1

C Ch ha ap pt te er r 1 1

T
TTh
hhe
ee B
BBr
rro
ooa
aad
ddb
bba
aan
nnd
dd W
WWi
iir
rre
eel
lle
ees
sss
ss





2

1.1. Introduction

The main feature of the broadband wireless systems will be the convergence
of multi-media services. This implies that a future wireless terminal, by
guaranteeing high speed data, will be able to connect to different networks in
order to support various services: switched traffic, IP data packets, and
broadband streaming services such as video. The development of wireless
terminals with generic protocols and multiple physical layers or software-
defined radio interfaces is expected to allow users to seamlessly switch
access between existing and future standards [1].

Looking past, wireless access technologies have followed different
evolutionary paths aimed at unified target: performance and efficiency in
high mobile environment. The first generation (1G) has fulfilled the basic
mobile voice, while the second generation (2G) has introduced capacity and
coverage. This is followed by the third generation (3G), which has quest for
data at higher speeds to open the gates for truly mobile broadband
experience.1 what is mobile broadband then? Broadband refers to an
Internet connection that allows support for data, voice, and video
information at high speeds, typically given by land-based high-speed
connectivity such as DSL or cable services. On the one hand, it is considered
broad because multiple types of services can travel across the wide band,
and mobile broadband, on the other hand, pushes these services to mobile
devices [2] .

We are seeing that mobile broadband technologies are reaching a
commonality in the air interface and networking architecture; they are being
converged to an IP-based network architecture with Orthogonal Frequency
Division Multiple Access (OFDMA) based air interface technology.
Although network evolution has not reached to the point of true and full
convergence, wireless access networks, all at various stage of evolution, is
being designed to support ubiquitous delivery of multimedia services via
internetworking. The transition to full convergence itself presents a set of
unique challenges that the industry needs to address, however, IP-OFDMA-
based technologies, the subject of this book, at one end and common policy
control and multimedia services at the other end are good starts for full
convergence. First worldwide debut of IP-OFDMA-based mobile broadband
is with WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access)
3

technology. This may be followed by Long Term Evolution (LTE), Ultra
Mobile Broadband (UMB), and others [2].
The underlying technology of WiMAX is considered to be a 4G system but
early evolution and adoption of WiMAX has led the IEEE and the WiMAX
Forum to ask R-ITU (Radio communication sector of the International
Telecommunication Union) to include mobile WiMAX based on 802.16e
into its IMT2000 specification (International Mobile Telecommunications
2000). WiMAX is included in IMT2000 in October 2007, which was
originally created to harmonize 3G mobile systems. IMT2000 now supports
seven different access technologies, including OFDMA (WiMAX), FDMA
(Frequency Division Multiple Access), TDMA (Time Division Multiple
Access), and CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access). This will put
OFDMA on a comparable worldwide footing with other recent and planned
enhancements to 3G technology. As a result, alternative migration path as
seen in Fig. 1.1 is now an option for operators to debut for value-added
broadband services. What remains for 4G then? IMT-Advanced, which is
the ITU umbrella name for future 4G technologies has set vision of the
characteristic of future 4G IMT Advanced systems. Although there is no
clear definition as of now, the ITU-R M.1645 considers a radio interface(s)
that need to support data rates up to approximately 100 Mbps for high
mobility such as mobile access and 1 G bps for low mobility such as
nomadic/local access. These figures are seen to be the target and be
researched and investigated further for feasible implementation. Current
targeted landscape is shown in Fig. 1.2.







4

Figure 1.1 Evolution of radio technologies source


As can be seen mobile WiMAX based on 802.16e (We call WiMAX-e)
would not qualify as a 4G IMT-Advanced standard since data rates even
under ideal conditions are much lower but IEEE 802.16m, which is
considered as the next Mobile WiMAX technology (we call WiMAX-m)
and expected to be ratified in 2009, satisfies 4G requirements by achieving 1
Gbps data rate. Similar to current 802.16e Mobile WiMAX, the 802.16m
standard would use multiple-input, multiple-output (MIMO) antenna
technology, while maintaining backward compatibility with the existing
standards. The speed on the order of 1Gbps reportedly can be reached by
using larger antenna arrays but current research shows that the data rate
requirements described in ITU-R M.1645 can only be achieved with
frequency bands above 100 MHz; however, there are very few large bands
available. These requirements might be relaxed for the final release of 4G
IMT-Advanced [2].

5

Figure 1.2 Wireless standard landscape


1.2. Mobile broadband Evolution

Mobile broadband has two dimensions: mobility and broadband. However,
traditionally, mobility first emerged for voice communication with cellular
systems, and broadband has started with no mobility. Let us look first how
these two have evolved to mobile broadband [2].

Figure 1.3 Evolutionary path of cellular technology
1.2.1. First Generation

The first generation was not the beginning of mobile communications, as
there were several mobile radio networks in existence before then, but they
were not cellular systems either. The capacity of these early networks was
much lower than that of cellular networks, and the support for mobility was
weaker.
6

In mobile cellular networks the coverage area is divided into small cells, and
thus the same frequencies can be used several times in the network without
disruptive interference. This increases the system capacity. The first
generation used analog transmission techniques for traffic, which was almost
entirely voice. There was no dominant standard but several competing ones.
The most notable 1G cellular system was called the Advanced Mobile Phone
System (AMPS), which was introduced by Bell Labs on the basis of cellular
concept in 1947 and deployed worldwide in the 1980s. AMPS is an analog
FDMA-based system for voice communication through 30 KHz FM
modulated channels [3].

1.2.2. Second Generation

The second-generation (2G) mobile cellular systems use digital radio
transmission for traffic. Thus, the boundary line between first- and second
generation systems is obvious: It is the analog/digital split. The 2G networks
have much higher capacity than the first-generation systems. One frequency
channel is simultaneously divided among several users (either by code or
time division). Hierarchical cell structures in which the service area is
covered by macrocells, microcells, and picocells enhance the system
capacity even further. There are four main standards for 2G systems: Global
System for Mobile (GSM) communications and its derivatives; digital AMPS
(D-AMPS); code division multiple access (CDMA) IS-95; and personal
digital cellular (PDC). GSM is by far the most successful and widely used
2G system. Originally designed as a pan-European standard, it was quickly
adopted all over the world [3].

i. GSM

The well known GSM (Global System for Mobile communications) entered
into commercial service in 1991 GSM was only providing a voice service,
SMS (Short Message Service) and low-rate circuit-switched data at 9.6 Kb/s.

