MAIN ISSUES OF TRANSLATION STUDIES

The concept of translation

The term TRANSLATION itself has several meanings:
) the general subject field
) the product (the text that has been translated)
) the process (the act of producing the translation)
The process of translation involves the translator chanin an original written text
(the source te!t - ST) in the original language (the source lanuae - SL) into a
written text (the taret te!t - TT) in a different language (the taret lanuae -
TL).
"a#obson differentiates between $ cateories of translation:
a) INTRALIN%UAL an interpretation of verbal signs b means of other
signs of the same language! rephrasin
b) INTERLIN%UAL an interpretation of verbal signs b means of some
other language! translation proper
c) INTERSEMIOTI& - an interpretation of verbal signs b means of non-
verbal sign sstem! trans'utation
De(elop'ents of the discipline
"lthough written and spo#en translations have plaed a crucial role in interhuman
communication throughout histor$ the stud of translation as an academic sub%ect
has onl reall begun in the past &' ears.
(n )*+, -olmes described the discipline as being .concerned with the problems
clustered around the phenomenon of translating.. (n )*// Snell--ornb writes about
.the demand that translation studies should be viewed as an independent discipline.
and in )**& she writes about .the breathta#ing development of translation studies.
There has been a proliferation of speciali0ed translating and interpreting courses at
both undergraduate and postgraduate level$ as well as several designated .1entres
of Translation.. These are mainl oriented towards training future professional
commercial translators and interpreters. 2ther courses focus on the practice of
literar translation.
There has also been a proliferation of conferences$ boo#s and %ournals on translation
in man languages (Babel, Meta, Across Languages and Cultures, Literature in
Translation). There are various professional publications dedicated to the practice of
translation (The Linguist, In Other Words).
International conferences )ere held in a lare nu'ber of countries* the
the'es including: translation and training translators$ literar translation$ legal
translation$ gender and translation$ the histor of translation etc.
A brief histor+ of the discipline
The practice of translation was discussed b 1icero$ -orace and St 3erome. -owever$
the stud of the field developed into an academic discipline onl in the second half of
the ,'
th
centur.
1
4ntil the )*5's$ language learning was dominated b the grammar-translation
method.
(t was centered on the stud of the grammatical rules and structures of the foreign
language. Those rules were both practiced and tested b the translation of a series
of usuall unconnected and artificiall constructed sentences exemplifing the
structures being studied.
Translation exercises were regarded as a means of learning new language or of
reading a foreign language text until one had the linguistic abilit to read the
original.
(n the )*5's and )*+'s came the rise of the direct method the communicative
approach to 6nglish language teaching.
(t placed stress on students7 natural capacit to learn language and attempted to
replicate .authentic. language learning conditions in the classroom$ which led to the
abandoning of translation in language learning.
Translation tended to become restricted to higher-level and universit language
courses and professional translator training.
"t the time in the 4S"$ literar translation was promoted in universities b the
translation wor#shops.
The were intended as a platform for the introduction of new translations into the
target culture and for the discussion of the finer principles of the translation process
and of understanding a text.
8arallel to this approach was that of comparative literature$ where literature is
studied and compared transnationall and transculturall .
"nother area dealing with translation was contrastive analsis the stud of two
languages in contrast in an attempt to identif general and specific differences
between them. Studies were conducted b 9ina and :arbelnet$ 1atford$ 3ames$ :i
8ietro.
1ontrastive analsis does not$ however$ incorporate sociocultural and pragmatic
factors$ nor the role of translation as a communicative act.
The translation studies have moved awa from the notion of being primaril
connected to language teaching and learning$ and the new focus became the specific
stud of what happens in and around translating and translation.
(n the )*&'s and )*5's a more sstematic and linguistic-oriented approach
emerged:
,ina+ and Darbelnet a contrastive approach that categori0ed what
the saw happening in the practice of translation between ;rench and
6nglish
Malblanc a contrastive approach$ ;rench and <erman
Mounin examined linguistic issues of translation
Nida incorporated elements of 1homs#7s generative grammar
The -ol'es.Tour+ 'ap
2
-olmes7 paper .The name and nature of translation studies. is
considered to be the founding statement for the field.
