Paper by Changwoo Lee-Corrected Final

Prosiding Seminar Nasional Fakultas Teknik UNLAM
Inovasi dan Aplikasi Teknologi Pertambangan untuk Negeri

Banjarbaru, 30 Juli 2011

1

ASBESTOS PARTICLE DISPERSION IN THE ATMOSPHERE
FROM CLOSED DOWN MINE SITES

Changwoo Lee, Sewon Kil, Dooyoung Kim
Department of Energy and Mineral Resources Engineering Dong-A University
840 Hadan-dong, Saha-gu Busan, 604-714, Korea Phone : 051-200-7769
Fax : 051-200-7771 E-mail : cwlee@dau.ac.kr

ABSTRACT
Although all asbestos mines in Korea were closed years ago, asbestos-
containing rocks such as Serpentine near mine portals and crushing sites have
been exposed to weathering. In some cases those rocks were fragmented and
used for improving the soil quality in the farms. Asbestos fibers liberated from
the various sources now create concerns for environmental contamination,
particularly soil contamination through atmospheric dispersion over an extended
area. Application of the soil contamination remedy measures has been
considered as the solution.
This paper aims at predicting the distribution of asbestos soil pollution and
defining the area requiring remediation. Two stages of the study were carried
out; (1) particulate re-entrainment study in the wind tunnel and (2) atmospheric
contaminant transport simulation.
The planetary boundary layer was created to mimic the surface boundary
layer in which the settled particulates are re-entrained into the air stream. Since
turbulent intensity is known to be the most critical parameter to determine the re-
entrainment, it was controlled during the experiments. Also the effect of the
moisture content in soil samples was studied. The maximum strength of the
dispersion sources defined as grams across unit area per unit time was derived for
the subsequent atmospheric transport simulation study. ISCST3, the US EPAs
regulatory model, was applied to predict the short-term as well as long-term
transport and settling amount. Meteorological and topographic data at the study
site were used for the analysis. The final outcome will be used for determining
the specific areas for soil treatment.

Keywords : Asbestos fiber; atmospheric dispersion; turbulence intensity;
planetary boundary layer


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1. INTRODUCTION
There were 36 asbestos mines in the southern part of Korea peninsula and in
2011 none of those mines is in operation. Most of them had been deserted and
systematic restoration project hade been applied only to few mines. At most of
the mines in the past, crushing and manufacturing facilities were built near the
mine portals and asbestos fiber-rich dust is believed to be generated, dispersed and
deposited on the nearby soil for quite some time. Fortunately, there has been no
concrete data showing the risk of asbestos particles either in the soil or in the air.
However, we have seen a rise in the awareness of environmental issues associated
with the mined areas and among them asbestos dust topped the list. Now, in
order to prevent the possible risk of human exposure, the government agencies are
working together with the academic community to identify the problem status and
plan the necessary restoration works.
This paper aims at studying the possibility of asbestos dust contained in the
soil near the closed down mine portals and ultimately specifying the region that
requires extensive restoration work. Wind tunnel was set up to simulate the
dynamics within the planetary boundary layer and a series of experiments have
been carried out to analyze the possibility of re-entrainment of asbestos fibers.
Asbestos dust re-entrained in the atmosphere will travel long distance and its
dispersion was simulated using an US EPA atmospheric dispersion model. The
simulated results based on the source strength gained from the wind tunnel
experiments show the amount of dust settled on the soil and the concentration in
the air.
2. DEFINITION AND REGULATIONS OF THE ASBESTOS FIBERS
Asbestos is defined as a commercial term applied to the asbestiform
varieties of six minerals; one Serpentine mineral Chrysotile, and five Amphibole
minerals, Amosite, Crocidolite, Anthophyllite, Tremolite and Actinolite. Fibers
have mean aspect ratios of 20:1 to 100:1; higher for fibers longer than 5m.

