Voltage and Current Sources

Real voltage sources can be represented as ideal voltage sources in series with a resistance r, the ideal voltage source having zero resistance. Real
current sources can be represented as ideal current sources in parallel with a resistance r, the ideal current source having infinite resistance.


Such ideal voltage and current sources are used in modeling real circuits withThevenin's theorem and Norton's theorem.

Electromotive Force (EMF)
When a voltage is generated by a battery, or by the magnetic force according toFaraday's Law, this generated voltage has been traditionally called an
"electromotive force" or emf. The emf represents energy per unit charge (voltage) which has been made available by the generating mechanism and
is not a "force". The term emf is retained for historical reasons. It is useful to distinguish voltages which are generated from the voltage changes
which occur in a circuit as a result of energy dissipation, e.g., in a resistor.

Resistance

The electrical resistance of a circuit component or device is defined as the ratio of the voltage applied to the electric
currentwhichflows through it:


If the resistance is constant over a considerable range of voltage, then Ohm's law, I = V/R, can be used to predict the behavior of
the material. Although the definition above involves DC current and voltage, the same definition holds for the AC application of
resistors.
Whether or not a material obeys Ohm's law, its resistance can be described in terms of its bulk resistivity. The resistivity, and thus the resistance, is
temperature dependent. Over sizable ranges of temperature, this temperature dependence can be predicted from a temperature coefficient of
resistance.
Resistivity and Conductivity
The electrical resistance of a wire would be expected to be greater for a longer wire, less for a wire of larger cross sectional area, and would be
expected to depend upon the material out of which the wire is made. Experimentally, the dependence upon these properties is a straightforward one
for a wide range of conditions, and the resistance of a wire can be expressed as



The factor in the resistance which takes into account the nature of the material is the resistivity . Although it is temperature dependent, it can be used
at a given temperature to calculate the resistance of a wire of given geometry.
The inverse of resistivity is called conductivity. There are contexts where the use of conductivity is more convenient.
Electrical conductivity = = 1/

Ohm's Law
For many conductors of electricity, the electric current which will flow through them is directly
proportional to the voltage applied to them. When a microscopic view of Ohm's law is taken, it is found to
depend upon the fact that the drift velocity of charges through the material is proportional to the electric
field in the conductor. The ratio of voltage to current is called the resistance, and if the ratio is constant
over a wide range of voltages, the material is said to be an "ohmic" material. If the material can be
characterized by such a resistance, then the current can be predicted from the relationship:


Data can be entered into any of the boxes below. Specifying any two of the quantities determines the
third. After you have entered values for two, click on the text representing to third in the active illustration
above to calculate its value.







Current Law
The electric current in amperes that flows into any junction in an electric circuit is equal to the current which flows
out. This can be seen to be just a statement of conservation of charge. Since you do not lose any charge during the
flow process around the circuit, the total current in any cross-section of the circuit is the same. Along with the voltage
law, this law is a powerful tool for the analysis of electric circuits.

The current law is one of the main tools for the analysis of electric circuits, along withOhm's Law, the voltage law and
the power relationship. Applying the current law to the above circuits along with Ohm's law and the rules
for combining resistors gives the numbers shown below. The determining of the voltages and currents associated with
a particular circuit along with the power allows you to completely describe the electrical state of a direct current
circuit.


RC time constant
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The RC time constant, also called tau, is the time constant (in seconds) of an RC circuit, is equal to the product of the circuit resistance(in ohms) and
the circuit capacitance (in farads), i.e.

It is the time required to charge the capacitor, through the resistor, by 63.2 percent of the difference between the initial value and final value
or discharge the capacitor to 36.8 percent. This value is derived from the mathematical constant e, specifically , more specifically
as voltage to charge the capacitor versus time
Charging
[1]

Discharging
Voltage Divider
The two resistor voltage divider is used often to supply a voltage different from that of an available battery or power supply. In application the output
voltage depends upon the resistance of the load it drives.



where

is the parallel resistance of R
2
and the load resistor R
L
.
For
R
1
= , R
2
= , and V
1
=
V,
the open circuit output voltage would be V
out
= V
If the voltage divider is suppying a load
R
L
= ,
then the output circuit voltage is
V
out
= V
For this circuit, the total power supplied by the power supply is
P
total
= watts
and the power delivered to the load resistor R
L
is
P
out
= watts.
The load then receives % of the total power.
The voltage divider is a very important basic circuit, and exploring the calculation above with various values can give you insight into a large number
of practical circuit applications. One practical consideration is that a larger value of R
2
compared to R
1
will give you a larger output voltage. But if
your load resistance R
L
is smaller than R
2
, you will diminish the output voltage and require a larger current and total power from the power supply.
You would find upon exploration that for a given set of values for the voltage divider (R
1
and R
2
), you will get more power to the load if you
decrease the load resistor R
L
but is comes at the expense of higher current and power from the power supply.
Note: To avoid dealing with so many short circuits, divider resistors with value zero will default to 1 when the voltage is changed and the load will
default to 1000. They can be changed back to a zero value if you wish to explore the effects of short circuits. Ohms are indicated as the resistance
unit, but kilohms are more common and of course the calculation is the same.
In electronics, impedance matching is the practice of designing the input impedance of an electrical load or the output impedance of its
corresponding signal source to maximize the power transfer or minimize signal reflection from the load.
In the case of a complex source impedance Z
S
and load impedance Z
L
, maximum power transfer is obtained when

where the asterisk indicates the complex conjugate of the variable. Minimum reflection is obtained when

The concept of impedance matching found first applications in electrical engineering, but is relevant in other applications in which a form
of energy, not necessarily electrical, is transferred between a source and a load. An alternative to impedance matching is impedance
bridging, in which the load impedance is chosen to be much larger than the source impedance and maximizing voltage transfer, rather than
power, is the goal.
Ohm's Law
For many conductors of electricity, the electric current which will flow through them is directly
proportional to the voltage applied to them. When a microscopic view of Ohm's law is taken, it is found to
depend upon the fact that the drift velocity of charges through the material is proportional to the electric
field in the conductor. The ratio of voltage to current is called the resistance, and if the ratio is constant
over a wide range of voltages, the material is said to be an "ohmic" material. If the material can be
characterized by such a resistance, then the current can be predicted from the relationship:


Data can be entered into any of the boxes below. Specifying any two of the quantities determines the
third. After you have entered values for two, click on the text representing to third in the active illustration
above to calculate its value.