GSM Key Features:

o The modulation scheme used in GSM is Gaussian minimum shift
keying (GMSK)
o GSM uses a combined time division multiple access (TDMA) and
frequency division multiple access (FDMA) scheme The available
7

spectrum is partitioned into a number of bands each 200 kHz wide.
Each of these bands may be occupied by a GMSK modulated RF
carrier supporting a 8 TDMA time slots.
o GSM uses three frequency bands: 900 MHz, 1800 MHz and 1900
MHz.

ii. CDMAONE
CDMAONE (IS-95B) S-95B is a standard evolution of IS-95A systems, first
deployed in September 1999, offering simultaneous voice and packet data
services up to 115 Kb/s (maximum theoretical bit rate).
Key Features:
o The duplex separation used different 45 MHz and the carrier spacing
is 1.25MHz.
o CDMA uses codes to separate transmissions on the same frequency.
o CDMAONE uses three frequency bands: 900 MHz, 1800 MHz and
1900 MHz

1.2.3. Generation 2.5
Generation 2.5 is a designation that broadly includes all advanced
upgrades for the 2G networks. These upgrades may in fact sometimes
provide almost the same capabilities as the planned 3G systems. The
boundary line between 2G and 2.5G is a hazy one. It is difficult to say when
a 2G becomes a 2.5G system in a technical sense. Generally, a 2.5G GSM
system includes at least one of the following technologies: high-speed
circuit-switched data (HSCSD), General Packet Radio Services (GPRS),
and Enhanced Data Rates for Global Evolution (EDGE). An IS-136 system
becomes 2.5G with the introduction of GPRS and EDGE, and an IS-95
system is called 2.5G when it implements IS-95B, or CDMA2000 1xRTT
upgrades [3].

i. HSCSD

HSCSD is the easiest way to speed things up. This means that instead of one
time slot, a mobile station can use several time slots for a data connection.
One time slot can use either 9.6-Kbps or 14.4-Kbps speeds. The total rate is
simply the number of time slots times the data rate of one slot. This is a
relatively inexpensive way to upgrade the data capabilities, as it requires
8

only software upgrades to the network (plus, of course, new HSCSD-capable
phones), but it has drawbacks. The biggest problem is the usage of scarce
radio resources. Because it is circuit switched, HSCSD allocates the used
time slots constantly, even when nothing is being transmitted. In contrast,
this same feature makes HSCSD a good choice for real-time applications
[3].

ii. GPRS

A GPRS system cannot do all the things HSCSD can do. For example,
GPRS is weak with respect to real-time services. The next solution is GPRS.
With this technology, the data rates can be pushed up to 115 Kbps, What is
even more important than the increased throughput is that GPRS is packet
switched, and thus it does not allocate the radio resources continuously but
only when there is something to be sent. GPRS is especially suitable for
non-real-time applications, such as e-mail and Web surfing. The
implementation of a GPRS system is much more expensive than that of an
HSCSD system. The network needs new components as well as
modifications to the existing ones. However, it is seen as a necessary step to
operate 3G networks in the future [3].

iii. EDGE

EDGE is the third 2.5G improvement to GSM. The idea behind EDGE is a
new modulation scheme called eight-phase shift keying (8PSK). EDGE is an
attractive upgrade for GSM networks, as it only requires a software upgrade
to base stations if the RF amplifiers can handle the non constant envelope
modulation with EDGEs relatively high peak-to-average power ratio. It
does not replace but rather coexists with the old Gaussian minimum shift
keying (GMSK) modulation, so mobile users can continue using their old
phones if they do not immediately need the better service quality provided
by the higher data rates of EDGE. It is also necessary to keep the old GMSK
because 8PSK can only be used effectively over a short distance. For wide
area coverage, GMSK is still needed.





9

iv. Combinations

If EDGE is used with GPRS, then the combination is known as enhanced
GPRS (EGPRS). The maximum data rate of EGPRS using eight time slots
(and adequate error protection) is 384 Kbps.

ECSD is the combination of EDGE and HSCSD and it also provides data
rates three times the standard HSCSD.

A combination of these three methods provides a powerful system, and it
can well match the competition by early 3G networks.

v. CDMA2000 1xRTT

The IS-95 (CDMA) standard currently provides 14.4-Kbps data rates. It can
be upgraded to IS-95B, which is able to transfer 64 Kbps with the use of
multiple code channels. However, many IS-95 operators have decided to
move straight into a CDMA2000 1xRTT system. 1xRTT is one of several
types of radio access techniques included in the CDMA2000 initiative. The
North American version of 3G, CDMA2000, is in a way just an upgrade of
the IS-95 system, although a large one. The IS-95 and CDMA2000 air
interfaces can coexist, so in that sense the transition to 3G will be quite
smooth for the IS-95 community. There are several evolution phases in
CDMA2000 networks, and the first phase, CDMA2000 1xRTT, is widely
regarded to be still a 2.5G system.

1.2.4. 3G and Broadband Wireless

Moving toward mobility and high speed from broadband and cellular
systems has continued in different angles in the third generation era. The
3GPP and 3GPP2 have introduced the 3G technologies as an evolution to
their existing second generation paths. After summarizing these
technologies, we give the evolution of broadband to WiMAX from
broadband wireless access.

1.2.4.1. 3GPP

The 3GPP is an organization that develops specifications for a 3G system
based on the UTRA radio interface and on the enhanced GSM core
10

network.3GPP is also responsible for future GSM specification work. This
work used to belong to ETSI, but because both 3GPP and GSM use the same
core network (GSM-MAP) and the highly international character of GSM, it
makes sense to develop the specifications for both systems in one place [3].










i. UMTS

Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS), which is based on
Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (WCDMA), has been studied in
Release-1999 (Rel-99) of 3GPP and published in 2000. UMTS was the next
step after GSM, GPRS, and EDGE to offer improved voice and data services
with a 5MHz bandwidth [2].
This bandwidth was chosen because:

It is enough to provide data rates of 144 and 384 Kbps (these were 3G
targets), and even 2 Mbps in good conditions.

