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C.
Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
Platinum RTD is a device made of coils or films of metal
(usually platinum). It works on the fact that when heated,
the resistance of the metal increases; when cooled, the
resistance decreases. Passing current through an RTD
generates a voltage across the RTD. By measuring this
voltage, you can determine its resistance and, thus, its temperature. The relationship between
Figure 2.2-Structure of Thermocouple
Figure 2.3-RTD physical appearance
11
resistance and temperature is relatively linear. Typically, RTDs have a resistance of 100 at 0
C and can measure temperatures up to 850 C.
Figure 2.4-Bridge Configurations for Use of RTD
Thermistor
Thermistor is basically a resistance whose resistance
varies significantly with the temperature. They are
very much similar to RTDs but differ in the material
used as thermistors use ceramic or polymers but RTD
always use metals. However, unlike RTDs,
thermistors have a higher resistance (2,000 to 10,000 )
and a much higher sensitivity (~200 /C), allowing
them to achieve higher sensitivity within a limited
temperature range (up to 300 C).
It is also used in bridge configuration. Its response is highly non-linear. They are not really
suitable to be used in rough or harsh environments as they are physically sensitive too and can
Figure 2.5-Thermistor appearance
12
get damaged if proper care is not done in installing them. It is also highly susceptible to self-
heating errors.
LM 35
Lm 35 is a precision integrated circuit temperature sensor having a highly
linear behavior operating in the range of 50C-150C. It works as a surface
mounted IC device which means that it has to be in direct contact to the
thing whose temperature is to be measured. It requires a signal of 5V for its
operation yielding an output of 10mV/C. The self-heating errors are very
likely to appear if not given proper attention.
Corrosion Resistance
As we are dealing with an electroplating system which means that our environment is highly
corrosive. So we need to protect our sensor from getting corrode otherwise we will have to
replace it after regular intervals to ensure proper monitoring and control which could be very
irritating as well as cost ineffective.
There are various materials or metals that are corrosion resistant like glass, plastic (PVC),
Teflon, platinum etc. The choice of material depends upon the cost and utilization.
2.1.2 Selected Sensor (Thermocouple)
[6] [8]
From our above discussion and literature review, K-type Thermocouple appears to be our best
choice. Following reasons can be attributed to this opinion:
No external excitation required
Good linearity over short temperature range
Appropriate temperature range and sensitivity value
Figure 2.6-LM 35 IC package
13
2.2 Design Phase
We will explore our selected option in a bit more detail. The block diagram will represent our
working process in a better way:
Figure 2.7-Flow Diagram of Temperature
2.2.1 Noise Filtration and Signal conditioning
[7] [10]
We are using a K-type thermocouple which gives the output in the form of few mV. AD 595 is
used for the signal conditioning of our signal. AD 595 provides gain of almost 247.3 to the input
signal of about less than 5mV (for our desired range) to convert it into a change of 10mV/
C
which can be analyzed far more easily. It also provides us with thermal junction compensation.
The internal architecture of this IC is shown below:
Figure 2.8-Internal Structure of AD 595
14
This signal can be distorted by noise so we use an RC filter to eliminate the noise before sending
the signal to AD 595. The values of resistor and capacitor are chosen to be 1k and 1F
respectively to obtain a low pass filter of 160Hz (approx.). We hope to eliminate the distortion
form the signal and we are not sending the output signal over large distances, so we decided that
it will serve our purpose well enough.
Figure 2.9-Input Signal Filtering
So we the help of these simple circuits we will be able to achieve a signal which will form the
input of our controller. The built-in ADC of our controller allows us to give the analog input
directly to it which will carry out the further processing.
2.3 Implementation
We implemented the designed circuit to measure the temperature of boiling water.
Thermocouple was inserted into the water filled container (care was taken that it does not come
into contact with the walls of the container as it may affect the calibration). The IC (AD595) was
powered by 5V supply. Pins 4, 7 and 13 were grounded along with the pin no. 14. A low pass RC
filter is applied to the input before processing it through AD595. The schematic is drawn
usingAltium software. The Schematic is:
15
Figure 2.10-Temperature measurement Circuit Schematic
This schematic was first tested on the breadboard and the readings were recorded in the table.