-e put forward an overall framewor# describing what translation
studies covers$ which was subse=uentl presented b <ideon Tour.
TRANSLATION STUDIES
/ure Applied
theoretical descriptive translator translation translation
training aids
criticism
product
general partial oriented process
oriented function
oriented
medium area ran# text-tpe time problem
restricted restricted restricted restricted restricted restricted
6xplanation:
The ob%ectives of the .pure. areas of research are:
). the description of the phenomena of translation (descriptive translation
theor)
,. the establishment of general principles to explain and predict such
phenomena (translation theor)
<eneral theories refer to those writings that see# to describe or account for ever
tpe of translation and to ma#e generali0ations that will be relevant for translation as
a whole.
Descripti(e translation studies (:TS) has three possible foci:
1. product-oriented examines existing translations (e.g. analsis of a single
ST-TT pair or a comparative analsis of several TTs of the same ST! analsis
of a specific period$ language or text>discourse tpe! diachronic>snchronic
studies)
2. function-oriented the description of the function of translations in the
recipient sociocultural situation$ a stud of contexts (e.g. studies of which
boo#s were translated when and where and what influences the exerted)
3. process-oriented concerned with the pscholog of translation$ tring to
figure out what happens in the mind of the translator
3
/artial theories of translation:
1. medium-restricted the translation b machine (alone or as an aid to a
human translator) or humans (written or spo#en consecutive or
simultaneous)
2. area-restricted restricted to specific languages or groups of languages
and>or cultures
3. ran#-restricted restricted to a specific level of the word or sentence
4. text-tpe restricted loo# at specific discourse tpes or genres (literar$
business$ technical translation)
5. time-restricted referring to theories and translations limited to a specific
time frames and periods
6. problem-restricted refer to specific problems such as e=uivalence or to
whether universals of translated language exist
the 0applied1 branch of translation studies concerns:
1. translator training teaching methods$ testing techni=ues$ curriculum design
2. translation aids dictionaries$ grammars$ information technolog
3. translation criticism the evaluation of translations$ mar#ing of student
translations$ the reviews of published translations
-olmes? map omits an mention of the individualit of the stle$ decision-ma#ing
processes and wor#ing practices of human translators
-ISTOR2 OF TRANSLATION
in the so-called pre-linguistic period$ the main focus is the theme of @word-for-wordA
and @sense-for-senseA translation
influential authors from the histor of translation include: 1icero$ St 3erome$ :olet$
Luther$ :rden$ Ttler and Schleiermacher
the oldest partiall saved literar translation is the one of -omer?s @(liadA$ from
<ree# to Latin$ b Livius "ndronicus
The Ro'ans
the distinction between literal (word-for-word) and free (sense-for-sense) translation
goes bac# to 1icero
he outlined his approach to translation in @:e optimo genere oratorumA
the @interpreterA 1icero mentions is the literal translator$ while the @oratorA tries to
produce a speech that would move the listeners
in Boman times @word-for-wordA meant the exact replacement of each <ree# word
with its closest grammatical e=uivalent in Latin
-orace in @"rs 8oeaticaAunderlines the goal of producing an aestheticall pleasing
and creative text in the TL
St "ero'e
cites the authorit of 1icero?s approach to %ustif his own Latin translation of the
<ree# Septuagint 2ld Testament
4
3erome disparaged the word-for-word approach because b following so closel the
form of the ST$ it produced an absurd translation$ cloa#ing the sense of the original
the sense-for-sense approach allowed the content>sense of the ST to be translated
Martin Luther
the preoccupation of the Boman 1atholic 1hurch was for the @correctA meaning of
the Cible to be transmitted
non-literal translation came to be seen as a weapon against 1hurch
Luther plaed a pivotal role in the Beformation with his translations of the Dew
Testament and the 2ld Testament
his use of a regional and sociall broad dialect reinforced that form of <erman as a
standard
he was accused of having altered the -ol Scriptures and defended himself in
@1ircular Letter on TranslationA
Luther re%ects word-for-word strateg since it would be unable to conve the same
meaning as the ST and would sometimes be incomprehensible
Earl+ translators
often differed in the meaning the gave to terms such as @faithfulnessA$ @accuracA
and @translationA
in the end of the )+
th
centur$ the concept of @fidelitA became identified with
@faithfulness to the meaningA
@spiritA denotes creative energ or inspiration$ but St "ugustine used it as @-ol
SpiritA
@truthA was intertwined with @spiritA$ but had the sense of @contentA
Dr+den* Dolet* T+tler 345
th
.46
th
centur+7
:rden reduces all translation to three categories:
metaphrase @word-b-word and line-b-lineA$ literal translation
paraphrase the author is #ept in view b the translator$ but his words are not
so strictl followed as his sense$ faithful translation
imitation ver free translation$ ta#ing$ leaving out and adding as wanted!