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Fibers are very thin, usually less than 0.5m in diameter. In the meantime, fibers
of airborne asbestos is defined by US EPA as fibers with the length longer than
0.5m and the aspect ratio minimum 5:1, while OSHAs definition is a little bit
different with the aspect ratio greater than 3:1.
It is known that there are differences in human risk among these minerals;
Crocidolite is the most risky and Chrysotile is the least. Since Asbestos fibers
have relatively sharp shapes and are hardly soluble in the respiratory tract,
asbestos particles can cause numerous diseases such as lung cancer, Mesothelioma,
Asbestosis, Pleural diseases and so on.
In Korea, the threshold limit of asbestos fibers in the indoor air quality
regulated by the government agencies is 0.01fibers/ml. It was not until there
were reports of danger of human risk among the people, particularly residents
near the closed down mines portals that the asbestos fibers re-entrained in the
atmosphere from the mine area has caught the attention of everybody. Thus,
more strict atmospheric preservation standard for the airborne asbestos dust will
be soon formulated or revised aiming at the industries emitting asbestos into the
atmosphere.
3. RE-ENTRAINMENT STUDY
The study sites in this paper are three closed down asbestos mines located in
Seolakmyeon, Gapyong County, Gyeonggi-do, occupying a total area of 141km
2
.
Asbestos-containing rock is Serpentine formed in the deposit by thermal
processing. Since all three mines were closed down decades ago, nearby regions
are developed either as residential area or farmland. Asbestos-containing rock
abandoned near the portals has been weathered and has high potential to throw
asbestos fibers into the air. In addition, fine particulates generated by the
asbestos milling processes were often mixed with soil and used in farmland.
Figure 1 shows a typical SEM image of Chrysotile fibers found at the site
and a satellite picture of the 4km x 4km area and its topographic map are included

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in Figure 2. Three mine portals located along a stream are approximately 0.8
~1.4km.

Figure 1. SEM Image of Chrysotile Fibers Sampled at the Study Site

a. Satellite Picture b. Topographic Map
Figure 2. Study Site Map and Topography

3.1 Soil Particle Size Distribution
In May 2010, 30 soil samples were sampled near the portals and along a
stream. Among them, one sample from the zone with higher contamination
potential and two from the less risky zone were selected for the wind tunnel

5

experiment. Zones at the study site were divided by the results of a previous
preliminary study of soil contamination.
Sieving test for particles coarser than 100m and Andreasen Pipette
employing Stokes law for finer particles were applied for the analysis of all sizes.
Its purpose was to quantify the weight of particles by size dispersed during the
wind tunnel experiment. No. 20, 30, 40, 60, 100, 170 sieves were used on the
basis of KS2309 Korean Test Standard, and Figure 3 shows cumulative size
distributions of a sample; two from the sieve test and Andreasen Pipette method,
respectively and the final combined distribution. The soil sample described in
Figure 3 was obtained from farmland and its size analysis shows particles less
than 500m accounts for approximately 50%; minus 100m, 1% and minus 10m,
0.3%, respectively. The other two samples also show similar size characteristics.

a. by Sieving b. by Andreasen Pipette
c. Complete Size
Distribution
Figure 3. Cumulative Size Distribution of a Soil Sample

3.2 Wind Tunnel Dispersion Test
A wind tunnel can be designed to simulate the particle dispersion
phenomenon inside the planetary boundary layer. The planetary boundary layer
(PBL), also called as the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL), is the lowest layer of
the troposphere where wind is influenced by friction. The thickness of the PBL

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is not constant. One of the characteristic of PBL is that wind is turbulent and
gusty within the PBL. Surface friction from vegetation and topography causes
turbulent eddies and chaotic wind patterns to develop, while above the PBL, the
wind speed is much more uniform and stronger due to a marked decrease in
friction.
The parameters governing particle dispersion in the PBL are known to be
wind speed and turbulent intensity, while separation of a particle from pile is
driven by the force acting on the pile surface through pressure fluctuation.
Pressure fluctuation increases with eddies and separation and is closely related to
the turbulent intensity (Ogawa et al., 1991).
3.2.1 Description of Wind Tunnel
The wind tunnel for dispersion test of the particles in soil samples is
designed to generate wind speed less than 15m/s which was the maximum instant
speed observed over the past 5-years, and simulate the dynamics of the PBL.
Figure 4 shows the 15m long wind tunnel and its cross section. An inverter-
controlled centrifugal fan and a water scrubber for eliminating the dispersed
particles at the discharge point are attached.