Bandwidth is always scarce, and the smallest possible allocation should be
used, especially if the system must use frequency bands already occupied by
existing 2G systems.

This bandwidth can resolve more multi paths than narrower bandwidths,
thus improving performance.

The 3G WCDMA radio interface proposals can be divided into two groups:
network synchronous and network asynchronous. In a synchronous network
all base stations are time synchronized to each other. These results in a more
efficient radio interface but require more expensive hardware in base
stations. For example, it could be possible to achieve synchronization with
the use of Global Positioning System (GPS) receivers in all base stations,
although this is not as simple as it sounds. GPS receivers are not very useful
GSM GPRS UMTS
EDGE
Figure 1.4 GSM to UMTS Transition
11

in high-block city centers (many blind spots) or indoors. Other WCDMA
characteristics include fast power control in both the uplink and downlink
and the ability to vary the bit rate and service parameters on a frame-by-
frame basis using variable spreading. The ETSI/ARIB WCDMA proposal
was asynchronous, as was Koreas TTA II proposal.

Rapid growth of UMTS has led to the next step in evolutionary phase
termed, Release-2005 (Rel-5).
Rel-5 provided High Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA)


Figure 1.2.1.5 UMTS Evolution



ii. HSDPA

(High Speed Downlink Packet Access) The aim of HSDPA is to increase
user throughput for packet downlink transmission (from network to mobile).
For this purpose, new modulation has been introduced 16 QAM
(Quadrature Amplitude Modulation) allowing a theoretical peak rate of
14.4Mb/s (using the lowest channel protection algorithm). HSDPA is based
on a shared radio scheme and real time (every 2ms) evaluation and
allocation of radio resources, allowing the system to quickly react to data
bursts. In addition, HSDPA implements a HARQ (Hybrid Automatic
Repeat Request) which is a fast packet retransmission scheme located in the
Base Station as close as possible to the radio interface. This allows fast
adaptation to a change in radio transmission characteristics. HSDPA also
introduced IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS) and IP UMTS Terrestrial Radio
12

Access Network (UTRAN) to offer flexibility to operator to provide such
hosted services for greater user experience. Meanwhile, Rel-4 is introduced
in March 2001, which separated call and bearer in the core network.



iii. HSUPA

HSPA (High Speed Uplink Packet Access) is the equivalent of HSDPA for
uplink (from terminal to network) packet transmission. HSUPA actually
implements the same sort of techniques already used by HSDPA, such as a
HARQ packet retransmission scheme providing low latency packet
repetition between the terminal and the base station, and a reduced
transmission time interval of 2ms. However, unlike HSDPA, HSUPA is not
based on a complete shared channel transmission scheme. Each of the
HSUPA channels is actually a dedicated channel with its own physical
resources. The actual resource sharing is provided by the Base Station,
which allocates transmission power for uplink HSUPA transmission based
on resource requests sent by terminals. In theory, HSUPA can provide up to
5.7Mb/s, using the top-level mobile category and larger transmission
resources than can be allocated to a single terminal. HSUPA may be
combined with HSDPA the association of the two is often referred to as
HSPA (High Speed Packet Access) so that data sessions can benefit from
an increased data rate for both uplink and downlink.

iv. HSPA+

Rel-7, on the other hand, focuses on MIMO technology and flat-IP based
base stations. GPRS Tunneling Protocol (GTP) has started to be used in
order to connect packet switched network to radio access network. Rel-7 is
expected to finish in 2008 with new enhancements and it is termed HSPA
Evolution, commonly known as HSPA+. Rel-7 has also improved receiver
architecture and brought interference aware receivers (referred as type 2i and
type 3i, which are extensions to existing type 2 and type 3 receivers). The
receiver employs interference aware structure, which not only takes into
account the channel response matrix of the serving cell but also the channel
response matrix of the interfering cell that has the most significant power.
Rel-7 also introduced the use of higher order modulations such as 64QAM
with MIMO support since in Rel-6, HSPA systems used 16QAM in the
13

downlink and QPSK in the uplink. To reduce latency when exiting the idle
mode, Continuous Packet Connectivity (CPC) has been introduced for data
users. This mainly keeps more users in the cell active state. The protocol is
modified to ensure the user keep synchronized and the power control ready
for rapid resumption (Table 1.3).
In the network side, architecture has been improved as well. HSPA+ has
integrated the RNC (Radio Network Controller) to NodeB (base station) to
reduce latency and to make the architecture flatter and simpler. It is also a
good move toward femtocell10 deployments and a good step to enable
packet-based services toward LTE since HSPA+ is considered to be the
missing link between HSPA and LTE.

v. LTE

3GPP LTE is also referred to as evolved universal terrestrial radio access
(E-UTRA) or Super 3G (S3G) and is introduced by 3GPP as Release 8 (R8)
[8]. The specifications define a new physical air interface in order to further
increase the data rate of the cellular mobile radio compared to HSPA. The
key differentiation compared to WCDMA and HSPA is the OFDM
downlink and single-carrier FDMA uplink. LTE is targeting data rates of
100Mbit/s in the downlink and 50Mbit/s in the uplink. The improvements in
data rate are due to enhanced channel-dependent scheduling and rate
adaptation, also in the frequency domain, spatial multiplexing with MIMO,
and larger channel bandwidths of up to 20MHz.