The initially tested circuitry was then implemented on the PCB and incorporated in the whole
system. The PCB layout is shown below:
Figure 2.11-Pcb Layout for Temperature measurement
16
2.4 Results
Temperature
(C)
Output voltage
(V)
1
st
reading 2
nd
reading 3
rd
reading 4
th
reading
50 0.49 0.50 0.50 0.49
51 0.50 0.52 0.51 0.50
52 0.51 0.53 0.52 0.51
53 0.52 0.54 0.54 0.52
54 0.53 0.55 0.55 0.53
55 0.54 0.57 0.56 0.54
56 0.55 0.58 0.57 0.55
57 0.56 0.59 0.58 0.57
58 0.57 0.60 0.59 0.58
59 0.59 0.61 0.60 0.59
60 0.60 0.62 0.61 0.60
61 0.61 0.63 0.63 0.61
62 0.62 0.64 0.64 0.63
63 0.63 0.66 0.64 0.64
64 0.64 0.67 0.65 0.66
65 0.65 0.68 0.66 0.67
Table 1: Results of Temperature measurement
2.4.1 Constraints
All the experiments are carried out in the laboratory or clean environment
The effect of the corrosive solution or hazardous environment is not as much as present
in the actual industrial environment.
17
The current system is very small as compared to the industrial setup, so only a single
thermocouple is used at present.
18
CHAPTER 3
Current Measurement
3.1 Basic Concepts
Every electro winning, industry is characterized by the high dc current rating. Electric current
is an important physical quantity and its measurement is required in many applications such as in
industrial, automotive or household fields.High Current measurement in the industry is very
important as it provides following
Over current protection
Prevents equipment failure
Helps ensure safety
Performance monitoring
Improves output handling
Reduce waste
Power consumption
Monitoring of current draw can help in improving efficiency of overall system
Can be useful in trend analysis of the system.
Electric current sensing is done by using various techniques. Different technical solutions to
measure currents can be found in literature. Below is an overview of important measurement
techniques and their respective advantages and disadvantages have been shown.
3.1.1 Techniques of current measurement
1. Invasive
19
2. Non-Invasive
Invasive techniques
A technique in which the circuit path is broken down to measure the current is known as invasive
technique
Resistive Shunt
Current transformer
Resistive Shunt
A shunt resistor is used to measure electric current either alternating or direct. In this technique,
current is measured by measuring the voltage drop across the resistor. A shunt is an element that
is used in a circuit to redirect current. The current is divided over the shunt and the ammeter,
such that only a small (known) percentage flows through the ammeter. [14]
Figure3.3: Resistive Shunt
PROS
Cheap, Simple and Easy
Size
Can be accurate
CONS
Insertion loss.
20
High-Side current measurement is difficult.
Shunt resistor requires careful design
It exhibits temperature non-linearity
Requires additional amplifiers and high impedance buffers.
Current Transformer
A current transformer is a device that is designed to produce an alternating current in its
secondary winding which is proportional to the current being measured in its primary
side.It reduces high voltage currents to a much lower value and provides a way of monitoring the
actual electrical current flowing in an AC transmission line using a standard ammeter.Due to this
type of arrangement, the current transformer is often referred to as a series transformer. [15]
Figure3.4: Current Transformer
PROS
No offset voltage
No external power required
CONS
Large Size
Expensive
Only measure AC.
Conclusion
21
Invasive techniques are not an effective way of measuring current. The major reason is that it is
not possible in the industrial environment, to remove the insulation and break the current path
just for the sake of current measurement and then tie up everything after the lengthy procedure.
It also has practical constraints of industrial and automation industry as the readings obtain by
this process is not stable.
Non-Invasive technique
Columbia tong test ammeter
Fiber-optic current sensor (FOCS)
Hall Effect Sensor
Columbia tong test ammeter
The Columbia tong test ammeter can measure both AC and DC
currents and provides a true RMS current measurement of non-
sinusoidal or distorted AC waveforms.
The iron jaws of the meter direct the magnetic field surrounding
the conductor to an iron vane that is attached to the needle of the
meter.
The iron vane moves in proportion to the strength of the magnetic
field, and thus produces a meter indication proportional to the
current. [16]
PROS
Portable
Cost effective
CONS
The scale shows unstable readings
Show non-linear trend and is unsuitable for measuring low currents.