Figure 4. Schematic of The Wind Tunnel Layout

Floor mat, fence and vortex generator are installed in the 4.43m long middle
section of the tunnel to simulate the PBL as shown in Figure 5. These increase
surface friction and develop a boundary layer which has profiles of the vertical
velocity and the turbulent intensity similar those within the PBL. Turbulence
Intensity is a scale characterizing turbulence expressed as a percent. An idealized

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flow of air with absolutely no fluctuations in air speed or direction would have a
Turbulence Intensity value of 0%.
Turbulence Intensity (T.I.) is defined in the following equation(1):
T.I. = u/U
u = the Root-Mean-Square (RMS), or Standard Deviation, of the turbulent
velocity fluctuations at a particular location over a specified period of time
U = the average of the velocity at the same location over same time period

Figure 5. Schematic of The PBL Simulator

3.2.2 Velocity and Turbulence Intensity Profiles in the Wind Tunnel
Four different wind speeds were generated in the wind tunnel; 3, 7, 10 and
14.5m/s. Figure 6 shows cross-sectional velocity variation with height without
and with the PBL simulator. The thickness of the PBL seems to be 12~14cm and
the velocity in it varies from 1.5 to 4m/s, much less than the range of 3~13.5m/s
measured above the PBL. The PBL thickness clearly decreases with increasing
wind velocity. Velocities were measured by Pitot tubes and hot-wire
anemometers, as moving and fixed sensors.

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a. Without the PBL Simulator b. With the PBL Simulator
Figure 6. Velocity Profiles without and with the PBL Simulator

Typical values of turbulence intensity measured within the PBL with the
velocity range similar to that in this study is reported to be 8~10% by
Barthelmie(1999). This was very well simulated within the wind tunnel as
shown in Figure 7; the simulated values were in the range of 4 to 14 %. The
lateral and vertical fluctuations of the wind speed at a single location were
assumed to be ignorable and only the axial component was taken into account to
calculate the turbulence intensity.

a. Measured by fixed hot-wire anemometer b. Measured with Pitot tube
Figure 7. Variation of the Turbulence Intensity

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3.2.3 Dust Dispersion Experiments
Approximately 1500 grams of the soil samples collected from the study site
were prepared in a sample container in the shape of a rectangular parallelopiped,
45cm long, 21cm wide and 2cm high. The container was placed on the tunnel
floor within the PBL simulator section, and the top surface of container had been
adjusted to the floor level during the dispersion experiment. A load cell was
placed under the container and measured the weight change of the container.
The subsequent weight changes in the container were interpreted as the amount of
dust dispersed in to the wind tunnel. The wind speeds were 3.3, 6.6, 9.8 and
13.3m/s and the total dispersion times of individual dispersion experiments ranged
from 10 to 30minutes depending on the wind speed.
Dispersion rates of the three samples expressed in terms of g/m
2
hr were in
the range of 3.3 to 109.9. To derive the dispersion rate in each size interval, the
size distributions after the dispersion experiments were carried out by the identical
methods applied to the previous size analysis works. Figure 8 describes the two
size distributions obtained before and after the dispersion experiments for the
wind speed of 13.3m/s.

a. Sample A b. Sample B c. Sample C
Figure 8. Size Distributions before and after The Dispersion Experiments with
the wind Speed of 13.3m/s

Under the assumption that the maximum particle size found in the total

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suspended particles in the atmosphere is 100m, the amount of dust dispersed
from the sample container was calculated with the weight differences in the size
range under 100m. Table 1 shows the results and Figure 9 shows its summary.
Dispersion rates of the fine particles of the three samples ranges from 0.2 to
6.1g/m
2
hr.

Table 1. Dispersion Rates of Fine Particles under 100m (Sample A)
Wind Speed
(m/s)
Total Dispersion Weight
(g)
Rate of Dispersion
(g/m
2
hr)
3.3 7 0.2
6.6 41 1.0
9.8 66 3.8
13.3 104 6.1

Figure 9. Changes in the Size Distributions by Dispersion Experiments

The effects of moisture content in soil were also tested by adjusting the
water contents to 0, 5 and 10%. The tests were performed in outside
environment with constant temperature and humidity in order to avoid the
influences of other variables. As shown in Figure 10, the results indicate soil
particles with higher water content are hard to be dispersed and fine particles in
the dry soil show a 4.5times higher dispersion rate compared with the case with
moisture content of 10%.