Requirements on LTE

The first part of the study resulted in an agreement on the requirements for
the Evolved UTRAN (E-UTRAN). Key aspects of the requirements are as
follows:
o Up to 100 Mb/s within a 20 MHz downlink spectrum allocation (5
b/s/Hz) and 50 Mb/s (2.5 b/s/Hz) within a 20 MHz uplink spectrum
allocation.
o Control-plane capacity: at least 200 users per cell should be supported
in the active state for spectrum allocations up to 5 MHz
o User-plane latency: less than 5msec in an unloaded condition (i.e.,
single user with single data stream) for small IP packet.
o Mobility: E-UTRAN should be optimized for low mobile speeds 015
km/h. higher mobile speeds between 15 and 120 km/h should be
supported with high performance. Connections shall be maintained at
14

speeds 120350 km/h (or even up to 500 km/h depending on the
frequency band).
o Coverage: throughput, spectrum efficiency, and mobility targets
should be met for 5 km cells and with a slight degradation for 30 km
cells. Cells ranging up to 100 km should not be precluded.
o Enhanced multimedia broadcast multicast service (E-MBMS).
Spectrum flexibility: E-UTRA shall operate in spectrum allocations of
different sizes including 1.25 MHz, 1.6 MHz, 2.5 MHz, 5 MHz, 10
MHz, 15 MHz, and 20 MHz in both uplink and downlink Architecture
and migration: packet-based single E-UTRAN architecture with
provision to support systems supporting real-time and conversational
class traffic and support for an end-to-end QoS.
o Radio Resource Management: enhanced support for end-to-end QoS,
efficient support for transmission of higher layers, and support of load
sharing and policy management across different radio access
technologies.
The wide set of options initially identified by the early LTE work was
narrowed down in December 2005 to a working assumption that the
downlink would use Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex (OFDM) and
the uplink would use Single Carrier Frequency Division Multiple Access
(SC-FDMA). Supported data modulation schemes are QPSK, 16QAM, and
64QAM. The use of Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO) technology
with up to four antennas at the mobile side and four antennas at the base
station was agreed. Re-using the expertise from the UTRAN, they agreed to
the same channel coding type as UTRAN (turbo codes), and to a
transmission time interval (TTI) of 1msec to reduce signaling overhead and
to improve efficiency.
1.2.4.2. 3GPP2

The 3GPP2 has continued to evolve its second generation (IS-95) based
systems with EV-DO (Evolution-Data Optimized) series of CDMA2000
standard. First standard of series, termed CDMA2000 1xEV-DO, introduces
data-centric broadband network to deliver data rates beyond 2Mbps in a
mobile environment. In 2001, CDMA2000 1xEV-DO was approved as an
IMT2000 standard as CDMA2000 High Rate Packet Data (HRPD) Air
Interface, IS-856. CDMA2000 1xEV-DO Release 0 (Rel-0) offers high-
speed data access up to 2.4 Mbps and it was the first mobile broadband
technology deployed worldwide. Rel-0 provides a peak data rate of 2.4
Mbps in the forward link (FL) and\ 153 Kbps in the reverse link (RL) in a
single 1.25MHz FDD (Frequency Division Duplexing ) carrier. In
15

commercial networks, Rel 0 delivers average throughput of 300700 Kbps
in the forward link and 7090 Kbps in the reverse link. Rel-0 has also started
always on user experience as in IP and also supports IP-based network
connectivity and applications. CDMA2000 1xEV-DO devices include a
CDMA2000 1X modem in order to be compatible with CDMA2000 1X and
cdmaOne systems. In addition to the air interface techniques of CDMA2000
1X, the following new high-speed packet data transmission enhancements
are incorporated into Rel-0: downlink channelization to offer higher rate
with bundling, Adaptive Modulation and Coding, Hybrid-ARQ, etc.
CDMA2000 1xEV-DO Revision A (Rev-A) is an evolution of CDMA2000
1xEV-DO Rel-0 to increase peak rates on reverse and forward links to
support a wide-variety of symmetric, delay-sensitive, real-time, and
concurrent voice and broadband data applications. It also incorporates
OFDM technology to enable multicasting (one-to-many) for multimedia
content delivery.

i. Rev. A

Rev-A has introduced first All-IP based broadband architecture in 2006 to
support time-sensitive applications such as VoIP, etc. Rev-A provides a peak
data rate of 3.1 Mbps in the forward link and 1.8 Mbps in the reverse link
with a 1.25MHz FDD carrier. However, in commercial networks, RevA
achieves average throughput of 450800 Kbps in the forward ink and 300
400 Kbps in the reverse link. As the successor of Rev-A,

ii. Rev. B

CDMA2000 1xEV-DO Revision B (Rev-B) introduces dynamic bandwidth
allocation to provide higher performance by aggregating multiple 1.25MHz
Rev-A channels. Consequently, peak data rates scales with the number of
carriers aggregated. When 15 channels are combined within a 20MHz
bandwidth, Rev-B delivers up to 46.6 Mbps in the forward link and 27 Mbps
in the reverse link. However, with 5MHz aggregation, the peak data rates are
around 14.7Mbps.14 Rev-B also supports OFDM based multicasting and
introduces lower latency for delay sensitive applications.




16

iii. Ultra Mobile Broadband

3GPP2 developed Ultra Mobile Broadband (UMB) based on the frameworks
of CDMA2000 1xEV-DO revision C [11], IEEE 802.20 [12], and
Qualcomm Flarion Technologies FLASH-OFDM [13]. The UMB standard
was published in April 2007 by the 3GPP2 and the UMB system is expected
to be commercially available in early 2009.
The key features of UMB include [4]:
o OFDMA-based air interface.
o Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO) and Space Division Multiple
Access (SDMA).
o Improved interference management techniques.
o Up to 280 Mb/s peak data rate on forward link and up to 68 Mb/s
peak data rate on reverse link.
o An average of 16.8 msec (32-byte, round trip time) end-to-end
network latency.
o Up to 500 simultaneous VoIP users (10 MHz FDD allocations).
o Scalable IP-based flat or hierarchical architecture.
o Flexible spectrum allocations: scalable, noncontiguous, and dynamic
channel (bandwidth) allocations and support for bandwidth
allocations of 1.25 MHz, 5 MHz, 10 MHz, and 20 MHz.
o Low power consumption and improved battery life [4] .