Amperes = volts / ohms
AC version of Ohm's law

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Voltage Law
The voltage changes around any closed loop must sum to zero. No matter what path you take through
an electric circuit, if you return to your starting point you must measure the same voltage, constraining
the net change around the loop to be zero. Since voltage is electric potential energy per unit charge, the
voltage law can be seen to be a consequence of conservation of energy.
The voltage law has great practical utility in the analysis of electric circuits. It is used in conjunction with
the current law in many circuit analysis tasks.

The voltage law is one of the main tools for the analysis of electric circuits, along withOhm's Law,
the current law and the power relationship. Applying the voltage law to the above circuits along with
Ohm's law and the rules for combining resistors gives the numbers shown below. The determining of the
voltages and currents associated with a particular circuit along with the power allows you to completely
describe the electrical state of a direct current circuit.


Current law Resistor combinations
Analogy in water circuit

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Current Law
The electric current in amperes that flows into any junction in an electric circuit is equal to the current which flows
out. This can be seen to be just a statement of conservation of charge. Since you do not lose any charge during the
flow process around the circuit, the total current in any cross-section of the circuit is the same. Along with the voltage
law, this law is a powerful tool for the analysis of electric circuits.

The current law is one of the main tools for the analysis of electric circuits, along withOhm's Law, the voltage law and
the power relationship. Applying the current law to the above circuits along with Ohm's law and the rules
for combining resistors gives the numbers shown below. The determining of the voltages and currents associated with
a particular circuit along with the power allows you to completely describe the electrical state of a direct current
circuit.

Voltage law Resistor combinations
Analogy in water circuit

Equation or formula for the calculation of two resistances R
1
and R
2
connected in parallel:


Calculation of the necessary parallel resistor R
2
, when R
1
and the total resistance R
total
is given:

The first step is toclear all fractions by multiplying by the lowest
common denominator, that is R
t
R
1
R
2
... so we get:
1/R
t
= 1/R
1
+ 1/R
2

R
t
R
1
R
2
[1/R
t
= 1/R
1
+ 1/R
2
]
R
1
R
2
= R
t
R
2
+ R
t
R
1
then collect terms with R
1
and solve
R
1
R
2
R
t
R
1
= R
t
R
2

R
1
(R
2
R
t
) = R
2
R
t

and finally:
R
1
= R
2
R
t
/ (R
2
R
t
)
Notice: This calculator can also solve other math problems. Calculating resistors in parallel is
precisely the same as the calculations required for inductors in parallel or for capacitors in series.
Two resistors in parallel and the resulting total resistance: Two of the same value, also show the equation that the
results are always half. That makes it easier when designing circuits or prototyping. With caps it's always double,
then again caps just simply add up in parallel.

RESISTORS IN SERIES
Resistors can be connected in series; that is, the current flows through them one after another. The
circuit in Figure 1 shows three resistors connected in series, and the direction of current is indicated by
the arrow.

Figure 1 Resistors connected in series.
Note that since there is only one path for the current to travel, the current through each of the resistors is the same.
[1]
Also, the voltage drops across the resistors must add up to the total voltage supplied by the battery:
[2]
Since V = I R, then
[3]
But Ohm's Law must also be satisfied for the complete circuit:
[4]
Setting equations [3] and [4] equal, we get:
[5]
We know what the current through each resistor (from equation [1]) is just I.
[6]
So the currents cancel on both sides, and we arrive at an expression for equivalent resistance for resistors connected in series.
[7]
In general, the equivalent resistance of resistors connected in series is the sum of their resistances. That is,
[8]
This can also be written in terms of conductances, since conductance is just the reciprocal of resistance:
[9]
Here is an interesting interactive exercise to help you with this concept and the use of Ohm's Law
Use the "BACK" button to return to this place when you are finished.
Kirchoff's First Law
Kirchoff got himself a huge name in physics by simply applying two principles of physics to electrical circuits. This is the first:
At any junction in a circuit, the sum of the currents arriving at the junction = the sum of the currents leaving the junction.
In other words - charge is conserved. If this doesn't happen you'd either get a massive build-up of electrons at a junction in a circuit or you would be
creating charge from nowhere! That's not going to happen.
Current in = Current out
I
1
= I
2
+ I
3
+ I
4

Kirchoff's Second Law
Here is the second principle:
In any loop (path) around a circuit, the sum of the emfs = the sum of the pds.
In other words - energy is conserved. The total amount of energy put in (sum of the emfs) is the same as the total amount of energy taken out (sum
of the pds).
Note: pd = V = IR so
Energy in = Energy out
emf = pd
1
+ pd
2
+ pd
3
+ pd
4

The reason Kirchoff's Laws strike fear into A-level students is because you have to be careful about how you apply them. Once you've got the hang
of them, they aren't that hard. Stick to these rules and you'll be OK.
Node Voltage & Mesh Current
Quick Review

Node Voltage Analysis
How do you do it?
1. Select a reference node. Label it "REF". If there is a ground node in the circuit you may choose that as the reference, but it is not required.
It is often advantageous to select the node with the most wires coming into it.

A "node" is any point where three or more circuit branches come together. Points where only two circuit branches come together may also
be labeled (as auxilary nodes), but this is not required. It is often helpful in certain "difficult" circuits. Be careful! Just because there is a
"dot" showing wires coming together doesn't mean it is a distinct node. Two "dots" connected by a short (a wire) are the same node!
2. Label the other nodes in the circuit (V1, V2, etc.).
3. Write KCL equations for each node (in terms of the node voltages). Each term in the equation should be a current, but the term is written
using ohm's law (I=V/R) so that they contain the node voltages you labeled in step 2.
o If you write all the currents entering a node, then the node you are focusing on will show up negative in that equation and all
other node voltages will show up positive.
o If you write all the currents leaving a node, then the node you are focusing on will show up positive in that equation and all other
node voltages will show up negative.
o The sum of all currents leaving equals zero (don't forget to write the =0).
4. Solve the N equations in N unknowns. This will give you all the node voltage values. If you are asked to find a current, just use Ohm's law
to find the current in one more step.
What are some difficulties I might run into?
A voltage source in a node-voltage analysis can be a headache. If there is a voltage source connecting two nodes (with no resistance), then you must
add an extra variable (call it Ix, the current through the source). Then you will need an extra equation as well. The extra equation is simply that the
difference between the two node voltages is the value of the source.
A dependent source can be a headache. Simply write the currents as you normally would for an independent source (but writing down the
dependency for the value). Then write an extra equation to describe the dependency in terms of the node voltages.
A capacitor or inductor can be a headache when writing the time-dependent node voltage equations. If the element is in series with another element
in a branch, this is a good time to use an auxilary node.