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a. TSP b. Fine particles less than 100m
Figure 10. Changes in the Dispersion Rate with the Moisture Content in Soil

3.3 The Results Contamination Source Strength
Since a series of qualitative preliminary study with polarization microscope
shows the Asbestos concentrations in terms of the number, individual asbestos
fibers have to be characterized to convert them to the gravimetric concentration.
Identification of the mass of individual fiber can allow us to calculate the
dispersion weight of Asbestos fibers in the fine particle size range. A series of
SEM analysis were done to obtain the aspect ratio of fiber, the ratio of length to
diameter. Figure 11 shows the SEM images of Asbestos fibers, while Figure 12
includes distribution of fiber diameter and length. The average value of fiber
diameter was 0.5m and most of the fibers were longer than 5m. The average
aspect ratio was 20:1.

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a. (x 500) b. (x 5000)
Figure 11. SEM Images of Asbestos Fibers

a. Length Distribution b. Diameter Distribution
Figure 12. Histograms of the Length and Diameter of Asbestos Fibers

Assuming the specific weight of Asbestos is 3, the average mass of Asbestos
fiber with the length of 17.5m and the diameter of 1.5m can be calculated to be
5.45E-23g/m
2
s. Table 2 shows the dispersion rate of Asbestos fibers in the
samples containing 0.75% and 3% of Asbestos. These concentrations in soil

13

samples were provided by the preliminary analysis with polarization microscope.
Therefore, the Asbestos fiber dispersion rates which is subsequently used as the
source strength in the following atmospheric dispersion simulation range from
1.46E-25 to 2.21E-23g/m
2
s.

Table 2. Dispersion Rate of Asbestos Particles at the Study Site
Asbestos Concentration (% by
number)
Contamination Source Strength
(g/m
2
s)
Sample containing 0.75%
Asbestos
1.46E-25
Sample containing 3%
Asbestos
2.21E-23

4. ATMOSPHERIC DISPERSION SIMULATION
A series of 3D atmospheric dispersion simulation using US EPA model
ISCLT3 were performed to estimate the short-term as well as long-term dispersion
of Asbestos particles. The simulation study can provide the Asbestos
concentration in the air and soil. All the topographical data such as Transverse
Mercator Coordinates and elevations were employed, while the past weather data
were obtained from the nearby meteorological observation station. Precipitation
data were used to estimate the moisture content in the soil and subsequently the
contamination source strength which has the moisture-dependent characteristics
shown in Figure 10. The size of contamination source was assumed to 30x30m
2

which approximates the exposed area near the mine portals.
Figure 13 summarizes the distribution of wind direction and speed observed
at the nearby monitoring station in 2008. This was used for the simulation
analysis.


14

a. Wind Direction b. Wind Speed
Figure 13. Annual Distribution of Wind Direction and Speed

4.1 Annual Deposition of Asbestos Particles
The first simulation analysis aims at estimating the average concentration
in the air and the deposition amount of Asbestos particles per year from all three
contamination sources. Figure 14 summarizes the simulation results, while the
values in contour maps for the airborne dust concentration and soil deposition rate
are in g/m
3
and g/m
2
, respectively and have to be multiplied by 10
-18.

The regions within 260m, 300m, 280m from Portal A, B and C show the
deposition rate higher than 1 X 10
-21
g/m
2
and these values are significantly less
than 0.4g/m
2
at the depth of 2.5cm, NEN 5707 (Netherlands Standard for Asbestos
content). In the meantime, the Asbestos concentration in the air was not serious
at all since the concentrations within the air, 210m, 280m and 200m from the
portals are well below 5.45 x 10
-14
g/m
3
the converted TLV of NEN 5707.
.