1.2.4.3. Broadband, WLAN and BWA

In this section we will introduce the evaluation of Wireless LAN and
BWA starting from DSL to WiMAX.

i. DSL
Another evaluation is as we said broadband connectivity, which has started
with Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) and cable modem technology. DSL
utilizes the twisted pair copper wire of the local loop of the public switched
telephone network (PSTN), which is used to carry Plain Old Telephone
Service (POTS) voice communication between 300 and 3.4 KHz. DSL uses
the bandwidth beyond 3.4 KHz. DSL utilizes Discrete Multitone Modulation
(aka Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)) and DSL
modem converts digital data into analog waveform. All of which depend
upon more traditional methods such as copper wire or coaxial cable for last
17

mile delivery. However, the broadband over DSL and cable are only
capable to provide last mile connection with no mobility. Limited mobility is
introduced with the introduction of Wireless Local Area Networking
(WLAN) within the past decade [2].

ii. WLAN

WLAN systems are confined to deliver wireless connectivity within a small
range, and they are utilized to distribute fixed broadband connectivity to
nomadic wireless users as well as users with pedestrian speed. WLAN
establishes wireless connection between wireless stations (such as PCs,
laptops, handhelds, etc.) and the access point that connects to DSL or Cable
modem or Ethernet for broadband connectivity. WLAN operates in
unlicensed frequency bands. The primary unlicensed bands are the ISM
(Industrial, Scientific, and Medical) bands at 900 MHz, 2.4 GHz, and 5.8
GHz and the Unlicensed National Information Infrastructure (U-NII) band at
5 GHz. The WLAN has been standardized in IEEE within 802.11
frameworks. WLAN standard within IEEE frame only defines the physical
and MAC layers. The industry formed the Wi-Fi Alliance as a nonprofit
industry association to enhance the user experience by defining the
networking layer as well as testing and certification programs. Currently,
wireless LAN is proliferating at homes, enterprises, and even in cities, and
has become the standard for last feet broadband connectivity. The success
of WLAN has accelerated the hype toward broadband wireless access with
more mobility and guaranteed QoS[2].

A good example is the proliferation of home and business wireless LANs
and commercial hotspots based on the IEEE 802.11 standard. This
proliferation of WLANs is driving the demand for broadband
connectivity back to the Internet, which 802.16 can fulfill by providing
the outdoor, long range connection back to the service provider. For
operators and service providers, systems built upon the 802.16 standard
represent an easily deployable third pipe capable of delivering
flexible and affordable last-mile broadband access for millions of
subscribers in homes and businesses throughout the world.





18

iii. Broadband Wireless Access (BWA)

Broadband Wireless Access (BWA) has started with a fixed access in mind
to compete with DSL and cable modem since rapid growth of broadband
access has created demand for new wireless technologies to reduce the cost
of operation and by pass monopoly of service providers in wire-line access.
We give a chronological listing of BWA toward fixed WiMAX in this
section and mobile WiMAX in the next section [2].

LMDS

The Local Multipoint Distribution Systems (LMDS) is the first notable
BWA that showed a short-lived rapid success as a wireless alternative to
fiber and coaxial cables in the late 1990s. LMDS has utilized 28 & 31 GHz
with two types of LMDS licenses to or in? Offer up to several hundreds of
megabits per second. However, LMDS system requires roof-top antennas to
achieve line-of-sight (LOS) connection.

MMDS

Multichannel Multipoint Distribution Services (MMDS or Wireless Cable)
technology has emerged at 2.5 GHz and become popular in sparsely
populated rural areas. LMDS and MMDS have adapted the modified version
of DOCSIS for wireless broadband also known as DOCSIS+. MMDS
provided greater range than LMDS but still required LOS link to operate.
The LOS challenge of broadband wireless has tackled with OFDM
modulation and standardization activities have begun in 1998 by IEEE under
the 802.16 working group

IEEE 802.16 family

This group has targeted to standardize the technology for Wireless
Metropolitan Area Network (Wireless MAN), also adopted by ETSI
HiPERMAN (High Performance Radio Metropolitan Area Network) ((see
table 1.1)).






19


Table 1.1 IEEE 802.16 family
Standards Publication
date
Highlights
802.16 Apr. 2002 Highlights
Line-of-sight fixed operation in 10 to 66 GHz band.

802.16a Apr. 2003 Air interface support for 2 to
11 GHz band.

802.16-2004
(802.16d)
Oct. 2004 Minor improvements and fixes to
802.16a.

802.16e Feb. 2006 Support for vehicular mobility and asymmetrical link.


802.16m In progress Higher peak data rate, reduced latency, and efficient security
mechanism.



IEEE 802.16e-Based Mobile WiMAX

The WiMAX Forum Network Working Group (NWG) develops the higher-
level networking specifications for Mobile WiMAX systems beyond what is
defined in the IEEE 802.16 specifications, which address the air interface
only. Key features of the 802.16e-based Mobile WiMAX are:

o Up to 63 Mb/s for downlink and up to 28 Mb/s for uplink per sector
throughput in a 10 MHz band.
o End-to-end IP-based Quality of Service (QoS).
o Scalable OFDMA and spectrum scalability.
o Robust security: Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP)-based
authentication, AES-CCM-based authenticated encryption, and
CMAC/HMAC-based control message protection schemes.
o Optimized handoff scheme and low latency.
o Adaptive modulation and coding (AMC).
o Hybrid automatic repeat request (HARQ) and fast channel feedback.
o Smart antenna technologies: beamforming, space-time coding, and
spatial multiplexing.
o Multicast and broadcast service (MBS) [4].



20


1.2.4.4. IMT-2000

IMT-2000 is the umbrella specification of all 3G systems. Originally it
was the purpose of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) to
have only one truly global 3G specification, but for both technical and
political reasons this did not happen until November 1999 in its meeting in
Helsinki, many years passes and WiMAX is included in IMT2000 in
October 2007 [3]. As shown in Table 1.2

Table 1.2.1.2 IMT2000
UMTS/WCDMA CDMA Direct Spread
CDMA2000 CDMA Multi-Carrier
UMTS-TDD Time-Code
TD-SCDMA Time-Code
UWC-136 Single Carrier
IS-136 Single Carrier
EDGE Single Carrier
DECT FDMA/TDMA
WiMAX OFDMA TDD

1.2.5. 4G (IMT-Advanced)

The fourth generation (4G) of the cellular mobile radio is referred to as
IMT-Advanced and encompasses new radio technologies as well as existing
technologies. The standardization of new physical air interfaces is targeting
downlink peak data rates of 1Gbit/s at low mobility and 100Mbit/s at high
mobility.

