Recently there has been a resurgence of two "ancient" technologies - vacuum tube (valve)

amplifiers and Class-A systems. The big question is .... is there a difference? This
discussion centres on the Class-A amplifier, and explains (or attempts to) how it is
different from a conventional power amplifier.

Why would someone want to build or buy an amplifier which is sooo inefficient? A
Class-A power amp will typically draw anything from 1/2 to about 1½ times the peak
speaker current in its quiescent state (i.e. while it is just sitting there doing nothing).

To put this into perspective, for a measly 8 Watts into 8 Ohms, the RMS current is 1
Amp. The peak current is just over 1.4 Amps, so a typical 8 Watt Class-A amp will draw
anything from 700mA to 2 Amps continuous. This equates to a quiescent (no signal)
power dissipation of between 17 Watts and 48 Watts, based on a 24 Volt supply (+/- 12
Volts ). At very best, such an amplifier will have an efficiency of less than 35% at full
power - at worst, this will be perhaps 15% or less.

The basic premise of a Class-A amp is that the output device(s) shall conduct all the time
(through 360 degrees of the signal waveform). This means that in the simplest form, the
power devices must conduct a continuous current which exceeds the maximum peak load
(loudspeaker) current. If we use a power level of 20 Watts (hardly a powerhouse) for all
further calculations, we can see the whole picture.

In contrast, a typical Class-AB power amplifier's output devices only conduct for about
182 degrees (at full power), which means that for much of the signal's duration, only one
or the other device is conducting. The other is turned off. The "crossover distortion" so
often referred to is nothing to do with the frequency divider in the speaker system, but is
created as the signal "crosses over" the 0 Volt point (see Figure 3).

Figure 1 - The Sinewave Cycle

Let's have a quick look at some of the power amp "classes", so we have all the info:

• Class-A Output device(s) conduct through 360 degrees of input cycle (never
switch off) - A single output device is possible. The device conducts for the entire
waveform in Figure 1
 • Class-B Output devices conduct for 180 degrees (1/2 of input cycle) - for audio,
two output devices in "push-pull" must be used (see Class-AB)

• Class-AB Halfway (or partway) between the above two examples (181 to 200
degrees typical) - also requires push-pull operation for audio. The conduction for
each output device is shown in Figure 1.

• Class-C Output device(s) conduct for less than 180 degrees (100 to 150 degrees
typical) - Radio Frequencies only - cannot be used for audio! This is the sound
heard when one of the output devices goes open circuit in an audio amp! See
Figure 1, showing the time the output device conducts (single-ended operation is
assumed, and yes this does work for RF).

When I first wrote this article, I had completely forgotten about the Quad "Current-Dumping"
amp, which uses a low power "good" amplifier, with a push-pull Class-C type amp to supply the
high currents needed for high power. Although these enjoyed a brief popularity, they seem to have
faded away. I was reminded of their existence by an article by Douglas Self ("Class Distinction",
in the March 1999 issue of Electronics World ), in which he quite rightly points out that the
current-dumper is (at least in part) Class-C.

• Class-D Quasi-digital amplification. Uses pulse-width-modulation of a high

frequency (square wave) carrier to reproduce the audio signal - although my
original comments were valid when this was written, there have been some very
significant advances since then. There are some very good sounding Class-D
amplifiers being made now, and they are worthy of an article of their own.

There are many amplifier topologies which I have not mentioned above, mainly because
most of them are either too bizarre, not worth commenting on, or are too complex to
explain simply. Of these, Class-G and Class-H use power supply switching and
modulation (respectively). This provides greater than normal efficiency and lower
dissipation, but both are essentially Class-AB designs.

Although many audio amps may be called Class-B, generally they are not. Virtually
without exception they are Class-AB, although most will be at the bottom end
(conduction for 181 degrees for each device). Most power amps operate in Class-A up to
about 5 to 10mW, after which they become Class-B.

In the device department - For the remainder of this paper, I shall use bipolar transistors
for the power devices, since they exhibit highly desirable characteristics for this
application. They are also far more linear than MOSFETs, and some of the newer bipolar
devices are outstanding in this regard. Note that there are two types of MOSFET in
common use - Lateral devices are designed for audio, and although less linear than
bipolar transistors can make a very good amp indeed (see Project 101). Power switching
MOSFETs are (IMHO) not suitable for use in audio except where very high power is
needed and extreme linearity is not required.

