches
diametral shaft clearance. The bushings are floating
that is, they may follow shaft movements.
The seal oil system with its controls and safety
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The seal oil system with its controls and safety
provisions is complicated and costly, but the seal, if
properly applied, is free of wear and very reliable.
Sealing limits are about 3,000 psi for a basic two ring
design ( one low differential, one high differential), and
up to 5.000 psi for three or four ring seals (one low
differential, two or three high differential)
Compressors
The leakage rate will vary:
Directly with :
the differential pressure
the wetted perimeter,
the cube of the clearance,
the square of the eccentricity
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the square of the eccentricity
Inversely with :
oil viscosity,
tempereture,
length.
Compressors
Liquid Film Type with Pumping Bushing
This is a patented variation of the oil-film seal which
uses the dynamic pumping action of the inner bushing.
The inner seal oil-film is impeded by the dynamic
pumping action of the cone or radial steps acting as an
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pumping action of the cone or radial steps acting as an
impeller.
Seal oil flows through the seal oil supply area at all
times which is different from the liquid film bushing.
This seal is limited to sealing pressures of about 3,000
psi maximum.
Compressors
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Compressors
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J-strip type labyrinth seal.
Compressors
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Dry carbon ring seal. The
carbon rings on this seal are
buffered by dry air.
Compressors
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Liquid film shaft seal
Compressors
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Mechanical shaft seal.
Compressors
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Liquid film type seal with pumping bushing
Compressors
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Ring-oiled sleeve bearing.
Compressors
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Block diagram of a pressurized lube oil system.
Compressors
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Reservoir features.
Compressors
COMMON PROBLEMS IN COMMON PROBLEMS IN COMMON PROBLEMS IN COMMON PROBLEMS IN
TURBOCOMPRESSORS TURBOCOMPRESSORS TURBOCOMPRESSORS TURBOCOMPRESSORS
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TURBOCOMPRESSORS TURBOCOMPRESSORS TURBOCOMPRESSORS TURBOCOMPRESSORS
Compressors
Inlet air filtration
Related Problems Include:
1. Compressor Blade Erosion
Due to airborne particulates above 5 microns in size.
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Due to airborne particulates above 5 microns in size.
Erosion causes:
Blunting of the blade leading edge.
Thinning of the blade trailing edge fatigue.
Result degradation of overall performance
Compressors
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Compressors
2. Compressor Fouling
Caused by the ingestion of adhesive materials such
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Caused by the ingestion of adhesive materials such
as oil vapor ,smoke, sea salt or industrial vapors.
These contaminates are generally in the sub- micron
to 10-micron particle size in range
Compressors
2. Compressor Fouling
About 70% of the total gas turbine performance loss
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About 70% of the total gas turbine performance loss
can usually be attributed to compressor deterioration
due to blade fouling.
5% reduction in compression ratio
11.5 % decrease in output
5.5 % increase in heat rate
Compressors
3. Turbine FOD
From improperly installed or secured hardware or
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From improperly installed or secured hardware or
fracture type failures upstream of the turbine.
Proper in section of maintenance of the system is the
only remedy.
Compressors
4. Cooling Air Passage Blockage
Poor air quality causes blocking of internal cooling
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Poor air quality causes blocking of internal cooling
passages due to the build-up of fines below 5
microns in size.
This accelerates thermal fatigue in the cooled parts
due to decreased airflow.
Compressors
5. Locking of Turbine Blade Roots
Due to accumulation and impaction of dust or corrosion
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residues in the clearance.
This prevents the blade to move to distribute the stresses
and reduce vibration complication.
It changes the natural frequency of the blade which may
(or may not) be a problem, depending on the proximity and
amplitude of the exciting frequencies found within the
turbine operating speed range.
Compressors
6. Hot Corrosion or Sulfidication
It is an accelerated oxidation of alloys caused by deposition
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It is an accelerated oxidation of alloys caused by deposition
of Na2 So4
This applies to all superalloys utilized in combustion go
turbines. Hot corrosion may be, in some cases, attributed to
the presence of airborne trace alkali metals.
Adequate inlet air filtration in necessary to prevent
sulfidication in such cases.
Compressors
7. Rotor Imbalance
Partially successful cleaning may lead to unstable balance
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condition.
Non-uniform depositions of dust due to partial clearing
could lead to non-uniform cooling and temperature
gradients. This might in turn lead to thermal bowing and an
observable imbalance.
Compressors
AIR QUALITY REQUIREMENTS
AIR FILTERS
Inertial separator filter
High efficiency media filter
Automatic pulse-jet self cleaning filter
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Automatic pulse-jet self cleaning filter
Compressors
COMPRESSOR CLEANING
The source and type of contamination should
be identified, then the selection of suitable
cleaning method is straight forward
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If the source of contamination is not known,
the next step should be visual inspection
through the air inlet.
If the source is due to oil leakage, steps should
be taken to correct the leak before cleaning
the compressor.
Compressors
METHODS OF CLEANING
Liquid wash ( water/detergent)
Dry abrasive agent ( nut shells )
Combination
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Combination
On-line solvent cleaning
when condition do not permit engine shutdown
Compressors
COMPRESSOR SELECTION
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COMPRESSOR SELECTION
Compressors
Compressor Selection
Selection means that there is a choice.
Usually this is true, as between various types and
arrangements of equipment, there only one type may
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arrangements of equipment, there only one type may
be able to meet requirements. As an example :
1200 bar can only be achieved be
reciprocators.
80 m
3
/s, 3 bar the compressor must be a turbo
type and may be axial
Compressors
Application:
Compressor applications may be classified
into two groups as requirements may vary:
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1. Air power compressors
2. Process gas compressors
Compressors
Selection according to capacity:
Pressures less than 35 bar
The majority less than 8 bar
All types of compressors are applicable but it
is limited by capacity.