Mesh Current Analysis
How do you do it?
1. Label each mesh (window pane) of the circuit with a mesh current, going in the clockwise direction.
2. Write KVL equations for each mesh. Each term is a voltage, but you will write the terms using Ohm's law to put them in terms of the mesh
currents (V=IR).
3. Solve the N equations in N unknowns. This will give you all the mesh current values. If you are asked to find a voltage just use Ohm's law
to find the voltage in one more step.
What are some difficulties I might run into?
A current source in a mesh-current analysis can be a headache. If there is a current source between two meshes, then you must add an extra variable
(call it Vx, the voltage across the source). Then you will need an extra equation as well. The extra equation is simply that the difference between the
two mesh currents is the value of the source.
A dependent source can be a headache. Simply write the voltages as you normally would for an independent source (but writing down the
dependency for the value). Then write an extra equation to describe the dependency in terms of the mesh currents.
Norton's Theorem
Any collection of batteries and resistances with two terminals is electrically equivalent to an ideal current
source i in parallel with a single resistor r. The value of r is the same as that in the Thevenin
equivalent and the current i can be found by dividing the open circuit voltage by r.


Norton current Norton resistance Numerical example Thevenin equivalent

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Norton Current
The value i for the current used in Norton's Theorem is found by determining the open circuit voltage at the terminals
AB and dividing it by the Norton resistance r.


Thevenin's Theorem
Any combination of batteries and resistances with two terminals can be replaced by a single voltage
source e and a single series resistor r. The value of e is the open circuit voltage at the terminals, and the
value of r is e divided by the current with the terminals short circuited.


Thevenin voltage Thevenin resistance Numerical example Norton equivalent
to AC Version Application in Digital to Analog Converter

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Thevenin Voltage
The Thevenin voltage e used in Thevenin's Theorem is an ideal voltage source equal to the open circuit
voltage at the terminals. In the example below, the resistance R
2
does not affect this voltage and the
resistances R
1
and R
3
form a voltage divider, giving


Thevenin resistance Numerical example Norton equivalent

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Thevenin/Norton Resistance
The Thevenin resistance r used in Thevenin's Theorem is the resistance measured at terminals AB with all voltage
sources replaced by short circuits and all current sources replaced by open circuits. It can also be calculated by
dividing the open circuit voltage by the short circuit current at AB, but the previous method is usually preferable and
gives

The same resistance is used in the Norton equivalent.










Bridge circuits are widely used for the measurement of resistance, capacitance, and inductance. The resistive bridge, also known as Wheatstone
bridge, is discussed in this section.

Basic Wheatstone Bridge Circuit


A basic Wheatstone bridge circuit contains four resistances, a constant voltage input, and a voltage gage, as illustrated below.
For a given voltage input V
in
, the currents flowing through ABC and ADC depend on the resistances, i.e.,

The voltage drops from A to B and from A to D are given by,

The voltage gage reading V
g
can then be obtained from,

Now suppose that all resistances can change during the measurement. The corresponding change in voltage reading will be,


Balanced Wheatstone Bridge Circuit


If the bridge is initially balanced, the initial voltage reading V
g
should be zero. This yields the following relationship between the four resistances,

We can use this result to simplify the previous equation that includes the changes in the resistances. Doing so results in the solution for the change
in V
g
,

where h is defined by,

Moreover, when the resistance changes are small (< 5%), the second order term h is approximately zero and can be ignored. We then have,

which is the basic equation governing the Wheatstone bridge voltage in strain measurement. The coefficient is called the circuit
efficiency.

Equal-Resistance Wheatstone Bridge Circuit


In practice, one often uses the same resistance value for all four resistors, R
1
= R
2
= R
3
= R
4
= R. Noting that r = 1 in this case, the change in voltage
can be further simplified to,

By thoughtfully selecting the target and reference resistances, the Wheatstone bridge circuit can amplify small changes in resistance and/or
compensate for changes in temperature.

Table 1. SI base units


SI base unit

Base quantity Name Symbol
length meter m
mass kilogram kg
time second s
electric current ampere A
thermodynamic temperature kelvin K
amount of substance mole mol
luminous intensity candela cd

Table 2. Examples of SI derived units


SI derived unit

Derived quantity Name Symbol
area square meter m
2

volume cubic meter m
3

speed, velocity meter per second m/s
acceleration meter per second squared m/s
2

wave number reciprocal meter m
-1

mass density kilogram per cubic meter kg/m
3

specific volume cubic meter per kilogram m
3
/kg
current density ampere per square meter A/m
2

magnetic field strength ampere per meter A/m
amount-of-substance concentration mole per cubic meter mol/m
3

luminance candela per square meter cd/m
2

mass fraction
kilogram per kilogram, which may be represented
by the number 1
kg/kg = 1

Capacitors

Capacitance is typified by a parallel
plate arrangement and is defined in
terms of charge storage:

where
Q = magnitude
ofcharge stored on each
plate.
V = voltage applied to the
plates.
Air tank analogy Capacitor combinations Condenser microphone

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Inductance
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Capacitor Combinations
Capacitors in parallel add ...

If
=
,
=

then

=


Capacitors in series combine as reciprocals ...



=


Air tank analogy Charge on series capacitors

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Charge on Series Capacitors

Since charge cannot be added or taken away from the conductor between series
capacitors, the net charge there remains zero. As can be seen from the diagram, that
constrains the charge on the two capacitors to be the same in a DC situation. This charge
Q is the charge you get by calculating the equivalent capacitance of the series
combination and multiplying it by the applied voltage V.
You store less charge on series capacitors than you would on either one of them alone
with the same voltage!
Does it ever make sense to put capacitors in series? You get less capacitance and less charge storage than with either
alone. It is sometimes done in electronics practice because capacitors have maximum working voltages, and with two
"600 volt maximum" capacitors in series, you can increase the working voltage to 1200 volts

Ideal Diodes
The key function of an ideal diode is to control the direction of current-flow. Current passing through a diode can only go in one direction, called the
forward direction. Current trying to flow the reverse direction is blocked. Theyre like the one-way valve of electronics.
If the voltage across a diode is negative, no current can flow*, and the ideal diode looks like an open circuit. In such a situation, the diode is said to
be off or reverse biased.
As long as the voltage across the diode isnt negative, itll turn on and conduct current. Ideally* a diode would act like a short circuit (0V across it)
if it was conducting current. When a diode is conducting current its forward biased (electronics jargon for on).

The current-voltage relationship of an ideal diode. Any negative voltage produces zero current an open circuit. As long as the voltage is non-
negative the diode looks like a short circuit.