Power 20W (continuous)

Load Voltage (at 12.65 Volts RMS
Speaker) (17.9 Volts Peak)
Load Current 1.58 Amps RMS (2.23
(through Speaker) Amps Peak)
Supply Voltage +/- 20 Volts (constant)
Supply Current +/- 2.25 Amps (peak)
Table 1 - Class-A Amplifier Requirements (Approx.) - 8Ω Load

In amplifier design, we are interested in the peak voltage and current, since if these are
not met, then the required RMS values cannot be achieved. The ratio of RMS to peak (for
a sine wave) is the square root of 2 (1.414), so RMS values must be multiplied by this
constant to derive the peak values of voltage and current. (Refer to Figure 1 to see the
relationship between peak and RMS voltages.)

This is how the values in the table were determined. The supply voltage needs to be
slightly higher than the actual speaker peak voltage because the output devices
(transistors) are not perfect, and some voltage will be lost even when they are turned on
fully. (If MOSFETs were to be used, the losses may be much greater, unless an additional
power supply is employed.)

Ok. We have determined that the peak speaker current is 2.25 Amps, so in the simplest of
Class-A designs this will require a quiescent current of 2.25 Amps. Given that the voltage
is +/- 20 Volts, this means that the power output stage will have to dissipate 40 x 2.25 =
90 Watts (45 Watts per output device).

Figure 2 - Basic Class-A Amplifier

Figure 2 shows what a simple Class-A amp looks like. The current source is a simple
circuit, which will provide a current which remains constant regardless of the load placed
at its output. The output transistor "dumps" any current which is not needed by the load
(speaker), so when it is completely turned off, all the current source output flows through
the speaker. Conversely, when it is turned on, the speaker current flows through the
output transistor (as well as the current from the current source!), so its current will vary
from almost 0 Amps, to a maximum of 4.5 Amps for our example. When there is no input
signal, the output transistor's current must exactly equal the output of the current source.
If it does not, then the difference will flow through the speaker. It is allowable (generally
speaking) for an absolute maximum of 100 mV DC to be present across the speaker
terminals - this equates to 1.67 mW of DC for an 8 Ohm system, assuming a 6 Ohm DC
resistance for the voice coil. (Power = (V x V) / Impedance)

This simple model is not really appropriate for general use, since it wastes far too much
power, although many Class-A amps still use this principle. The next step is to operate
the current source at about 1/2 the speaker's peak current, and modulate its current output
to ensure that both current source and power amplifier output device conduct during the
entire signal cycle, but are able to vary their current in an appropriate manner. This
improves efficiency (which remains dreadful, but slightly less so), and lowers the
quiescent dissipation to more manageable levels.

The simple Class-A amplifier described by John L Linsley-Hood and the very similar
looking Death of Zen (DoZ) amp on these pages use this latter approach, and it is a
sensible variant of the various Class-A designs. As an example, the amplifier will only (?)
need to dissipate about 50 Watts when idle, since the quiescent current is reduced to
around 1.2 Amps.

Another version of the Class-A amp looks exactly the same as a standard Class-AB
(Class-B) power amp, except the quiescent current is increased to just over 1/2 of the
peak speaker current. This is thought by some (including me up until I was shown the
error of my ways) that this is not a "real" Class-A amplifier. It is real Class-A, and is best
described as push-pull (as opposed to single ended) operation. If the bias current is not
high enough for the actual reactive speaker load (not some quoted nominal resistive
load), it is still possible that one transistor or the other will switch off at some part of the
signal cycle. This will happen at a much higher power level than is normally the case, but
if this happens, then the amplifier ceases to be true Class-A.

As an extension of the above, it is possible to design an amp that looks remarkably like a
conventional Class-AB amp, but with additional circuitry is biased in such a way that the
output transistors do not turn off - ever. This technique can also be used with Class-AB,
and supposedly reduces crossover distortion. I have not used this method, since in my
experience the crossover distortion in a well designed output stage should be sufficiently
low that the additional complexity is not warranted.