1.Air power compressors
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Reciprocating 5 m/s( may by up to 12 ) at8
bar
vane type 1.8 m/s
helical 10 m/s
Centrifugal (min) 2 m/s
Compressors
Power
Reciprocating is usually the best followed by
the centrifugal, vane & helical.
Reliability
Factors affecting selection
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Reliability
Heavy duty units are available in all types.
Capacity Control
Reciprocating type is more economical at part
load than other types.
Compressors
Oil free air
vane type should be ruled out
Helical-lobe and dynamic units require no oil.
Reciprocating can be obtained in a non
lubricated design
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lubricated design
Cost of air
Power cost is many times the first cost. Select
the best efficient unit (even though it may have a
higher first cost).
Compressors
Load factor
50 80 % is a good figure.
Proper use of load factor results in:
more uniform pressure even during peak
demand periods.
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demand periods.
A cooling off period (extremely desirable for
air-cooled units).
Less maintenance.
Ability to increase use of air without
immediately increasing plant size.
Compressors
Multistaging
Air cooled compressors for 6 bar pressure or
higher should have two or more stages unless very
small. Two-stage compression of air to 7 bar saves
10 to 15 % in power over single stage.
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10 to 15 % in power over single stage.
Heavy-duty water-cooled units are more
economical, run at lower speed & temperatures
and need less maintenance compared to air-
cooled units.
Compressors
2.Process gas compressors
Type Type Approx. Max. Power Approx. Max. Power
kW kW
Approx. Max. Press. Approx. Max. Press.
bar bar
Reciprocating over 9000 6900
Vane type (twin units) 640 30
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Vane type (twin units) 640 30
Helical 4500 17
Centrifugal over 26000 380
Axial over 75000 35
Compressors
Factors affecting selection
Gas characteristics and composition
This can have a decided influence on compressor
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This can have a decided influence on compressor
type.
Low inlet density affects centrifugal types more
than displacement types. Centrifugals will
require more stages.
Compressors
Process conditions
Flow rate
Variations of flow affect selection.
Centrifugal compressors
not economical below 70 % of rated capacity.
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not economical below 70 % of rated capacity.
Gas Temperature
Centrifugal types are used to recirculate gases at
temperatures as high as 450 c. Reciprocators using
present types of lubricants can not be used for
such applications.
Centrifugals less affected by temperature.
Compressors
Inlet & discharge pressures.
Reciprocating compressors
Reducing suction pressure
lowers over-all power, lowers the differential
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lowers over-all power, lowers the differential
pressure on all stages except the last, increases P
and - T of the last stage.
Increasing suction pressure.
power of the complete unit is raised p on all
stages increases except the last p , T of the last
stage is lowered.
Compressors
e.g.
6-stage reciprocating compressor is designed for
1 bar intake & 350 bar discharge .
If the suction pressure is raised to 1.35 bar,
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If the suction pressure is raised to 1.35 bar,
the increases in power could be to 25 %.
Compressors
Centrifugal compressors
Suction press. discharge press. , power
suction press. compressor will not give the
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desired discharge pressure
Compressors
Power Cost
Except at very low ratios of compression
centrifugal compressor is less efficient.
Very large volume, low ratios of compression, low
final pressure centrifugals are better.
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Higher pressure ratios and high discharge pressure.
Reciprocators are favored.
Availability
Dynamic units will often make the longer non-stop
runs.
But this will not be much less than for the
reciprocators.
Compressors
Maintenance Cost.
For the same pressure conditions and the same
properties of the gas, centrifugal types need less
maintenance.
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maintenance.
However for comparing centrifugal and
reciprocating types, factors other than availability
and maintenance should be considered.
Compressors
Information Required for Bidding
Air power comp. standard designs, regularly priced
Details is not necessary.
Any other service : complete information is necessary.
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Necessary information can be grouped as follows:
The The gas gas to to be be handled handled (each (each stream) stream)
- Analysis - MW or sp. gr. - compressibility k.
- Chemical properties Does composition vary ?
- Is gas corrosive and to what?
- Are there limits to discharge temperature?
Compressors
Information Required for Bidding
Quantity (each stream)
Q (dry , wet) at p , T.
Inlet conditions
Barometer p & t at comp flange - r. humidity
Discharge conditions
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Discharge conditions
p , T
Inter stage conditions
T difference (gas out water into cooler).
Inter stage removal or addition of gases and
quantities.
Compressors
Variable Conditions
Expected variation in intake condition.
(p, t, r. humid.)
Variations in discharge conditions.
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Flow Diagram
A schematic flow sheet showing controls involved
Regulation
What is to be controlled? Press. flow temp.
Is it manual or automatic?
Compressors
Cooling water
Temperatures (max. & min).
Pressure at inlet & back pressure.
Open or closed system.
Source of water; fresh salt brackish.
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Source of water; fresh salt brackish.
Heat Exchangers
Inter coolers and / or after coolers.
Machine mounted and piped or mounted
separately.
Construction codes desired.
Advise if special material is required.
Compressors
Drivers
Specify type
Elect. motor type, current, p.f., ambient temp.,
enclosure, temp rise
Steam conditions, p,t, exh
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Steam conditions, p,t, exh
Gas gas analysis, press. Heating value.
Compressors
General
Are petroleum lubricants acceptable
Indoors or outdoors installation
Floor space limitations or special shape
(provide sketch)
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(provide sketch)
Soil character
Accessories desired and advise spares
Are pulsation & dampers or intake or
discharge silencers to be supplied.

Compressors

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