Ideal Diode Characteristics
Operation Mode On (Forward biased) Off (Reverse biased)
Current Through I>0 I=0
Voltage Across V=0 V<0
Diode looks like Short circuit Open circuit
Circuit Symbol
Every diode has two terminals connections on each end of the component and those terminals are polarized, meaning the two terminals are
distinctly different. Its important not to mix the connections on a diode up. The positive end of a diode is called the anode, and the negative end is
called the cathode. Current can flow from the anode end to the cathode, but not the other direction. If you forget which way current flows through a
diode, try to remember the mnemonic ACID: anode current in diode (also anode cathode is diode).
The circuit symbol of a standard diode is a triangle butting up against a line. As well cover in the later in this tutorial, there are a variety of diode
types, but usually their circuit symbol will look something like this:

The terminal entering the flat edge of the triangle represents the anode. Current flows in the direction that the triangle/arrow is pointing, but it cant
go the other way.

Above are a couple simple diode circuit examples. On the left, diode D1 is forward biased and allowing current to flow through the circuit. In essence
it looks like a short circuit. On the right, diode D2 is reverse biased. Current cannot flow through the circuit, and it essentially looks like an open
circuit.

*Caveat! Asterisk! Not-entirely-true Unfortunately, theres no such thing as an ideal diode. But dont worry! Diodes really are real, theyve just
got a few characteristics which make them operate as a little less than our ideal model
Electric Current
Electric current is the rate of charge flow past a given point in an electric circuit, measured in
Coulombs/second which is named Amperes. In most DC electric circuits, it can be assumed that
the resistance to current flow is a constant so that the current in the circuit is related to voltage and
resistance by Ohm's law. The standard abbreviations for the units are 1 A = 1C/s.


Microscopic view of electric current
Measurement with ammeter
Conventional electric current direction

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Electric Charge
The unit of electric charge is the Coulomb (abbreviated C). Ordinary matter is made up of atoms
which have positively charged nuclei and negatively charged electrons surrounding them. Charge is
quantized as a multiple of the electron or proton charge:


The influence of charges is characterized in terms of the forces between them (Coulomb's law) and
the electric field and voltage produced by them. One Coulomb of charge is the charge which would
flow through a 120 watt lightbulb (120 volts AC) in one second. Two charges of one Coulomb each
separated by a meter would repel each other with a force of about a million tons!
The rate of flow of electric charge is called electric current and is measured in Amperes.
In introducing one of the fundamental properties of matter, it is perhaps appropriate to point out that
we use simplified sketches and constructs to introduce concepts, and there is inevitably much more
to the story. No significance should be attached to the circles representing the proton and electron,
in the sense of implying a relative size, or even that they are hard sphere objects, although that's a
useful first construct. The most important opening idea, electrically, is that they have a property
called "charge" which is the same size, but opposite in polarity for the proton and electron. The
proton has 1836 times the mass of the electron, but exactly the same size charge, only positive
rather than negative. Even the terms "positive" and "negative" are arbitrary, but well-entrenched
Index

Coulomb's Law

Electromagnetic
force
historical labels. The essential implication of that is that the proton and electron will strongly attract
each other, the historical archtype of the cliche "opposites attract". Two protons or two electrons
would strongly repel each other. Once you have established those basic ideas about electricity, "like
charges repel and unlike charges attract", then you have the foundation for electricity and can build
from there.
From the precise electrical neutrality of bulk matter as well as from detailed microscopic
experiments, we know that the proton and electron have the same magnitude of charge. All charges
observed in nature are multiples of these fundamental charges. Although the standard model of
the protondepicts it as being made up of fractionally charged particles called quarks, those fractional
charges are not observed in isolation -- always in combinations which produce +/- the electron
charge.
An isolated single charge can be called an "electric monopole". Equal positive and negative charges
placed close to each other constitute an electric dipole. Two oppositely directed dipoles close to
each other are called an electric quadrupole. You can continue this process to any number of poles,
but dipoles and quadrupoles are mentioned here because they find significant application in physical
phenomena.
One of the fundamental symmetries of nature is the conservation of electric charge. No known
physical process produces a net change in electric charge.

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Conventional Electric Current
Although it is electrons which are the mobile charge carriers which are responsible for electric
current in conductors such as wires, it has long been the convention to take the direction of electric current as if it
were the positive charges which are moving. Some texts reverse this convention and take electric current direction as
the direction the electrons move, an obviously more physically realistic direction, but the vast majority of references
use the conventional current direction and that convention will be followed in most of this material. In common
applications such as determining the direction of force on a current carrying wire, treating current as positive charge
motion or negative charge motion gives identical results. Besides the advantage of agreeing in direction with most
texts, the conventional current direction is the direction from high voltage to low voltage, high energy to low energy,
and thus has some appeal in its parallel to the flow of water from high pressure to low (see water analogy).
RC Circuits
An RC circuit is a circuit with both a resistor (R) and a capacitor (C). RC circuits are freqent element in electronic devices. They also play an
important role in the transmission of electrical signals in nerve cells.
A capacitor can store energy and a resistor placed in series with it will control the rate at which it charges or discharges. This produces a
characteristic time dependence that turns out to be exponential. The crucial parameter that describes the time dependence is the "time constant" R
C . The far-sighted student might guess this just by observing that R C has the dimensions of time: (1 Ohm) x (1 Farad) = (1 second).
We will confine our studies to the following circuit, in which the switch can be moved between positions a and b.

Let us begin by reviewing some facts about capacitors:
1. The charge on a capacitor cannot change instantaneously. The current is given by I =DQ / Dt. Hence the change in charge DQ =
I Dt goes to zero as the time interval Dt goes to zero.
2. The current flowing into a capacitor in the steady state that is reached after a long time interval is zero. Since charge builds up on a
capacitor rather than flowing through it, charge can build up until the point that the voltage V=Q/C balances out the external voltage
pushing charge onto the capacitor.
When a capacitor of capacitance C is in series with a battery of voltage V
b
and a resistor of resistance R, the voltage drops must be:
,
which is a statement that the voltage gained going across the battery must equal the voltage drop across the capacitor plus the voltage drop across the
resistor. An equation where the rate of change of a quantitity (DQ/Dt) is proportional to the quantity (DQ) will always have an exponential solution.
We consider two instances:
1. Discharging the capacitor: The capacitor initially is connected (switch in position a) for a long time, and is then disconnected by moving
the switch to bat time t =0. The capacitor then discharges, leaving the capacitor without charge or voltage after a long time.
2. Charging the capacitor: The switch is in position b for a long time, allowing the capacitor to have no charge. At time t =0, the switch is
changed to a and the capacitor charges.
Discharging Charging
Charge