adaptation
:rden critici0es authors who adopt metaphrase$ calling them @verbal copiersA
he re%ects imitation because it does wrong to the author$ and prefers paraphrase
:olet sets out five principles in order of importance:
). the translator must perfectl understand the sense and material of the original
,. the translator should have a perfect #nowledge of both SL and TL
E. the translator should avoid word-for-word renderings
F. the translator should avoid Latinate and unusual forms
&. the translator should assemble words elo=uentl to avoid clumsiness
Ttler @6ssa on the principles of translationA$ sets out three general rules:
)) the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original wor#
,) the stle and manner of writing should be of the same character as the original
E) the translation should have all the ease of the original composition
Schleier'acher 348
th
centur+7
@2n the different methods of translatingA$ founder of modern hermeneutics
5
distinguishes two different tpes of translators: @:olmetscherA (translates
commercial texts) and @4berset0erA (wor#s on scholarl and artistic texts)
the =uestion is how to bring the ST writer and the TT reader together:
o moving the reader toward the writer prefers this strateg$ giving the
reader the same impression that he would receive reading the wor# in the
original language
o moving the writer toward the reader
with the first strateg$ the translator must adopt an @alienatingA method of
translation$ orienting him>herself b the language and the content of the ST
conse=uences:
o if the translator wishes to communicate the same impression which
he>she received from the ST$ it will also depend on the level of education
and understanding among the TT readership
o a special language of translation ma be necessar$ compensating
something with an imaginative word
Ne)'an and Arnold
Dewman emphasi0ed the foreignness of the wor# ((liad) b a deliberatel archaic
translation
"rnold opposed it and advocated a transparent translation method
he advises his audience to put faith in scholars$ who are the onl ones =ualified to
compare the effect of the TT to the ST
this elitist attitude led to the devaluation of translation (which could never reach the
heights of the ST) and its marginali0ation (the translations were to be produces onl
for a selected elite)
DEFINITIONS OF TRANSLATION
There are several approaches to translation$ and conse=uentl$ several definitions of
translation.
Ghat is common to all the definitions is the idea that there is something in one
language that can be considered e=uivalent to something in another language.
1. L(D<4(ST(1 :6;(D(T(2D substituting textual material from the source language
with the e=uivalent textual material in the target language
The relationship of e=uivalence is established between those elements and
categories of the source and target language that occup the same role in the
same context.
Those elements are identified:
b observing the translator as the competent user of both the SL and the
TL
formall$ as the segment in the TL text that changes onl if he
corresponding segment in the SL text changes as well
2. 8-(L2L2<(1"L :6;(D(T(2D the process of substituting one literar text with
another$ and preserving the artistic value of the original
The aim is creating the e=uivalent artistic effect>experience
6
The text is translated part b part$ with a special effort to #eep the literar
elements of the original: rhme$ word-pla$ metaphor$ allusion$ assonance$
alliteration$ etc.