Figure5.3: Columbia tong
test ammeter
22
Fiber-Optic Current Sensor
It is an advanced technology, which is a quite better option
for the electrical industrial environment. It has wide
applications in electro-winning, industry because there are
heavy, large current buses, and thus its difficult and complex
to measure the current rating. These types of current sensors
are made up of single - ended optical fibers. These fibers
surround the current carrying conductor and utilize the
Faraday Effect (magneto- optic effect) to measure the current.
PROS
Simple and Easy interfacing
Cost effective
CONS
Insertion loss (loss in signal power due to reflected and dielectric losses)
Its manufacturing and handling requires a specialized workforce and advance techniques.
3.1.2 Selected technique
Hall Effect based current transducers [5]
Hall Effect Sensor
Figure3.7: Hall Sensor
Figure3.6: Fiber-Optic Current Sensor
23
Principle
When a current carrying conductor is placed inside the magnetic field, the conductor experiences
some force known as Lorentz force. Due to this force, the charge distribution get disturbed thus
giving rise to the hall voltage. This hall voltage is proportional to the current flowing through the
conductor. [3]
Figure3.8: Hall's Effect Principle
Description
The hall element is placed inside the magnetic field, as the current flows through the wire the
voltage is generated proportional to it. The Hall element voltage signals are then fed to high gain
amplifiers. The signal conditioning is done before sending the signal to the Arduino board. The
most widely current sensing technique used in the electro-winning, industry is sensing current on
the Hall Effect based transducers. It is widely used in current clampers.
Figure3.9: Ratiometric Hall Effect Sensor
PROS
No insertion loss
Total electrical insulation of the measuring device
24
Ability to measure a wide current range
CONS
Large size
Expensive
Applications
Industrial equipment
Industrial controls
Electrical systems
Commercial/industrial HVAC
Types
Hall Effect Switch Sensor
Hall Effect Latch Sensor
Ratiometric, Linear Hall-Effect Sensor
Ratio metric, Linear Hall-Effect Sensor
Ratiometric linear sensors are small, versatile sensors. The Ratiometric output voltage is set by
the supply voltage and varies in proportion to the strength of the magnetic field. It is due to the
Hall effect-integrated circuit chip that provides increased temperature stability and sensitivity.
The Ratiometric linear sensors respond to either positive or negative magnetic field (Gauss). It
provides a robust design over a wide temperature range. [13]
Figure3.10: closed loop current sensor construction
25
3.1.3 Comparison
Current sensing
method
Shunt resistor Hall Effect Current sensing
transformer
Accuracy Good Good Medium
Accuracy vs.
Temperature
Good
Poor
Good
Cost Low High Medium
Isolation No Yes Yes
High Current -
Measuring
Capability
Poor
Good
Good
DC Offset Problem Yes No No
Saturation |
Hysteresis Problem
No
Yes
Yes
Power Consumption High Low Low
Instructive
Measurement
Yes
No
No
AC|DC
Measurements
Both
Both
Only AC
Table 2: Comparison of techniques
3.2 Design Phase
Design phase significantly includes the system definition and design approach. The design
approach is a chart representing the approach used for selecting input and output interfaces. The
system definition determines the sensor specifications. Sensor specifications are analyzed to
determine the required sensing device package, as well as the functional characteristics and
specifications for the input and output interfaces. Electrical characteristics must be considered in
the design phase.
26
3.2.1 Design Approach
Figure3.11: Design Procedure
Sensing modifications
600A DC
current
Develop input interface
Develop output interface
Breadboard sensor
Measure Gauss vs.
distance
Analyze data
27
3.2.2 System Definition
To Measure DC
Current of the
range 1000 A
Sensing Device Input
Requirements
UGN3120
Hall
Input voltage range: 4.5
6 V
Input voltage Change:
1V
Temperature Range:
125
o
C
Magnetic flux:
Safety Factors: No Current
pass through Hall Sensor.
System Tolerances: Series
Circuit so, same current
follow through entire
circuit.
Environmental Condition:
Suitable for Corrosive
Enviorment.
Sensing Device Output
Requirements
Output: Voltage
proportional to the Current.
Amplifier: To increase
voltage from mill volts to
volts.
Scaling: Scaling the
voltage between 0-5 V.
DC Null: DC Null
removal by variable
resistor and op-amp.
Offset: Introduce offset to
keep the system to one
battery.