Current

Voltage

Here, Q
0
, V
0
and I
0
refer to the charge, voltage and current of the capacitor in the instant after the switch is thrown. The time t is the characteristic
time of the decay, t =RC. When confronted with an RC problem, the best strategy is the following:
1. Decide what the charge across the capacitor was just before the switch was thrown. Since the charge can not change instantly, this is the
charge just after the switch is thrown.
2. Decide what the charge is long after the switch is thrown.
3. Pick the exponential form for the charge Q(t) to satisfy the correct initial and final charges.
4. The voltage across the capacitor can be found through, V =Q/C. The voltages across the other elements can be found with the help
of Kirchhoff's first law.
5. The current through a capacitor must always decay and end up at zero. The initial current can usually be ascertained with the help of Ohm's
law, V=RI .
The characteristic time t =RC tells you that the charging/discharging is slower with a larger resistor or capacitor. This makes sense, because a larger
resistor impedes the flow of current; thus slowing the charging/discharging, and a larger capacitor holds more charge; thus requiring more time to
charge.
Every educated person should have a good feeling for exponential functions. (Sketches of the charge Q(t) for charging and discharging capacitors
could be shown here.)
Transient RC Series Circuits
Charging a Capacitor:

The voltage across the capacitor is not instantaneously equal to that of the voltage across the battery when the switch is closed. The voltage
on the capacitor builds up as more and more charges flows onto the capacitor until the battery is no longer able to "push" any more charge
onto the capacitor, at which point the capacitor becomes fully charged.
The initial flow of charges from the battery to the capacitor means that there is a current flowing through the system until the capacitor is
charged. This current flow decays exponentially from some initial value to zero.
The exponential nature of the change (of charge or voltage) with time results from applying Kirchoff's voltage rule and the definition of
current as the rate of change of charge with time. (See Next Section)
Note that in any real system the wires have some resistance, so a more correct model includes some resistance in series with the capacitor
before it is charged up (Again see Next Section on RC circuits).
Charging and Discharging a Capacitor in a RC Circuit (1.1M)

The exponential nature of charging or discharging a capacitor:
Mathematically, an exponential change occurs when the derivative of a quantity with time is proportional to the quantity itself. For example if,

Let us apply this to the discharge of a capacitor through a resistor when the switch is closed and the capacitor is initially
charged. After the switch is closed Kirchoff's voltage rule applies at all times and gives the equation.

Using Ohm's Law V = IR, the definition Capacitance C= Q/V, and the definition of current I = dQ/dt, we can rewrite this
last equation so that the derivative of the charge is proportional to the negative of the amount of charge on the capacitor.

Thus the charge on the capacitor decays exponentially with a time constant .

Instead of Q
o
we have use Q
max
since the capacitor starts off with its maximum charge and decays away exponentially.
Mathematically, discharging a capacitor takes an infinite amount of time.
The time constant represent the time for the system to make significant change in charge, voltage, or current whenever a capacitor is
charging or discharging.
After a time equal to one time constant, t = , the charge on the capacitor has dropped to e
-1
= 36.8% of its maximum value. After 5 the
charge has dropped to 0.7% of its maximum value.
t e
t/

.368
2 .135
3 .050
4 .018
5 .007
Other quantities such as the current and the voltage drop across the resistor or the capacitor can be found using the definition of current I = dQ/dt,
Ohms Law V = IR, and the definition of capacitance C= Q/V.

Thus the current also decays away from its initial value when the switch is first closed. Ohms law shows that this also true for the voltage across the
resistor.

The mathematical results for charging a capacitor are similar but more complicated. The main difference is that the charge and voltage across the
capacitor approach a maximum value exponentially. For example, the charge on the capacitor start at zero an goes to a maximum value,


Transient RC Conditions:
Charging a Single Capacitor in a Series with a Resistor
Start
t = 0
Some Time
Later at t
Long Time
Later t >> t

CAPACITOR
Voltage 0

V
C,max
= Q
C,max
/ C
Charge 0

Q
C,max


RESISTOR
Voltage V
R,max
= I
R,max
R

0
Current I
R,max


0
Note that these equations can only be used in a complex RC circuit if the circuit can be reduced to a simple RC circuit.

When the switch is first closed all the voltage is across the resistor and the circuit look like a simple DC Ohms law circuit with a resistor
and no capacitor. This condition gives the maximum value of the voltage across the resistor and the maximum value of the current.
As charge flows onto the capacitor, the current drops exponentially (derivation) from its maximum value when the switch is first
closed, I
max
= V
b
/ R and I(t) = I
max
e
-t/
.
As charge flows onto the capacitor, the voltage across the resistor also drops exponentially. This happens because the capacitor now has a
voltage drop and the circuit conforms to Kirchoff voltage rule at any time, V
b
= V
c
(t) + V
R
(t) - the voltage drop across the capacitor and
the resistor must equal to the voltage of the battery.
After a long time (t >> ) the current stops flowing in the circuit as the capacitor becomes fully charged and its voltage equals to that of the
battery if it is a simple RC circuit. The voltage drop across the resistor is zero since there is no current flowing andV
R
= I R.
The long time condition give the maximum charge on the capacitor. Here the circuit looks like a simple capacitor circuit with no
resistor, Q
max
= CV
b
.
Note once again, that if the circuit is a more complex arrangement of capacitors and resistors them the maximum values may not be the
voltage of the battery but the maximum value of the voltage across that component.

Transient RC Conditions:
Discharging a Single Capacitor Across a Resistor
Start
t = 0
Some Time Later
at some time t
Long Time Later
t >>

CAPACITOR
Voltage V
C,max
= Q
C,max
/ C

0
Charge Q
C
= Q
C,max


0

RESISTOR
Voltage V
R,max
= I
R,max
R

0
Current I
R
= I
R,max


0
When the circuit is first closed. the capacitor acts as a source of charge which can flow through the resistor. The capacitor acts like a emf
source with a short lifetime compared to a batttery.
In energy terms, the energy in the electric field stored in the capacitor is converted into the energy of current flow which is in turn
dissipated as heat as the charge flows through the resistor.
This is the simplest transient RC circuit problem since all the quantities that vary with time decay away expotentially.

Introduction - Why Do You Want to Learn This Material?
In this lesson you're going to be introduced to Digital Logic. There are lots of reasons to learn digital logic. Here are some of those reasons.
Digital logic is the foundation for digital computers. If you want to understand the innards of computers you need to know digital logic.
Digital logic has relations to other kinds of logic including:
o Formal logic - as taught by many philosophy departments
o Fuzzy logic - a tool used to design control systems and many other systems.
o So, in learning digital logic you learn something that helps you elsewhere.
For many students, learning digital logic is fun.