(ssues: 1an poetr be translated at allH 1an a poem be translated into proseH
-ow to translate iambic meter into language with a mainl trochaic sstem of
accentuationH
3. 12II4D(1"T(96 :6;(D(T(2D substituting the source message with the closest
natural e=uivalent in the target language
1ommunication is one of the main functions of language$ so translating can be
viewed as a social act between the sender and the receivers and the
translator and his>her ultimate receivers.
The aim is not absolute e=uivalence$ but the closest natural e=uivalent.
T-EOR2 9 S&IEN&E 9 /RA&TI&E
a) ;irml defined sstem of #nowledge and understanding based observing certain
significant patterns (the theor of relativit$ set theor)
sstematic explanation of a phenomenon
b) Casic scientific terms or theoretical =uestions of a discipline
a set of unrelated data and #nowledge about a phenomenon (the theor of
literature$ the theor of translation)
c) :ealing with theoretical problems related to a phenomenon that cannot be
scientificall proven and explained
explaining the details and developing the metalanguage
The theor of translation cannot be scientificall verified we do not #now enough to
set a firm theor and the phenomenon is too complex to be explained with a single
theor.
T-E &OM/ONENTS OF T-E TRANSLATION T-EOR2
1. L(D<4(ST(1 should explain the relationship between the message and the
linguistic codes used to express it$ in both the SL and TL
2. 8SJ1-2L(D<4(ST(1 should explain the relationship between the message and
the senders command of the SL$ and the relationship between the received
message and the receivers command of the TL
3. S21(2L(D<4(ST(1 should explain the relationship between the sender the
receiver in the communication process of transferring certain content
T-E UNITS OF TRANSLATION
words substituting words from one language with the words from another
morphemes the smallest units of meaning
sntagms words ac=uire meaning in context with other words
sentences have sntactic structure
texts
textual material
7
/RO:LEMS OF MET-ODOLO%2
). The static view of translation brings about several problems.
)) Stigle su na vri%eme.
)a) The came on time.
"ll linguistic elements of the source text cannot fit in the translated text. (n the
sentences )) and )a) several changes occur:
a whole element is lost in translation (feminine @stigleA)
the translator has to decide whether the action too# place in the past or %ust a
moment ago (@cameA or @have comeA)
the translator has to decide whether the came @on timeA or @in timeA
due to the linguistic needs of the TL$ it is necessar to add a new element @theA
(f translation is viewed merel as the substitution of the linguistic units$ and those
units cannot be completel substituted$ one can conclude that translation is
impossible.
The appropriate units of translation are communicative units in a communicative
situation$ the translator will be familiar with the context and #now which of the
options mentioned above to choose.
,. Transparenc vs. non-transparenc of translation
The translation has to be transparent it must not be noticed$ because he receiver
wants the e=uivalent of the original massage and not the form of the original
message.
3ustifications of the non-transparent translation:
the original was formed in this specific wa
the faithfulness of the content is preserved
-owever$ too literal translations betra the communicative function:
)b) "rrived the-feminine on time.
,) Inogo poKtovani gospodine 3ones
,a) 9er distinguished Ir. 3ones
,b) :ear Ir. 3ones
E) u sm%eru suprotnom od #a0al%#e na satu
Ea) in the direction opposite to the movement of the hands on the cloc#
Eb) countercloc#wise
The translation can be left non-transparent if the translator wishes to teach
something about the source language (rhthm$ stle$ characteristic lexemes) or
when elements of culture and civili0ation are translated.
T-E NATURE OF TRANSLATION
(n order to exchange meanings$ both the participants of the communication process
must be familiar with the linguistic sstem$ or the communication ends. Ghen the
translator comes into the picture$ the communication is established again.
(nformation is the extra linguistic content which is transferred between the sender
and the receiver in the form of message. That content needs to be coded in order to
enter the communication channel and decoded b the receiver.