The last three "variants" cause the current to be modulated in each supply rail, so there is
not the steady state current one expects from a Class-A amp, but a waveform that varies
with the signal. When properly designed and biased, the output devices conduct at all
times, but the power supply has to contend with a varying load. I have not investigated
this fully, but it makes the design of the supply a little more difficult (or simpler in some
ways) because of the varying load current. Tests I have performed with the DoZ amp do
not show any audible effect on the sound quality - provided the supply is designed to
handle the variations without any problems.

Actually, the idea that a Class-A amp draws a continuous steady current from the supply
is true in one case only. A single ended amp using a current source as the collector load
will draw a continuous steady current - but only if it uses a single supply. In the case of a
dual supply, the same amp will draw a continuous current from one supply, and a varying
current from the other. (My thanks to Geoff Moss for pointing this out - a detail that few
published designs have ever mentioned !)

An amp that uses a fixed current source of (say) 2.5A from the positive supply will draw
2.5A regardless of load or signal level, but only from the positive supply. The negative
supply current will vary from 2.5A at no signal, but will be almost zero at maximum
positive swing, when the lower transistor is turned off, and the current flows from the
current source to the load. At maximum negative signal swing, the negative supply
current will be close to double the quiescent current, since the lower transistor now
carries the current from both the load and the current source.

This "small" detail seems to have received scant reference in any of the articles I have
read, but it will make a very big difference to the power supply. In this respect, I do not
feel that the single ended version should be operated from a dual supply. If it is so
important to you to eliminate the coupling capacitor, then I suggest that either a push-pull
Class-A design be used, or build separate power supplies for each polarity.

There is some evidence (I refer again to Doug Self) to indicate that the distortion of a
"true" Class-AB amp will often be worse than that of a Class-B design, since the
switching transients are larger due to the output devices' higher gain at moderate (0.5A to
1.5A) currents. I have not been able to verify this, and the tests I have done indicate that
there are definite benefits in the higher quiescent currents, provided the current is chosen
reasonably carefully.

One of the biggest problems with Class-A amps is that the simple power supply used
with conventional Class-AB amps is usually no good to us. The reason is that the AC
ripple on the DC power rails is injected into the amp, and emerges as hum (at 120 or
100Hz, depending on location - US or elsewhere, respectively). The magnitude of this
ripple is far greater than with a Class-AB amp, because a considerable amount of current
is being drawn at all times, rather than during signal peaks (etc). A power supply which
provides a no-load ripple of perhaps 50 mV for a Class-AB amp may have 1 Volt (or
more) of ripple at a current of 1.2 Amps. This will be audible at low signal levels.

Adding capacitance helps, but by the time the ripple is reduced to a reasonable level, you
have sold the car to pay for the capacitors, and no longer have a vehicle to carry them
home in. You will need a ridiculous amount of capacitance to obtain reasonable hum
levels (> 70dB signal to noise ratio) unless a regulated supply is used. The fact is that
many Class-A power amps do not have particularly good power supply rejection (Ok, it
is not generally too bad, but cannot compete with the likes of an operational amplifier),
and a regulated power supply is recommended for all such amps. In case you were
wondering, that does indeed mean that you need more transistors, more heatsinks, and it
will cost more money. Such is the price we pay for perfection.

There is an alternative (which I have not tried for this application, but have carried out
numerous spice simulations) called a capacitance multiplier, which is simpler and
cheaper than a regulated supply, but should be capable of reducing the ripple to very low
levels. I have had a few e-mails from readers who have built the capacitance multiplier
project (see the Projects page), and the results have been very positive, so this makes the
Class-A idea far more attractive from a cost and heat perspective. (Capacitance
multipliers are not required to regulate, so operate with a much lower input to output
differential voltage - therefore, less heat!) Indeed, the design by John Linsley-Hood
referenced on these pages uses a capacitance multiplier, although its performance can be
improved dramatically.

John L Linsley-Hood's Class-A amplifier design

Simple Capacitance Multiplier Power Supply

Decisions, Decisions

The question now is - is this really what I want to do? The answer might be a resounding
yes (after all, there is no good reason that a Class-AB amp cannot be just as good) - but to
be sensible, we should apply the Class-A amp for the tweeters in the system, and use
conventional Class-AB amps for the low and mid frequencies. To obtain adequate sound
pressure levels, most modern speakers need lots of power, since they are not very
efficient (i.e. electrical power in versus acoustical power out).