1.2.5.1. Beyond 4G Wireless

Europe Belgium: With much of the mobile world yet to migrate to 3G
mobile communications, let alone 4G, European researchers are already
working on a new technology able to deliver data wirelessly up to 12.5Gb/s.
The technology known as millimetre (mm)-wave or microwave
photonics has commercial applications not just in telecommunications
(access and in-house networks) but also in instrumentation, radar, security,
radio astronomy and other fields.
Despite the quantum leap in performance made possible by combining the
latest radio and optics technologies to produce mm-wave components, it will
probably only be a few years before there are real benefits for the average
21

EU citizen. This is thanks to research and development work being done by
the EU-funded project IPHOBAC, which brings together partners from both
academia and industry with the aim of developing a new class of
components and systems for mm-wave applications.

One way in which the technology can be deployed in the relatively short
term, according to Sthr, is wirelessly supporting very fast broadband to
remote areas. You can have your fibre in the ground delivering 10Gb/s but
we can deliver this by air to remote areas where there is no fibre or to bridge
gaps in fibre networks, he says

1.2.6. Summary for wireless technologies:
In this section we put the Whole technologies together in order to show
the main difference between each of them (see table (1.3))

Table 1.3 Comparison between several wireless technologies
Technology Bandwidth Technology DL/UL peak
3GPP
GSM(+ GPRS, EDGE) 900MHz
1800MHz
TDMA
GSM -9.6 Kbps
GPRS 14.4 - 115.2 Kbps
EDGE: 547.2 Kbps

WCDMA Rel. 99 5MHz FDD TDM/CDMA 384/384 Kbps
HSPA Rel. 6 5MHz FDD TDM/CDMA 1.814.4/5.72 Mbps
HSPA+ Rel. 7 5MHz FDD TDM/CDMA 22/11 Mbps
LTE 1.2520MHz FDD OFDMA/SC-FDMA 100/50 Mbps
3GPP2
CDMA One
850MHz
1900MHz
CDMA
14.4 Kbps
CDMA2000 1x 1.25MHz FDD TDM/CDMA 153/153 Kbps
1xEV-DO Rev-0 1.25MHz FDD TDM/CDMA 2.4 Mbps/153 Kbps
1xEV-DO Rev-A 1.25MHz FDD TDM/CDMA 3.1/1.8 Mbps
1xEV-DO Rev-B 5MHz FDD TDM/CDMA 14.7/5.4 Mbps
UMB 1.2520MHz FDD OFDMA 33-152/17-75 Mbps
WLANS&WMANS
WiFi 20MHz TDD for
802.11a/g
CSMA/OFDM 54 Mbps shared
Fixed WiMAX TDD, FDD
3.5MHz, 7 MHz,
10MHz
TDM/OFDM 9.4/3.3 Mbps with 3:1;
6.1/6.5 Mbps with 1:1
Mobile WiMAX TDD 3.5MHz,
7MHz, 5MHz,
10 MHz, 8.75MHz
TDM/OFDMA 46/7 Mbps 22 MIMO
in 10 Hz with 3:1;
32/4 Mbps with 1:1






22


1.3. Network Architecture

In this section we will discuss the network for 3gpp and its architecture.

1.3.1. GSM Network Architecture

In this section we briefly examine the different components that together make up a GSM
network. Many of these components are common to any cellular network; however, a few are
peculiar to GSM. We also note that GSM sometimes uses its own terminology to describe
familiar components. A block diagram showing the simplified hierarchical structure of the GSM
public land mobile network (PLMN)



Component Description

Mobile Station
GSM-PLMN contains as many MSs as possible, available in various
styles and power classes. In particular, the handheld and portable
stations need to be distinguished.

Subscriber
Identity Module
GSM distinguishes between the identity of the subscriber and that of
the mobile equipment. The SIM determines the directory number
and the calls billed to a subscriber. The SIM is a database on the user
side. Physically, it consists of a chip, which the user must insert into
the GSM telephone before it can be used. To make its handling
easier, the SIM has the format of a credit card or is inserted as a
plug-in SIM. The SIM communicates directly with the VLR and
indirectly with the HLR.
Figure 1.2.1 6 GSM Network
23


Base
Transceiver
Station
A large number of BTSs take care of the radio-related tasks and
provide the connectivity between the network and the mobile station
via the Air-interface.

Base Station
Controller
The BTSs of an area (e.g., the size of a medium-size town) are
connected to the BSC via an interface called the Abis-interface.
TheBSC takes care of all the central functions and the control of the
subsystem, referred to as the base station subsystem (BSS). The BSS
comprises the BSC itself and the connected BTSs.

Transcoding
Rate and
Adaptation Unit
One of the most important aspects of a mobile network is the
effectiveness with which it uses the available frequency resources.
Effectiveness addresses how many calls can be made by using a
certain bandwidth, which in turn translates into the necessity to
compress data, at least over the Air interface. In a GSM system, data
compression is performed in both the MS and the TRAU. From the
architecture perspective, the TRAU is part of the BSS. An
appropriate graphical representation of the TRAU is a black box or,
more symbolically,a clamp.

Mobile Services
Switching
Center
A large number of BSCs are connected to the MSC via the A-
interface. The MSC is very similar to a regular digital telephone
exchange and is accessed by external networks exactly the same
way. The major tasks of an MSC are the routing of incoming and
outgoing calls and the assignment of user channels on the A-
interface.

Table 1.4 GSM network components

1.3.2. GPRS Network

Works elements: service GPRS support node (SGSN) and gateway GPRS
support node (GGSN).

i. SGSN
The SGSN represents for the packet world what the mobile switching center
(MSC) represents for the circuit world. The SGSN performs mobility
management [routing area update, attach/detach process, mobile station
(MS) paging] as well as security tasks (e.g., ciphering of user data,
authentication) [6].