8
The channel can be spatial (speech)$ temporal (written) and combined (film).
(n each case$ the message is phsical and is transferred until it reaches the receiver.
:uring the communication process$ there is a certain feedbac# which allows the
sender to ad%ust his>her message$ according to the reactions of the receiver (e.g.
facial expressions)
(n an tpe of communication$ the sender creates the message in a wa that he>she
thin#s is the best wa for his>her receivers to receive it.
S6D:6B ------------------------------- TB"DSL"T2B ---------------------------- B616(96BS
( receiver> sender )
SO&IAL ROLE OF TRANSLATION AND T-E TRANSLATOR
Translation occurs when one social groups comes in contact with another social
group that uses a different linguistic code.
:ue to translation:
)) cultural goods became the @propertA of all people
,) the exchange of goods was enabled
E) spiritual unit was developed
tpes of translation: literar$ technical$ scientific$ commercial$ film$ conference
6ach of the tpes has uni=ue demands (specialist s#ills and #nowledge)$ but some
demands are common:
I. The abilit to decode understanding the source message
II. The abilit to re-encode expressing the message in the target language
(((. The abilit to transfer the content faithfull
(9. The abilit to establish communicative interaction with the ultimate receivers
The command of language the abilit to use language in communicative situations
The members of a single communit have a wide bac#ground of common experience$
but when that bac#ground is missing$ the sender can form his>her message in such
wa that he>she reduces it to a common bac#ground
(f the sender wants the message to be approachable to a wider circle of people$ it is
necessar to express it more popularl
The translator is firstl a linguist who has a wide common bac#ground with the users
of both languages
The success of the translator?s role depends on how well he>she manages to
establish the bac#ground of common experience with the original sender and the
ultimate receivers
The translators have a significant role in a societ and the are present in all the
spheres of human life
Some of them wor# alone$ some in organi0ations$ and some translate in their free
time
Some of the wor# places that re=uire written or oral translations or correction of
translations$ among other tas#s$ are: foreign languages correspondent$ tour guide$
reporter$ editor$ librarian
"lthough man people thin# the can do good translations$ the wor# of translator
re=uires:
" level of #nowledge and competence that cannot be achieved in high school
9
Gidth (interdisciplinar correlation with various sub%ects) and depth (the level of
professionalism) that can onl be achieved in a higher level of education
T2/ES OF TRANSLATION
TB"DSL"T(2D
-4I"D I"1-(D6
written oral written
literar non-literar non-literar non-literar
simultaneous consecutive
"ccording to the nature of the translator: human$ machine
"ccording to the medium of translation: written$ oral
MT 3'achine translation7
appeared in the )*&'s as a response to an explosion of information
-owever$ several difficulties arose in IT: polsem$ word order in different
languages
"lthough IT is definitel faster than an other tpe of translation$ it is not more
economic because it needs thorough preparation$ which is both time and
resource consuming
IT produces raw translations that need to be revised and considers onl written
non-literar texts
IT is logical and cannot handle metaphors$ so it deals onl with technical and
scientific texts
-u'an translation
-uman translation is a regular form of translation$ but the processes that go on
in the translator mind cannot be analsed
(n order to reach certain conclusions about the process of translation$ we must
focus on the results and products of translation
;ritten translation
The translator begins b reading the source message in order to decode it and
receive the information it carries
To grasp the meaning$ he>she can read it several times$ use dictionaries and
encclopaedias or consult other people who are more competent in the area
-aving decoded it$ the translator proceeds b encoding the message in the target
language
10
-e>she can use various sources (grammars$ dictionaries$ lexicographic
textboo#s) to encode the message in the best possible wa! and also$ change$
rearrange or polish the translation and even give it to another person to correct it
Oral translation
The interpreter has no written text and depends on the single event of receiving
the message he>she cannot go bac# to chec# the meaning
Deither during decoding nor encoding can the interpreter spend much time on
rephrasing$ expressing the message or consulting the dictionaries
There are also combinations of written and oral translations:
o 8rima vista the interpreter reads the message and translates it orall
o The interpreter orall translates the speech and the translation is recorded
-owever$ both combinations are difficult because: written texts are organi0ed in
a linear wa$ and speech is not! written text lac# intonation and accentuation$ as
well as other non-verbal means of communication that cannot be noted
Si'ultaneous and consecuti(e interpretin
Simultaneous interpreting happens at the same time as the original speech the
spea#er tal#s as if the interpreter is not there
1ertain e=uipment is necessar: a microphone for the spea#er and a sound proof
booth for the interpreter! a microphone for the interpreter$ connected to a radio
and earphones for the ultimate receivers
(n order to interpret simultaneousl:
o the interpreter must thin# together with the spea#er
o decode and encode the message completel automaticall
o listen and spea# at the same time
1onsecutive interpreting is probabl the earliest form of translation
The spea#er utters a messages and pauses so that the interpreter could translate
it to the listeners
The length of the utterance depends on the agreement between the spea#er and
the interpreter
o (f it is too short$ it brea#s the continuit of the speech and the listeners
cannot concentrate on the translation because the message is not full
transmitted
o (f it is too long$ the interpreter cannot memori0e everthing and the
listeners have no real contact with the spea#er
o The best wa is if the utterance comprises a single complete information
unit (E )' min)
Literar+ and non<literar+ translation
Literar translation is viewed as art and non-literar as craft
The aims of literar and non-literar texts and translations differ$ so literar aim
at producing aesthetic effects and appealing to artistic sensibilit$ while non-
literar serve to conve factual information
Literar translations are @freeA$ because it is necessar to achieve the
same>similar effect as the original
-owever$ in ever literar text there are factual elements$ while ever non-
literar text includes certain literar elements (metaphors$ comparisons)
Stle is an essential part of the message so it is necessar to translate a text
using appropriate stle
(n translating literar texts$ the translator has to use his>her own creativit
11
&OMMUNI&ATI,E MODEL OF TRANSLATION
successful communication re=uires several conditions to be fulfilled:
o the existence of the sender and the receivers of the information$
o their contact (verbal or written) through a certain communication channel
o a common linguistic code the both share$ which enables the sender to
code his information and transfer it to the receivers as a message$ and
which enables the receivers to accept and decode the message
complete correspondence of the sender?s and the receivers? codes is never full
accomplished due to differences in idiolects and dialects
however$ a certain amount of the information is transferred even among the
spea#ers of different languages (who use different linguistic codes)
when the level of direct communication becomes to low for the message to be
transferred$ the need for translation arises
the sender has a certain information to conve (a thought$ an idea$ a wish$ an
emotion$ a command)
he needs to code that information$ using the resources of his language and his
own command of that language
the information undergoes modification during the process of coding$ due to the
mere fact that it is subdued to a certain language sstem
the extralinguistic situation exists independentl of the languages and can
therefore be expressed b various languages the extralinguistic fact remains$
what changes is onl its expression
each language has certain preferred patterns of expression and the senders often
subconsciousl accept those patterns$ even though the might be aware that the
information the want to conve is slightl altered
the second modification of the message happens due to the sender?s command of
the language (pscholinguistic component)
the sender can onl use that part of potentials of his languages that he>she has a
good command of
senders are sometimes read to admit inade=uac of their #nowledge$ especiall
when it comes to expressing themselves in a foreign language
the third modification occurs due to the fact that the message is addressed to a
certain receiver$ regardless of the fact whether the receiver is present at that
moment or not (sociolinguistic component)
if the receiver is present$ he>she can immediatel provide feedbac# on whether
the communication is successful or not (b a loo# of understanding or
misunderstanding$ nodding$ facial expression$ a =uestion or a re=uest for
clarification)
even when the receiver is not present$ the sender has him>her in mind$ shaping