What Are You Going to Learn?
There are at least two general areas you need to become familiar with.
First, there's background you need to know - the basics of digital logic - things like zeros and ones (0s and 1s) and how you can represent
signals as sequences of zeroes and ones. Eventually you will want to know how large arrays of zeroes and ones can be used in computer
files to store information in pictures, documents, sounds and even movies and you'll want to learn about how information can be
transmitted, between computers and digital signal sources.
You will also need to know things about digital circuits - gates, flip-flops and memory elements and others - so that you can eventually
design circuits to manipulate digital signals.
Here is a short list of the topics you will learn.
Learn what logic signals look like
Model logic signals
Learn Boolean algebra for logic analysis
Learn about gates that process logic signals
Learn how to design some smaller logic circuits
Learn about flip-flops and memory elements that store logic signals

Objectives For This Lesson
Here's what we are after in this lesson - what you should be able to do.
Given a system that uses logic signals
Be able to specify what the output will be when the input is zero (0) and what the output will be when the input is one (1).
Given an AND, OR, NAND or NOT gate,
Be able to determine the output of the gate given the input logic signals.
Given a system that requires gates,
Be able to wire a chip correctly, and to check that the chip is functioning properly.

Logic Signals
There are a number of different systems for representing binary information in physical systems. Here are a few.
A voltage signal with zero (0) corresponding to 0 volts and one (1) corresponding to five or three volts.
A sinusoidal signal with zero corresponding to some frequency, and one corresponding to some other frequency.
A current signal with zero corresponding to 4 milliamps and one corresponding to 20 milliamps.
And one last way is to use switches, OPEN for "0" and CLOSED for "1".
(And there are more ways!)

Characteristics of Logic Signals
We should note that all of these signals can and usually will change in time, so that we really are looking at dynamic situations. However, we
will start by looking at these signals as though they were not changing in time.
We will pick a voltage signal as a working example. It can take on two values corresponding to 0 and 1.
We can associate a variable with that logic signal, and we can assign a symbol to represent that variable - like the symbol A.

Think Binary!
Let's examine a typical situation. You have some sort of device that generates a logic signal.
It could be a telephone that converts your voice signal into a sequence of zeros and ones.
It could be the thermostat on the wall that generates a 1 when the temperature is too low, and a 0 when the temperature is above the set
point temperature.
The logic signal, A, takes on values of 0 (FALSE, OFF) or 1 (TRUE, ON). That signal might really be a voltage, a switch closure,
etc. However, we want to think in terms of zeros and ones, not in terms of the values of the voltage.


Operations on Logic Signals
Once we have the concept of a logic signal we can talk about operations that can be performed on logic signals. Begin by assuming we have
two logic signals, A and B. Then assume that those two signals form an input set to some circuit that takes two logic signals as inputs, and has an
output that is also a logic signal. That situation is represented below.

The output, C, depends upon the inputs, A and B. There are many different ways that C could depend upon A and B. The output, C, is a
function, - a logic function - of the inputs, A and B. IWe will examine a few basic logic functions - AND, OR and NOT functions and start learning
the circuitry that you use to implement those functions.

Logic Gates
If we think of two signals, A and B, as representing a truth value of two different propositions, then A could be either TRUE (a logical 1) or
FALSE (a logical 0). B can take on the same values. Now consider a situation in which the output, C, is TRUE only when both A is TRUE and B is
TRUE. We can construct a truth table for this situation. In that truth table, we insert all of the possible combinations of inputs, A and B, and for
every combination of A and B we list the output, C.



A B C
False False False
False True False
True False False
True True True
An AND Example
Let's imagine a physician prescribing two drugs. For some conditions drug A is prescribed, and for other conditions drug B is
prescribed. Taken separately each drug is safe. When used together dangerous side effects are produced.
Let
A = Truth of the statement "Drug 'A' is prescribed.".
B = Truth of the statement "Drug 'B' is prescribed.".
C = Truth of the statement "The patient is in danger.".
Then, the truth table below shows when the patient is in danger.


A B C
False False False
False True False
True False False
True True True
Notice that C is TRUE when both A AND B are true and only then!

AND GATES
An AND function can be implemented electrically using a device known as an AND gate. You might imagine a system in which zero (0) is
represented by zero (0) volts, and one (1) is represented by three (3) volts, for example. If we are going to use electrical devices we need some sort
of symbolic representation. There is a standard symbol for an AND gate shown below.

Often in lab work it's helpful to use an LED to show when a signal is 0 or 1. Usually a 1 is indicated with an LED that is ON (i.e.
glowing). You can use the buttons below to check out this AND gate (Note what an AND gate symbol looks like!) with a simulated LED. Note the
following in the simulation (and you can use this in your lab experiments).
To get a logical zero, connect the input of the gate to ground to have zero (0) volts input.
To get a logical one, connect the input of the gate to a five (5) volts source to have five volts at the input.
Each button controls one switch (two buttons - two switches) so that you can control the individual inputs to the gate.
Each time you click a button, you toggle the switch to the opposite position.



Question
Q1. You have an AND gate. Both inputs are zero. What is the output?


We now have two ways of representing an AND gate, the truth table and the circuit diagram. However, there is a third way of representing this
information - a symbolic way - that will take us toward Boolean algebra.
Let us consider our variables, A, B and C to be algebraic variables, but algebraic variables that can only take on two values, 0 and 1. Then we
represent the AND function symbolically in either of two ways.
C = A B or C = AB
Some will prefer always to insert the dot between the variables so that the AND operation is clearly indicated. Many times, the context will
allow you just to use AB, without a dot between A and B, but if there is a variable named AB, then confusion can arise.

Problems
Assume you have an AND gate with two inputs, A and B. Determine the output,
C, for the following cases.

P1. A = 1, B = 0

P2. A = 0, B = 1

P3. If either input is zero, what is the output?

P4. A = 1, B = 1



Once we introduce Boolean variables, we can rethink the concept of a truth table. In the truth table below, if A, B and C are truth tables and we
have an AND gate with A and B as inputs and C as the output, the truth table would look like this.


A B C
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

OR Gates
Consider a case where a pressure can be high and a temperature can be high Let's assume we have two sensors that measure temperature and
pressure.. The first sensor has an output, T, that is 1 when a temperature in a boiler is too high, and 0 otherwise. The second sensor produces an
output, P, that is 1 when the pressure is too high, and 0 otherwise. Now, for the boiler, we have a dangerous situation when either the temperature or
the pressure is too high. It only takes one. Let's construct a truth table for this situation. The output, D, is 1 when danger exists.



T P D
False False False
False True True
True False True
True True True
What we have done is defined an OR gate. An OR gate is a gate for which the output is 1 whenever one or more of the inputs is 1. The output
of an OR gate is 0 only when all inputs are 0. Shown below is a schematic symbol for an OR gate, together with the simulated LEDs and input
buttons so that you can explore OR gate behavior.

In terms of Boolean variables, the truth table for an OR gate looks like this.