Rather than extend this page to a short text book on the subject, I shall leave you with a
simplified model, which I produced for a reader who had a speaker system which was
even less efficient than is common. The table shows the power needed to achieve various
peak SPLs (at one metre) for a speaker with an efficiency of 85dB/m/W.

Based on the sensitivity of these speakers, the following shows roughly what you can
expect, based on a single amplifier for clarity (i.e. not bi-amped or tri-amped):

Amp Power, Watts,

dB SPL at 1 metre
one channel
85 1
88 2
91 4
 94 8
97 16
100 32
103 64
106 128
109 256
112 512
Table 2 - Power Vs. SPL

This is not good news for the most part, as it clearly shows that vast amounts of power
are needed to achieve a realistic SPL in a typical listening environment. Remember that
the figures shown are at a distance of only one metre - the SPL will fall by a further 6dB
each time the distance is doubled. (Mind you this is a theoretical figure, which is
generally not met in practice - perhaps 5dB would be closer to the truth?)

Realistic SPL in this context is worthy of a page (book?) in itself, but remember that for
an average SPL of (say) 85dB, transients will require between 10 and 20dB of headroom.
This means that the peak power needed will be between 10 and 100 times the power
needed to reproduce the average of 85 dB. At a distance of 2 metres, something around 3
Watts will be needed for this example. To reproduce the transients, the actual power
needed must be between 30 and 300 Watts!

In case you were wondering, 85dB SPL is not loud (although "s/he who must be obeyed"
will almost certainly disagree). In fact, it is only marginally louder (by about 5dB) than
the recognised optimum level for normal speech.

Class-A Benefits

Since Class-A amps are inefficient, generate lots of heat, and require a far more complex
power supply than conventional Class-AB amplifiers, there have to be some compelling
reasons to use this arrangement. The first is circuit simplicity. In the light of the above
discussion, the circuit is not simple, but for the audio signal it can be far less complex
than for a conventional power amp.

The benefit of this is that the signal is subjected to comparatively little amplification,
resulting in an open loop (i.e. without feedback) gain which is generally fairly low -
probably less than 250 (48dB), and possibly as low as 50 or so (34dB). This means that
very little overall feedback is used, so stability and phase should be excellent over the
audio frequencies. A well designed Class-A amplifier should not require any frequency
compensation (or very little), so the open loop gain will remain reasonably constant over
the audio range. This results in superior transient response, and dramatically reduced
"Transient Intermodulation Distortion" (or TID, aka Dynamic Intermodulation
Distortion), which is thought by many designers to be caused by phase and time delays
between the input and feedback signals. It may be possible that this is the cause, although
the existence of TID is virtually zero in any competently designed amp.

The simple fact is that the more amplifying devices that are introduced into the chain, the
more phase shift must be introduced. No amplifying device is capable of responding
instantaneously to a change of input - all have some inherent delay (which usually
includes different turn-on and turn-off times). With fewer devices in the audio circuit,
there must be less delay between a change in the input causing a change in the output.
The simplified topology used for most Class-A amps can also be used with Class-AB -
often with very good results indeed.

Figure 3 - Crossover Distortion

Figure 3 shows the crossover distortion of a Class-B type amplifier. This is exaggerated
for clarity, and the "soft" crossover distortion shown is actually more typical of a push-
pull valve (vacuum tube) or lateral MOSFET amplifier (without proper bias adjustment).
As can be seen, when the signal is reduced, the ratio of distortion to signal will become
much worse, resulting in an increase in distortion as power is reduced. Indeed, this is
exactly what happens in many amplifiers, but it generally is "swamped" by so much
feedback that it seems to disappear. It can be seen from the diagram that for this
crossover distortion to appear, the amplifier's gain must fall as the signal level approaches
0 Volts.

The point that distortion "seems to disappear" is the operative term here - it does not go
away at all, and worse, as the crossover point is reached, the open loop gain of the
amplifier is reduced, meaning that there is not as much feedback as at higher signal
levels. This will be apparent to readers with an electronics background - note that near the
crossover point, the amplitude of the signal is much lower than it should be (this is what
causes the problem in the first place!). Since the amplitude is reduced, it is obvious that
the amplifier's gain must be lower at this level than at higher levels.