24

ii. GGSN

GGSN tasks are comparable to the ones of a gateway MSC. It is not
connected directly to the access network, but provides a means to connect
SGSNs to other nodes or external packet data networks (PDNs). It also
provides routing for packets coming from external networks to the SGSN
where the MS is located as specified by the home location register (HLR).
The new hardware boards for the BSC are called packet data units (PDUs)
and their main functions are as follows: GPRS radio channels management
(e.g., set-up/release); multiplexing of users among the available channels;
power control, congestion control, broadcast of system information to the
cells, and GPRS signaling from/to MS, base transceiver station (BTS) and
SGSN [6].

Figure1.7 GPRS Network






1.3.3. UMTS

The IMT-2000 network is divided into two logical concepts, the core
network (CN) and the generic radio access network (GRAN). The noble idea
behind this arrangement is that the GRAN will be capable of connecting,
perhaps simultaneously, to several different CNs, such as GSM, B-ISDN +
IN, or a packet-data network. The GRAN could be implemented, for
example, as a GSM BSS, DECT, LAN, CATV, or Hiper- LAN2 network.
3GPP has also specified a new dedicated UMTS radio access network
(RAN) called the UMTS Terrestrial RAN (UTRAN). An important
requirement for the GRAN implementations is that they conform to the Iu
interface specifications. Note, however, that the 3GPP Release 99
25

specifications only contain provisions for the GSM-MAP (including GPRS)
and the ANSI-41 core networks. In GSM terms, the GRAN contains the base
station subsystem, that is, the base transceiver stations (BTS) and the base
station controller (BSC). In the 3GPP specifications, the generic GRAN
concept is translated into a concrete UTRAN network in which the BTS has
the curious name Node B. The new name for the BSC is the radio network
controller (RNC). Between the GRAN and the core network we find the Iu
interface, and between the GRAN and the UE we see the Uu interface (radio
interface).


Figure 1.2.1.8 UMTS Network
The next evolution step is the release 4 (R4) architecture (Figure 1.8 ). Here,
the GSM vcore is replaced with an IP network infrastructure based around
voice over IP (VoIP) technology. The MSC evolves into two separate
components: an MGW and an MSC server (MSS). This essentially breaks
apart the roles of connection and connection control. An MSS can handle
multiple MGWs, making the network more scalable.


Figure 1.9 Network for Release four
26

Since there are now a number of IP clouds in the 3G network, it makes
sense to merge these together into one IP or IP/ATM backbone (it is likely
both options will be available to operators.) This extends IP right across the
whole network, all the way to the BTS. This is referred to as the all-IP
network, or the release 5 (R5) architecture, as shown in Figure (1.10) . The
HLR/VLR/EIR are generalized and referred to as the HLR subsystem (HSS).
Now the last remnants of traditional telecommunications switching are
removed, leaving a network operating completely on the IP protocol, and
generalized for the transport of many service types. Real-time services are
supported through the introduction of a new network domain, the IP
multimedia subsystem (IMS).


Figure 1.10 Network for Release five
Currently the 3GPP are working on release 6, which purports to cover all
aspects not addressed in frozen releases. Some call UMTS release 6 4G and
it includes such issues as interworking of hotspot radio access technologies
such as wireless LAN.

For HSPA+ the architecture has been improved as well. HSPA+ has
integrated the RNC (Radio Network Controller) to NodeB which reduces the
latency in the RAN. Its a good step to to enable packet-based services
toward LTE since HSPA+ is considered to be the missing link between
HSPA and LTE. This leads LTE to shift more complexity into the eNodeB









27













1.3.4. WiMAX Network

Network Reference Model, seen in Fig. 1.12, defines functional entities and
reference points regarding interoperability between vendors. Functional
entities are grouped into three sets: Mobile WiMAX Subscriber (MS),
Access Service Network (ASN), and Connectivity Service Network (CSN),
where OFDMA and IP define the demarcation between the sets; ASN is
radio-agnostic and responsible for assisting MS to maintain the
uninterrupted connectivity of OFDMA air link during mobility and idle
mode; CSN provides set of network functions to provide IP connectivity
services to the subscriber.


Figure 1.12 WiMAX Network

Figure 1.11 Network for LTE
28

1.4. MULTIPLE ACCESS:

In any communications system with many users, whether it be a fixed line or
a wireless scheme, those users share some resource. Some mechanism must
be employed to enable this resource sharing, and this is referred to as a
multiple access scheme. In the wireless domain, the resource that is shared is
frequency. For cellular communications, a change in generation has
generally meant a change in the multiple access scheme that is implemented.
The first generation of cellular systems used frequency division multiple
access (FDMA); the majority of second generation systems use time division
multiple access (TDMA) and most of the third generation schemes use code
division multiple access (CDMA).Next attitudes uses Orthogonal FDMA
(OFDMA) which is multicarrier Technique.













1.4.1. FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLE
ACCESS (FDMA)

As previously stated, a wireless system has the resource of frequency to
share among many users. The first approach to solving this problem is to
split the available frequency into a number of channels, each with a narrow
slice of the frequency. This concept is shown in (fig 1.14) . Each user in the
system that wishes to communicate is allocated a frequency channel, and
each channel has a certain gap, known as a guard band, between it and the
next channel so that the two do not interfere with each other. Once all the
channels are in use, a new user to the system must wait for a channel to
become free before communication can commence. Therefore, the system is
limited in capacity as it can only support as many simultaneous users as
Figure 1.13 MULTIPLE ACCESS
29

there are channels. This is known as a hard capacity system. Another
problem is that if there is any external interference at a particular frequency,
then a whole channel may be blocked. The concept of FDMA can be
considered in the context of radio broadcasting.

Figure 1.2.1 FDMA

1.4.2. TIME DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS
(TDMA)
As wireless communications systems are expected to support more and more
simultaneous users, there are clearly severe limitations with the FDMA
scheme. A more efficient channel usage is required. With TDMA, a
frequency channel is divided up into a number of slices of time, as shown in
Figure (1.15). Here, a user is allocated a particular time slot, which repeats
periodically. In the diagram, the frequency is split into six time slots; a user
is allocated one slot in every six. Providing that the time slices are small
enough and occur frequently enough, a user is oblivious to the fact that they
are only being allocated a discrete, periodic amount of time. In this manner,
the capacity can be dramatically increased and hence the efficiency of our
system. Again, this is referred to as a hard capacity type network. As an
example, the global system for mobile communications (GSM) employs
both a TDMA and FDMA approach.