15

a. Concentration in the Air b. Deposition Rate on the Surface
Figure 14. Annual Concentration in the Air and Deposition Rate of Asbestos
Particles

4.2 Seasonal Deposition of Asbestos Particles from Three Closed Down Mine
Portals
The seasonal variation of simulation results was also analyzed. Figure 15
describes the soil contamination rate by season. The results only for summer
with stronger wind and spring with lower humidity are included in the figure.
In summer, the regions within 300m, 290m and 240m from three mine
portals show deposition rate higher than 2.5x10
-21
g/m
2
, while less amount of
Asbestos particles is shown to be deposited in spring. Regardless of the seasonal
variation, the soil in all the regions does not seem to be affected seriously by
Asbestos particle dispersion.


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a. In Summer b. In Spring
Figure 15. Seasonal Variation of Deposition Rate of Asbestos Particles

4.3 Deposition of Asbestos Particles for the Five-year Period from Three Closed
Down Mine Portals
A longer-term simulation was done for 5-years. All the scenario data were
identical to those in the previous simulations. Figure 16 illustrates the results;
the estimated deposition rate within the distance of approximately 400m from
three portals was 1.5x10
-19
g/m
2
, considerably less than NEN 5707, 0.4g/m
2
at the
depth of 2.5cm.

Figure 16. Deposition Rate of Asbestos Particles for 5-years Period


17

4.4 Deposition of Asbestos Particles under the Worst Scenario-All Three Mines
in Operation
Scenarios for the worst case would be the cases when three mines are
assumed to be in operation. These scenarios will provide information about the
soil contamination from three mines in the past. For the worst cases, all the fine
particles dispersed are assumed to be Asbestos fibers; the contamination strength
of 1.69x 10
-3
g/m
2
s. The simulation results for 5-years period from the worst
scenario are summarized in Figure 17. Within the distance, 300~320m from the
portals, the deposition rates are higher than NEN 5707 and indicate that soil in the
vicinity of portals had been contaminated in the past for a quite long period
through the atmospheric dispersion.

Figure 17. Deposition Rate of Asbestos Particles for 5-years Period

5. CONCLUSIONS
This paper aims at analyzing the possibility of human risk created by the
atmospheric dispersion of Asbestos particles from closed down mines. A wind
tunnel was used to simulate the dynamics within the planetary boundary layer
near the earth surface and the strength of Asbestos contamination source was
quantified. Consequently, the atmospheric dispersion was simulated to identify

18

the regions near the mine portals contaminated by Asbestos particles carried by
the air.
The results can be summarized as follows:
(1) The PBL can be well created in the wind tunnel through characterizing the
vertical profiles of wind speed and turbulence intensity.
(2) The turbulence intensity, the governing variable for particle re-entrainment,
ranged from 4 to 14% in the wind tunnel, compared to those of 8~10% in
the PBL.
(3) With the wind speed less than 15m/s, the dispersion rate of fine particles
less than 100m was in the range of 5.5x10
-5
and 1.69x10
-3
g/s m
2
.
(4) Asbestos fibers in the study site have the mean length of 17.5m and the
mean diameter of 1.5m. Based on this aspect ratio, the Asbestos fiber
dispersion rates range from 1.46E-25 to 2.21E-23 g/m
2
s.
(5) The simulation results shows that after several decades since mines were
closed down, none of the regions near the mine portals was found to be
contaminated by Asbestos. However, another simulation with the scenario
of three mines in operation clearly indicates that the area within
approximately 300m from the portals would have been seriously
contaminated by the dispersed Asbestos particles.
(6) At present, in the vicinity of mine portals, there is no possibility of human
risk created by Asbestos. This is found to be true at least in the study site
of this paper.
6. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge MIRECO (Mine Reclamation
Corporation) for providing financial support and necessary resources that have
contributed to the research results reported within this paper.


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Ogawa, T., Nakayama, M., Murayama, S. and Sasaki, Y., 1991. Characteristics of
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R. J. Barthelmie , 1999, Monitoring Offshore Wind and Turbulence Caracteristics
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T. Allen, 1997. Particle Size Measurement, fifth ed. Chapman, London, pp. 33~36.

C.K. Bong, S.D. Kim and H.K. Lee, 2000. The Effect of Similarity Condition for
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