Therefore, if the open loop gain is lower, then the available feedback must also be lower.
This is an area that has received some study, and this is illustrated by the very 'flat' gain
vs. collector current curves of many of the more desirable audio output transistors. It is
certainly a cause for some concern, and indicates that the open loop behaviour of a power
amp should minimise crossover distortion before any feedback is added. Simply
increasing the quiescent current is not always a complete answer, because this problem is
created by the inherent non-linearity of the output devices as they commence (or cease)
conduction. Increasing quiescent current will move the "kink" further away from the 0
Volt point, but it will still be there - and may actually be worse than at lower quiescent
currents. A major advantage is that the distortion components will be (potentially)
somewhat less audible, and will affect the signal while it is comparatively loud - this will
reduce its audibility further.

I bagged MOSFETs earlier in this article because they are actually more
non-linear in this region than transistors. Since this is the most critical
part of the signal, it is important that it is treated with the utmost respect.

This does not mean that MOSFETs are not capable of exemplary
performance. A carefully designed MOSFET amp will sound every bit
as good as a bipolar amp, whether it is operated in Class-A or Class-AB.

In the light of this, it is a wonder that any Class-AB (conventional) power amplifiers
sound any good at all. Historically, it is exactly the problems I have highlighted here
which created the term "transistor sound" (used in a derogatory sense of course) when
transistor or "solid state" amplifiers first appeared. Despite anything you may read, these
problems are caused by the physical and electrical characteristics of transistors, and have
never gone away. New devices are far more linear than those of the 60s and 70s, but they
are not perfect. Operation at higher quiescent currents (i.e. more into the Class-AB
region) will reduce the non-linearity at crossover, but it can never be eliminated
altogether - at least not with any devices currently available.

It is fair to say that although the problem cannot be eliminated, the effects can be reduced
to such an extent that many amplifiers have almost unmeasurably small levels of
crossover distortion. It is not at all uncommon that to be able to see the distortion residual
(after the fundamental has been removed with a distortion analyser), it is necessary to use
a digital oscilloscope that can apply averaging. The distortion is buried below the
amplifier noise floor, and is not visible without the averaging feature. In tests I have
performed, listening to the residual noise + distortion reveals that the distortion
component (in isolation) is barely audible over the system noise - itself normally below
audibility with typical loudspeakers.

So, it is entirely possible to design an amplifier whose distortion at any level below
clipping is virtually unmeasurable. Marginally higher levels are commonplace, and it is
thought by many that the typical distortion level in most well designed power amplifiers
is inaudible under most listening conditions. There are (of course) others who deny this -
either because they have done proper comparisons under controlled conditions, because
they have hearing that is far more acute than most of us, or because they have been told
that they must be able to hear the difference - if they can't, they must have 'tin ears'.
Nothing like a bit of peer group pressure to influence one's perceptions.

Where does this leave Class-A? There is an emotional connection with the idea of a
Class-A amp, and it has to be considered that sometimes there is simply a 'feel good'
aspect to this - technicalities don't even enter into it. Despite my own ambivalence, I was
still a bit disappointed in my decision not to use P36 for my own tweeters - and this in
spite of the fact that I could hear no difference between the P36 and the high quality
power opamp which I am using for my tweeters.
Because the transistors in a Class-A amplifier are never switched off, there is obviously
no crossover distortion (after all, there is no crossover - where one transistor turns off,
and the other supplies the load current). There is distortion though - it is caused by all the
normal non-linearities in any active device, and in particular the wide current variation in
the output device (in combination with elevated temperature). It is worth noting that
crossover distortion is exactly the same as clipping distortion, but with a different phase
with respect to the signal. Consequently, it contributes odd harmonics (as does clipping) -
3rd, 5th, 7th, etc.

If properly designed, a Class-A amplifier should be capable of a maximum open-loop

distortion of perhaps 5% at full power, reducing as the input signal (and hence output
power) is lowered. This distortion is believed to be predominantly 2nd harmonic, which
(in moderation) is far less intrusive than the odd-order distortion created by conventional
push-pull Class-AB amplifiers, however this may not be the case. In contrast, most
common Class-AB amps will have an open loop distortion of perhaps 10% to 15% at full
power, although some will be much lower.