Figure 1.2.15 TDM
30

1.4.3. CODE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS
(CDMA)

If the previous multiple access schemes are considered in terms of
efficiency, each of them involves only one user transmitting on a particular
channel at a particular time, which is clearly inefficient. For example, with
GSM, in a given cell, only one user is transmitting at any time; all other
active users are waiting for their time slot to come around. If a mechanism
could allow more than one user to transmit at a time; then the resource usage
could be dramatically improved. CDMA is such a scheme, where all users
are transmitting at the same frequency at the same time. The effect of
interference that users cause to each other is discussed under the heading of
noise. Having a system that is limited by a noise target rather than
specifically allocating resources for the sole use of a particular mobile
device is known as a soft capacity system.

CDMA is part of a general field of communications known as spread
spectrum. Spread spectrum describes any system in which a signal is
modulated so that its energy is spread across a frequency range that is
greater than that of the original signal. In CDMA, it is the codes that perform
this spreading function, and also allow multiple users to be separated at the
receiver. The two most common forms of CDMA are:

Frequency hopping (FH): with FH, the transmitted signal on a certain
carrier frequency is

changed after a certain time interval, known as the hopping rate. This has the
effect of hopping the signal around different frequencies across a certain
wide frequency range. At a particular instant in time, the signal is
transmitted on a certain frequency, and the code defines this frequency. This
system is used for many communications systems, including the 802.11b
wireless LAN standard and Bluetooth. By using a large number of
frequencies, the effect of interference on the signal is substantially reduced,
since the interference will tend to be concentrated in a particular narrow
frequency range. FH is also employed in military communications, where
the secrecy of the code and the rejection of interference in the form of a
jamming Signal make it extremely effective.

31

Direct sequence (DS): with DS, a binary modulated signal is directly
multiplied by a code. The code is a pseudo-random sequence of 1, where
the bit rate of the code is higher than the rate of the signal, usually
considerably higher. This has the effect of spreading the signal to a
wideband. At the receiver, the same code is used to extract the original
signal from the incoming wideband signal. A bit of the code is referred to as
a chip, and the defining parameter for such a system is the chip rate. DS-
CDMA is the form used for the air interface in UMTS, known as wideband
CDMA (WCDMA)

According to information theory, as the frequency spectrum a signal
occupies is expanded, the overall power level decreases. In CDMA, the user
signals are spread up to a wideband by multiplication by a code. Consider a
narrowband signal, say, for example, a voice call.
When viewed in the frequency spectrum, it occupies some frequency and
has some power level, as illustrated in Figure 1.16. Once the frequency is
spread across a wideband, the total power of this signal is substantially
reduced. Now consider that another user has the same procedure performed
on it and is also spread to the same wideband. The total system power is
increased by a small amount as the two users are transmitted at the same
time. Therefore, each new user entering the system will cause the power of
the wideband to increase. The idea is shown in Figure .An important
characteristic is the rejection of unwanted narrowband noise signals. If a
wideband signal is affected by a narrowband noise signal, then since the
spreading function is commutative, the dispreading operation while
extracting the wanted signal will in turn spread the narrowband noise to the
wideband, and reduce its power level. The rejection of the interference
effects of wideband noise from other users is the role of convolution coding,


32


Figure 1.2.16 CDMA a).single b).n signal
1.4.4. Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple
Access (OFDMA)
Orthogonal frequency division multiple access (OFDMA) consists of
assigning one or several sub-carrier frequencies to each user (terminal
station) with the constraint that the sub-carrier spacing is equal to the OFDM
frequency spacing 1/Ts,in next section we will explain OFDM .

Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM):
OFDM is similar to frequency division multiplexing (FDM). OFDM
distributes the data over a large number of carriers that are spaced apart at
precise frequencies. The spacing provides the orthogonality in this
technique, which prevents the demodulator from seeing frequencies other
than their own. We consider a data stream operating at R bps and an
available bandwidth of Nf centered at fc. The entire bandwidth could be
used to transmit a data stream, in which case the bit duration would be 1/R.
By splitting the data stream into N substreams using a serial-to-parallel
converter, each substream has a data rate of R/N and is transmitted on a
separate subcarrier, with spacing between adjacent subcarriers of f (see
Figure 1.17). The bit duration is N/R.
33


Figure 1.17 OFDM

The most important feature of OFDM is the orthogonal relationship between
the subcarrier signals. Orthogonality allows the OFDM subcarriers to
overlap each other without interference. OFDM uses FH to create a spread
spectrum system.
In the OFDM the input information sequence is first converted into parallel
data sequences and each serial/parallel converter output is multiplied with
spreading code. Data from all subcarriers is modulated in baseband by
inverse fast Fourier transform (IFFT) and converted back into serial data.
The guard interval is inserted between symbols to avoid ISI caused by
multipath fading and finally the signal is transmitted after RF up-conversion.







34

Table 1.5 comparisons between Multiple Access Techniques

Drawbacks Advantages Multiple access technique
Low peak data rate
Loss due to guard bands
Sensitive to narrowband
Interference
Low transmit power
Robust to multi-path
Easy frequency planning
Low delay
FDMA
High transmit power
Sensitive to multi-path
Difficult frequency
planning
High peak data rate
High multiplexing gain in
the case of bursty
Traffic
TDMA
Low peak data rate
Limited capacity per sector
due to multiple
access interference
Low transmit power
Robust to multi-path
Easy frequency planning
High scalability
Low delay
CDMA
Multi-carrier signals with
high peak-to-average power
ratio (PAPR) require high
linear
amplifiers.
- Loss in spectral efficiency
More sensitive to Doppler
spreads
Phase noise
Accurate synchronization is
required
High spectral efficiency
Simple digital realization
Low complex receivers
Flexible spectrum
adaptation can be realized
Different modulation
schemes can be used on
individual sub-carriers
OFDMA