A B C
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1


Problems
Assume you have an OR gate with two inputs, A and B. Determine the output, C, for the following cases.
P5. A = 1, B = 0

P6. A = 0, B = 1

P7. If either input is one, what is the output?


NOT Gates (Inverters)
A third important logical element is the inverter. An inverter does pretty much what it says. If the input is 0, the output is 1. Conversely, if the
input is 1, the output is 0. The symbol for an inverter is shown below. Again, you can putter with this inverter with the simulated LEDs. X is the
input to the inverter. The output is NOT-X represented as ~1 or:


The truth table for an inverter is pretty simple since there is only one input. Call the input A, and the output C, and the truth table is:

A C
0 1
1 0

Example Problem
You need to control two pumps that supply two different concentrations of reactant to a chemical process. The strong reactant is used when pH
is very far from the desired value, and the weak reactant when pH is close to desired.
You need to ensure that only one of the two pumps runs at any time. Each pump controller responds to standard logic signals, that is when the
input to the pump controller is 1, the pump operates, and when that input is 0, the pump does not operate.
You have a bunch of two-input AND gates (IC chips), OR gates and Inverters, and you need to design a logic circuit to control the pumps. You
can generate a signal that is 1 when Pump S is ON, and 0 when Pump W is ON. Can you design the circuit?
In order to solve the problem, consider that the pump controls should receive logical inverse signals. When one pump signal is one, the other is
zero. Given that recognition this circuit should work. Here, if X is 1, Pump S pumps.

Notice the simple way we can use a switch and a five volt supply to produce a single logic signal that is ""0"" (ground) or 1 (5 volts).

NAND Gates
There is another important kind of gate, the NAND gate. Actually, the way to start thinking about a NAND gate is to think of it as an AND gate
with an inverter on the output. That's shown below.

Actually, however, the symbol for a NAND gate compresses the inverter down to a dot at the output of the NAND gate as shown below.

Here is a simulated NAND gate. Check it out.






A B C
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

Wiring a Quad-NAND Chip
If you want to use gates, you will need to learn something about their physical characteristics. In this section we'll walk you through wiring a
simple gate circuit using one specific integrated circuit (IC) the 7400 chip. It's a good introduction to some of the more complex logic chips that
you'll probably be using later.
Here's a picture of the 7400 chip in a circuit board. This chip is actually an N74LS00P. The LS tells you that it is a low power Schottky
chip. Every manufacturer will embed the 7400 or 74LS00 in other part numbers.

Notice that this chip has fourteen pins.
If you want to use an IC chip, then you will always need to know the pinout. That's electrical engineering lingo for describing the way the pins
are connected to the internal circuitry of the chip. You need to know where the power supply is connected and where the gate inputs and outputs are
connected. Here's the pinout for a 7400 chip.

The first step in wiring the 7400 is to connect the positive power supply. Use a five volt (5v) power supply and don't turn it on yet. Connect a
lead to pin 14 as shown below, and connect the other end of that lead to a 5v supply. Keep the power supply turned off until you have everything
connected. Here's what that looks like when the positive supply voltage to the chip is wired.

The next step in wiring the 7400 is to connect the ground connection. Connect a lead to pin 7 as shown below, and connect the other end of that
lead to ground.

Notice the pattern to this connection. The power to this digital logic chip goes to the corners. Remember, power to the corners for logic chips.
Now you can connect the two inputs to one of the gates on the chip. You're going to put 5v on either of these inputs for a 1 and ground the input
for a 0. There are two wires in the picture below that connect to pins 1 and 2 on the chip. Those pins are the inputs for one of the NAND gates on
the chip.

Now you can connect the output of the gate. You will need to connect this output to something like a voltmeter or an oscilloscope so that you
can measure and observe the output of the gate. (And the voltmeter or oscilloscope will also have to be connected to the ground. You will measure
output voltage with respect to ground.) The output will be near 5v when the output is a 1 and near 0v when the output is a 0.

Actually, you can often connect LEDs to give a visual indication of a 1 (LED lighted) or a 0 (LED dark). Here some LEDs are shown, together
with 1kW current limiting resistors. If you connect LED indicators to your circuit remember that an LED is not the same in both directions, and you
have to get the correct end connected to the resistor. The other end of each LED is connected to ground (or just "grounded"). Here's the circuit to
show the output of a NAND gate:

When the output of the gate is a 1, the output voltage will be five (5) volts. Current will flow through the series combination of the resistor and the
LED, so the LED will light. When the output of the gate is a 0, the output voltage will be zero (0) volts and the LED will not be lit. Thus, the LED
lights up when the output is a 1, and doesn't light when the output is a 0. You can use this indication scheme to show the status for any signal. (It
doesn't have to be the output of a gate.)
Click here for an introductory laboratory on the 7400 chip.

Question
Q1 In the picture above, (shown again here) is the power turned on for the chip power supply?



A NAND Gate
Here is a photo of a NAND gate wired to display the input signals and output signals. In this simulation you can manipulate the inputs and see
the inputs and outputs. Note the following.
The input voltage can be set to either 5v or 0v (ground) for each input to one of the NAND gates on the chip. Five volts is a logical 1, and
zero volts is a logical zero.
o Note how the push buttons move a connection from 5v to ground when the button is pushed.
When an signal is a 1, there is an LED that lights to show that the input is 1. When the LED is not lit, the signal is 0.
o Note that there is a current limiting resistor in series with each LED. If the voltage at the output becomes 5v and the LED
"saturates" around 1.8v, you need a current limiting resistor. These resistors look to be 1kW.
The power supply connection and the ground connection to the chip are both shown. The vertical line of connection points on the circuit
board is ground.

Check out how the circuit works and note all of the connections that you need to make to ensure that the chip works as it is supposed to work.

Example Problem
Let's reconsider the pump problem. What happens if there are times when you don't want either pump to pump? Assume you have a digital
signal that is 1 when one of the two pumps is to pump, and 0 when neither pump is to pump. For example, if the pH was very close to desired you
wouldn't want to do anything at all so you wouldn't want either pump to turn on..
You still have the other signal that determines which pump is to pump whenever one of the pumps should pump.
Devise a circuit that will ensure that both pumps are OFF when the Pumpsignal is 0 and that the correct pump pumps when the Pump signal is 1.
The circuit you devise in this section will be simple enough that you can probably implement it with a few chips although you will need to look
for chips with AND gates and inverters. You should be able to handle that now. Work through the solution in this lesson and try it out in lab if you
can.
Example Solution
Let's look at this problem with a truth table. Here's the truth table.