Such amps typically rely on global feedback to reduce this distortion, and usually have
very high open loop gains. Another problem is that the open-loop gain is not constant
with frequency, so the amount of feedback applied is reduced at the higher frequencies -
not at all what is really needed. However, it does not mean that all such amplifiers are
unlistenable - despite claims to the contrary.

For additional comment on Class-A, the "Death of Zen" (DoZ) article may be an
interesting read.

Class-A Myth #1
A Class-A amp maintains the same current through the transistors,
therefore ensuring that they remain in their most linear region at all
times.

This is not the case at all - the current varies widely in the output device
in the case of a current source amplifier, and it varies widely in both
output transistors for other types of Class-A amp. While it is possible to
make the current reasonably constant, it is neither practical nor sensible
to do so.
Class Comparison

As often happens when writing, I suddenly decided that I just had to run a simulation on a
pair of output stages. One is Class-AB (essentially the same as that used in Project 3A)
and a Class-A emitter follower circuit. Both were operated with zero feedback, and the
Class-AB stage was run at a quiescent current of 14mA vs. 2A for the Class-A circuit.

Rather than make this article longer than necessary, if you want to see the details see
Class-A Part 2
Conclusion

Class-A is the most desirable of the amplifier configurations from a purist point of view,
but is not suited to high power systems unless outrageous power dissipation is acceptable
(like between 825 to 1500 Watts of pure heat, to get 300 Watts of audio). However, if
used for the high frequency amplifier in a tri-amplified system, it is possible to obtain the
SPL you desire in your listening room, but without having to install a dedicated air-
conditioning system to remove the heat generated.

When used for the frequency range of 3000Hz and above, comparatively little power will
be needed, and the sonic benefits should be readily apparent - crystal clean highs, without
any harsh distortion components. The distortion generated may be (but is not necessarily)
predominantly 2nd harmonic, and will be greatest at high power levels where it is least
likely to be audible. Bear in mind though, that a great many Class-AB amplifiers will be
capable of performance that is just as good, and in a lot of cases, far better.

Class-A Myth #2
Class-A amps give predominantly 2nd order distortion.

They might, or they might not, depending entirely on the topology. A

great many Class-A amps will produce distortion components that are
almost identical to those produced by a Class-AB amp. This excludes
clipping distortion, which should be avoided in any class of amplifier
used for high quality audio.
An Alternative?

Where it is not feasible (economically or otherwise) to use a Class-A amp in the tweeter
frequency range, a modified Class-AB amp could be used. The modification needed is to
increase the quiescent current (to perhaps 1 Amp or so) so that the amplifier operates as
Class-A for any signal below about 8 Watts - assuming a well behaved 8 ohm load such
as a tweeter. Such a modification to an existing amp is quite simple for an experienced
electronics engineer or service person, but will almost certainly require that the heatsinks
be upgraded to prevent the destruction of the output devices. It is also probable that
additional capacitors will be needed for the power supply - and possibly a regulator or
capacitance multiplier circuit, too. Without these, the hum level may become intrusive,
which rather negates the whole purpose of the exercise. Some basic experimentation is
required for anyone thinking along these lines.

Bear in mind that you can say a fond farewell to any warranty which may exist on your
amp - few manufacturers will accept that ripping their product to pieces and rebuilding it
as something "new" is a perfectly reasonable thing to do.

Despite the cost of modifying an amp in this way, it is bound to be cheaper than buying
or building a Class-A amp from scratch - even more so if you have a perfectly good (but
underpowered) amp just lying about waiting to be put to use. For not a lot of work and
relatively few dollars, a potentially fine amplifier can be yours.
Warning
Please be aware that the above section is more in the line of "musings" than established
fact with full testing. The theory is (more or less) sound, but one cannot predict the exact
behaviour of any amp once modified, and I suggest that if any such mods are to be
attempted, they should be done with "before and after" measurements to allow proper
comparison. Operation at a higher than normal quiescent current may actually degrade
performance with some amplifiers.