System Characteristics &
Constraints
Complete Sensing Device
Specifications
Location of Meter:At the top
right corner of the tank.
Available Power Supplies: 9V
battery.
Repeatability: 50 trillion times
Response Time: 3 sec
28
3.2.3 Location of Current Meter
Figure3.12: Location of Current Meter
This current measuring device has to be designed for the industrial environment, so
before designing any assembly, the environmental conditions and space where assembly
has to be fixed should be considered. The above snap (Fig 11 & Fig 12) has been taken in
the industry, showing the space has been shown where current measuring device has to
Current meter
Figure3.13: magnified view of location where
current assembly has to be installed
Current carrying bar
Fixed end
29
be installed. There are the bars from which current flows. A rectangular shaped magnet
will surround the bar. The measuring device will be installed at the fixed end.
3.2.4 Block Diagram for Current Display
The block diagram below shows the process by which signal is obtained and processed.
This signal conditioned signal is then given to the Arduino board so that it can display on
the LCD. Input pins in Arduino board takethe analog signal of maximum 5V, thus the
halls voltage should be scaled between 0-5V. This analog signal is then digitized by
using ADC (Analog to Digital Converter). [8]
Figure 3.12: Block Diagram for Current Display
3.2.5 Block Diagram for Current Data Communication
For current data beingsent as a text message; services of GSM have been used. Analog
data after digitizing is stored and is then communicated by using GSM. Through GSM,
data has to be sent to the cellular network.
Current Sensing Circuit
Voltage (mV)
Amplifier
Ardiuno Board
(Analog input
pin)
Inbuilt ADC
(Analog to Digital
Converter)
Output on the
LCD Display
30
Figure 3.13: Block Diagram of Current Data Communication
3.2.6 Alarm System
Figure 3.14: Alarm system
Current Sensing Circuit
Voltage (mV)
Amplifier
Ardiuno Board
(Analog input pin)
Inbuilt ADC
(Analog to Digital
Converter)
RX & TD pins of
GSM (SIM 900-
RS232 MODEM)
Through cellular
network to Base
Station
31
3.3 Implementation
Implementation includes
1) Simulation 2) PCB Designing
3.3.1 Simulation
Simulations have been done in the LT Spice. Hall sensor is not available in the LT Spice,
so Halls voltage is approximated by a voltage source. The Halls output changes 2.3 m V
per 1 Tesla change in magnetic flux (Halls book). The voltage is then signal
conditioned.
Signal conditioning includes amplification and filtering for the smooth output. This
voltage is known as offset voltage. The offset removal circuitry is added to remove the
offset. This offset is inherent in ratiometric hall sensor. The output drops towards 0V or
rises towards 5V, according to magnetic polarity, at a rate of 2.5mV / Tesla.
The design has been given below:
3.3.2 LT Spice Design
Figure3.15: Schematic Design for current measurement
32
Halls output voltage After signal conditioning
3.3.3 Testing Halls Sensor
Ratiometric hall sensor is not easily available in the market; so it has been purchased
online.Halls book states that If there is no magnetic field applied the sensor outputs
approximately half of the supply voltage (halls book)
3.3.4 PCB Designing
PCB is designed in Proteus. The available hall sensors packages present in the Proteus
do not have the same pin configuration as SS490 series (purchased hall sensors series).
Hall sensor is estimated with a transistor having the same pin configuration as a
purchased hall sensor.
Figure3.16: hall's output voltage
Figure3.17: after signal conditioning
Figure3.18: input voltage to hall sensor Figure 3.19: output voltage of hall sensor
33
3.3.5 Proteus Design
Figure3.20: PCB design for current measurement
3.3.6 PCB Layout
Figure3.2114: PCB layout for current measurement circuit
3.3.7 PCB
Figure3.22: PCB for current measurement
Hall sensor
34
3.4 Testing & Results
The PCB testing has been done in welding Lab. The experiments have been done on DC
inverter welding machines.
3.4.1 Results
These readings are obtained after experimentation.
Current (A) Voltage (V)
0 2.56
55 3.3
92 3.37
108 3.45
133 4.00
163 4.30
Table3: readings with small intervals of current
It is found that voltage doesnt change much at small intervals. It detects at least 50 A of
change in current. Another trend was observed during experimentation that if current was
increased halls voltage start decreasing; the reason for this trend is that the magnetic
field is in a clockwise direction this time.