Pumps
On
1 = ON
Pump
Choice
0 = S
1 = W
Pump
S
Pump
W
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0
2 1 0 0 1
3 1 1 1 0
In English, we say to turn Pump S (Strong reactant) ON when the pumps are ON, and the strong reactant is chosen (Choice 3) and to turn Pump
W (Weak reactant) ON when the pumps are ON and the weak reactant is chosen (Choice 2). Otherwise, do nothing.
If we examine it closely we see that there is exactly one term in each function. S is 1 only for choice 3, that is when you want PUMPS ON and
you want the strong reactant. Similarly, W is 1 only for choice 2. Here's the truth table again. Note the following:
We have defined Boolean variables here for the various signals, P, C, S, and W.
We have indicated the inputs by shading them green, and the outputs by shading them orange.


P C S W
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0
2 1 0 0 1
3 1 1 1 0
Looking at the statement "S is 1 . . . when you want Pumps ON AND you want the strong reactant" then you can generate a logic expression
directly from the statement.

and also:

Finally, realize that it doesn't take much to implement these functions. Note you only need one inverter and two AND gates. Here's the circuit
that turns the pumps on at the proper time. This is an interactive simulation of the circuit, so you can toggle the switches with the push
buttons. Check it out.

Question
Q2 To check out the circuit you should what?




A QUICK QUESTION
Within the simulated circuit, determine the part of the circuit that genrates a 1 when the pumps are ON, and a 0 when they both are OFF.

What If The Problem Isn't So Simple?
Not all functions are as simple as this one, and certainly not all can be implemented with just a few gates. However, implementing this simple
function gives us a clue how to implement more complex functions.
In the next lesson we'll look at a more general method for implementing functions - a method that uses only AND and OR gates and inverters -
but a method which can also be implemented with only NAND gates. We hope that sounds intriguiging to you and that you are looking forward to
the next lesson. Click here to go to the lesson on logic functions.

Boolean Algebra
Clearly at this point we are entering a realm of a different kind of algebra. We have encountered some example terms in this algebra.

and:

The algebra is unusual because the variables in the algebra (S, P, C and W in the example) can take only two values, 0 and 1. In this section we
will examine some of the properties of this algebra, and the implications of what we have already learned.
There are some simple things we need to establish before we can proceed.
An AND gate has this truth table when the inputs are A and B, and the output is C:

A B C
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
So, clearly we have:
o 0 0 = 0, and
o 1 1 = 1, and
o 0 1 = 0
Which may be exactly what you expected.
We also need to consider an OR gate.
An OR gate has this truth table when the inputs are A and B, and the output is C:



A B C
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
So, clearly we have:
o 0 + 0 = 0, and
o 1 + 1 = 1, and
o 0 + 1 = 1
Now, if you are taking a college course, and you write home that 1 + 1 = 1 is what you just learned, your parents may want your tuition
refunded.
Now, if you accepted what was claimed above, then you also have to accept the following:
A A = A
Just let A be either zero or one and remember the truth table for an AND.
We also have:
A + A = A
Again, just let A be either zero or one and remember the truth table for an OR.
And - - - believe it or not, this result for A + A is very useful because it is a fundamental result that will let us build circuits with fewer
gates. We'll come back to that later.
There are some interesting theorems that can be proved. Note the following:


These two little theorems will prove to be useful. To prove these theorems you only need to know about the properties of AND, OR and NOT
gates. That is left as an exercise for you.
When we want to prove a theorem we will take the approach that we can prove the theorem by examining all possible combinations of the
appropriate variables. We can do that because the possible combinations are finite.
Here is a truth table. It lists all possible combinations for two variables.



A B

0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 0
This truth table proves the following theorem.
Theorem (de Morgan)




Proof
The proof of this theorem is contained in the truth table above which lists every possible combination of A and B, and shows that this result is
true.
One final note. There are some further simple facts that come in useful. Note the following:


and:



Boolean Algebra can be a confusing and misleading business. De Morgan's theorem above seems almost trivial. However, there is a very
interesting consequence of this theorem. Here it is:
If you have a Boolean function that is a sum-of-products form it can be implemented using a two layer circuit with the first layer composed
of AND gates, and the second layer composed of OR gates.
Applying deMorgan's theorem to the function the circuit can be built using the same structure, but replacing every AND and OR gate with
a NAND gate.
First, you need to understand how to expand a function in terms of minterms.

Name
[3][4]
Life Nationality Quantity
[5]
SI unit
[Note 2]

I
m
a
g
e
Andr-Marie Ampre
[6]
17751836 French Electric current
[7]

ampere (A)
(Base unit)

Name
[3][4]
Life Nationality Quantity
[5]
SI unit
[Note 2]

I
m
a
g
e
William Thomson, 1st Baron
Kelvin
[8]

18241907 British (Scottish) Thermodynamic temperature
[9]

kelvin (K)
(Base unit)

Blaise Pascal
[10]
16231662 French Pressure
[11]
pascal (Pa)

Isaac Newton
[12]
16431727 British (English) Force
[13]
newton (N)

Anders Celsius
[14]
17011744 Swedish Temperature
[15]

degree
Celsius (C)

Charles-Augustin de Coulomb
[16]
17361806 French Electric charge
[17]
coulomb (C)

James Watt
[18]
17361819 British (Scottish) Power
[19]
watt (W)

Name
[3][4]
Life Nationality Quantity
[5]
SI unit
[Note 2]

I
m
a
g
e
Alessandro Volta
[20]
17451827 Italian Electric potential
[21]
volt (V)

Georg Simon Ohm
[22]
17891855 German Electrical resistance
[23]
ohm ()

Michael Faraday
[24]
17911867 British (English) Capacitance
[25]
farad (F)

Joseph Henry
[26]
17971878 American Inductance
[27]
henry (H)

Wilhelm Eduard Weber
[28]
18041891 German Magnetic flux
[29]
weber (Wb)

Ernst Werner von Siemens
[30]
18161892 German Conductance
[31]
siemens (S)

Name
[3][4]
Life Nationality Quantity
[5]
SI unit
[Note 2]

I
m
a
g
e
James Prescott Joule
[32]
18181889 British (English) Energy
[33]
joule (J)

Antoine Henri Becquerel
[34]
18521908 French Radioactivity
[35]
becquerel (Bq)

Nikola Tesla
[36]
18561943 Serbian
[Note 3]
-American Magnetic flux density
[37]
tesla (T)

Heinrich Rudolf Hertz
[38]
18571894 German Frequency
[39]
hertz (Hz)

Rolf Maximilian Sievert
[40]
18961966 Swedish Dose equivalent of radiation
[41]
sievert (Sv)

Louis Harold Gray
[42]
19051965 British (English) Absorbed dose of radiation
[43]
gray (Gy)