Table4: Readings with magnetic field in reverse direction
Current (A) Voltage (V)
0 2.56
50 3.5
100 3.01
150 2.7
35
The presence of a south-polarity (+B) magnetic field, perpendicular to the branded
face of the device package, increases the output voltage, VOUT, in proportion to the
magnetic field applied, from VOUTQ toward the VCC rail. Conversely, the application
of a north polarity (B) magnetic field, in the same orientation, proportionally
decreases the output voltage from its quiescent value. This proportionality is specified
as the magnetic sensitivity of the device and is defined as
( ) ()
In USA, the only maximum available DC current is up to 165A. So experimentation was
done by measuring the voltage for the change of 50 A. Experimentation was done by
using different welding machines. As halls output voltage also depends on the diameter
of the current carrying wire; thus experimentation was done by changing wire as well.
[11]
Apparatus #1 Apparatus #2
Apparatus #3
Current (A) Voltage (V)
0 2.60
50 3.65
100 4.06
150 4.11
Current (A) Voltage (V)
0 2.56
50 3.5
100 3.7
150 4.2
Table 5: Readings of apparatus #1
Table 6: Readings of apparatus #2
Current (A) Voltage (V)
0 2.56
50 3.5-3.6 (3.55)
100 3.94
150 4.06
Table 7: Readings of apparatus #5
36
Offset voltage (voltage at 0A) = 2.56 V
Then scaling all values to the same level (amendments are made in Apparatus #2 only)
Current (A) Voltage (V) Scaling (Voltage - 0.04)
0 2.56 2.56
50 3.65 3.61
100 4.06 4.02
150 4.11 4.07
Table8: scaled reading of apparatus #2
After taking an average of the readings listed in apparatus#1, apparatus #2 and apparatus
#3, the trend was found to be
Current (A) Voltage (V)
0 2.56
50 3.55
100 3.89
150 4.11
Table9: average taken of above three tables
From the graph of Output Voltage vs. Gauss following calculations has been done
The graph has been attached at the end.
By extrapolation the values of magnetic field are found to be
m =
Here m = slope of the graph
x
1
= arbitrary chosen voltage at which value of gauss is known
37
x
2
= voltage at which value of gauss is unknown
y
1
= gauss value corresponding to known voltage x
1
y
2
= unknown value of gauss
Lets take y
2
= 200; y
1
=0; x
2
= 3; x
1
=2.5
We get
m = 400
Now to find the first value
m = 400; y
2
=? ; y
1
= 400; x
2
= 0.99; x
1
=3.5
We get
y
2
= -604
Now to find the second value
m = 400; y
2
=? ; y
1
= 400; x
2
= 1.33; x
1
=3.5
We get
y
2
= -468
Now to find the third value
m = 400; y
2
=? ; y
1
= 600; x
2
= 1.55; x
1
=4.0
We get
y
2
= -380
Now if offset is removed we get
38
Current (A) Voltage (V) Voltages without
offset (V)
Magnetic Field
(Gauss)
0 2.56 0 -
50 3.55 0.99 -604
100 3.89 1.33 -468
150 4.11 1.55 -380
Table10: readings with calculated magnetic field
The literature of hall sensors claims that hall sensor can give 5 V at maximum at its
output without including offset; thus from it the maximum value of current that hall
sensor is capable of measuring can be determined. [12]
After extrapolation we obtain
The maximum DC current that selected hall sensor can measure is roughly nears to
2250 A.
Current (A) Voltages without
offset (V)
Magnetic Field
(Gauss)
0 0 -
50 0.99 -604
100 1.33 -468
150 1.55 -380
300 2.21 -116
450 2.43 -28
600 2.65 60
750 2.87 148
900 3.09 236
1050 3.31 324
1200 3.53 412
1350 3.75 500
1500 3.97 588
39
1650 4.19 676
1800 4.41 764
1950 4.63 852
2100 4.85 940
2250 5.07 -
Table11: magnetic field values for full range of current
3.4.2Difficulties in Measurement
Below are listed some constraints which hinder the progress of the project a lot.
In USA, the maximum DC current source available is in welding workshop.
The company for which the project has to be made is in Lahore, so its not
possible to visit that company on a weekly or even on a monthly basis.
The maximum rating of DC current source is 160 A and hall sensor can detect
the current changes of at least 50 A, so maximum three readings can be taken.
Current only flows through the wire if welding is in process.
Three persons are required to measure the current (a welder, a helper and a
person to measure voltage with DMM)
3.5 Alternative Approach for Demonstration
After successful testing of current measurement circuitry, an alternative approach for
demonstration was developed as whole integrated assembly cannot be shifted to welding
workshop.
A variable voltage source of 0-5V was made for demonstration purpose. This voltage
source will be an approximation of the hall sensors output voltage. This analog signal
will be provided to the Arduino board for display and storage.
40
3.5.1 Proteus Design
Figure3.23: Schematic for variable power supply
3.5.2 PCB Layout
Figure3.24: PCB layout of variable power supply
3.5.3 PCB
Figure3.25: Final look of variable power supply PCB
3.6 Constraints
In USA, the maximum DC current source available is in welding workshop.
41
For the temperature measurement, we need a burner; which is not possible to
bring in the welding shop.
It is neither possible nor allowed to take the whole setup to the welding
workshop for experimental reasons.
Even there is no space to install all the setup there for experimental purpose.
It is not allowed to work in the welding workshop without the supervision of
the staff (most of the time staff is busy in their own work).
Current only flows through the wire if welding is in process.
The company for which the project has to be made is in Lahore, so its not
possible to visit that company on a weekly or even on a monthly basis
The power supply is required for the Arduino and GSM module to power up.
Due to these constraints the project is an approximated model of the setup which has to
be installed in the industry.
42
Chapter 6
Future Plans
This project will fulfil the tasks it aimed to accomplish by the bench inspection. Almost
every aspect is done. All that is left is to install everything in real industrial environment.
The result is of very good quality for a student who has no prior experience in measuring
and controlling basic industrial parameters. Some of the future plans have been listed
below
To make an assembly to hold the setup in the welding lab, without the help of
helpers.
To make a small setup of portable power supplies, so that the whole setup can be
shifted to the welding shop.
To use electric ways of heating water (use of an electric heater)
To find some suitable location with heavy DC current, other than welding shop
(Laser Dept in PINSTECH)
Too often visit the industry in Lahore, and to check the prepared setup there.
43
REFERENCES
References Related to Books:
[1] J. M. Mauskar, Comprehensive Industry Document on Electroplating industry, India,
2007.
[3] Jim Lepkowski, Motor Control Sensor Feedback Circuits, Microchip Technology Inc,
USA, 2003.
[4] Tom Ritzdorf , Modern Electroplating, 5
th
edition, Yorktown Heights, NY
[5] Brady Haran, Hall Effect Sensing and Application, USA, Honeywell Inc, 2003.
[7] Joe Marcin, Thermocouple Signal Conditioning Using the AD594/AD595,U.S.A.
[6] Matthew Duff and Joseph Towey, Two Ways to Measure Temperature Using
Thermocouples Feature Simplicity, Accuracy, and Flexibility, U.S.A,2010.
[10] Bob LeFort and Bob Ries, Taking the Uncertainty Out of Thermocouple
Temperature Measurement, (with the AD594/AD595), Norwood, Massachusetts.
[8] Analog Devices, Practical Design Techniques For Sensor Signal Conditioning-Analog
devices technical Reference Books.: Prentice-Hall, USA, 1999
[11] Lewis Loflin, Using Ratiometric Hall Effect Sensors, USA, 2013
[13] Edward Ramsden, Hall-Effect Sensors: Theory and Application, Newness.
Copyright, 2011
[14] Joshua Myers, Ryan Laderach, Stephen England, Kenji Aono, Current Sensing
Using Resistive Shunts, USA, 2011
[15] Steve Laslo, Current Transformers, USA, March, 2012.
References Related to Internet Sources:
[2] URL: http://www.edaboard.com/thread25183.html
[9]Thermometrics, 18714 Parthenia St Northridge, CA 91324.
URL: http://www.thermometricscorp.com
[12] Robtillaart, Code A1301/A1302 Hall Effect Sensor, 2013.
44
URL: http://playground.arduino.cc/Code/HallEffect
[16] Columbia AC/DC Clamp-On Tong Test Ammeters
URL: http://www.weschler.com/_upload/sitepdfs/ammeters/clampons.pdf