the message in such wa he>she predicts would be appropriate for the receiver to
accept it
if the receivers are un#nown to the sender$ he>she tries to ad%ust his>her
message so it would be comprehensible to an average receiver
after the message is formed$ it is sent through a communication channel and
undergoes modifications again$ due to the noise in the channel
in the temporal channel$ the message can undergo ma%or modifications toda$
we do not believe in the stories about the werewolves and witches
man words remain the same$ but their content is changing (e.g. romantic in
romanticism and toda)
12
after the message came to the receiver$ it undergoes another modification in the
process of decoding (pscholinguistic component)
the main feature of communication is flexibilit the information is not static or
rigid$ it changes in man was
absolute correspondence of the information can onl be fiction it undergoes
man changes$ especiall when the translator is included in the communication
as well
extralinguistic information L the sender?s command of the language and his>her
relationship to the receiver message ) (coded in the SL)
communication channel )
the translator receives the message$ with his>her command of the SL decodes the
message to receive the extralinguistic information the translator as the user of the TL$
with his relationship to the ultimate receiver message , (coded in the TL)
communication channel ,
the ultimate receiver with his>her command of the TL extralinguistic content
craft the translator must have a good command of the SL and the TL$ as well
as the culture and civili0ation of the SL and the TL
art translating an information which was formed artisticall in the SL
&ULTURE AND TRANSLATION
1asagrande: ever translation is in fact the translation of cultures and
civili0ations and the possibilit of translation proves that there are certain
universals of human culture$ language and the communication process
although it is impossible to translate some elements of culture$ transferring
information about those elements has a ver important function fre=uenc of
the translation leads to the acceptance of those elements in the TL
translation strategies:
o definition-translation if the TL has no such cultural element as the SL$
defining the element is the clearest wa to translate its meaning
e.g. apsolvent a senior undergraduate who has completed his
course of stud but has not ta#en his final examinations
o direct borrowing (emprunt) introducing the word in its original form$
italici0ing it to show that it does not belong to the TL and defining it either
when it is first mentioned$ or in a footnote
o loan translation (cal=ue) literal translation of the terms for the
elements of a foreign culture
e.g. #uMna radinost domestic activities (private accommodation)$
mail order business poslovan%e poKtans#im narudNbama (proda%e
putem #ataloga)
13
o problems ma arise when the translator decides to literall translate
certain aspects of the source culture which do not exist in the target
culture:
dobar te# - good appetite does not conve the meaning to the
receiver!
high school viso#a K#ola wrong translation!
viso#a K#ola higher school$ viKa K#ola two-ear post-secondar
school
o adaptation if an element of culture does not exist in the TL$ the
translator might opt for translating it with the closest term possible that
means something similar in the TL
hamburger pl%es#avica$ #osani odre0a#$ topli sendviO s #osanim
mesom
the choice of the techni=ue depends on the extralinguistic context$ as well as the
nature of the situation in which the content is conveed if the unfamiliar
cultural element itself is the sub%ect of communication$ it must be defined and
explicit$ but not adapted
another possible procedure is coining new terms usuall adopted when a
concept enters the culture and has several different names until spontaneousl a
term develops that ma have nothing to do with the term in the SL
#emi%s#a olov#a ball-point pen
petl%a clover leaf
when it comes to scientific or technical terms$ it is fairl eas to translate them
however$ terms from the social sphere are different and there are several
techni=ues:
1. both societies>culture have a certain concept and the terms for it the
translator is to connect those terms appropriatel and avoid free
translation:
o administrativne ci%ene government-fixed prices! dohoda# po
stanovni#u per capita income! 0eml%a u ra0vo%u developing
countr
2. the concepts exist in both cultures and the terms in both languages$
but their fre=uenc of usage differs:
o mePunarodna pod%ela rada (fre=uent) international division of
labour! prosta reprodu#ci%a simple reproduction normal
operation! proKirena reprodu#ci%a expanded reproduction
expansion of production capacit
3. the terms exist in both languages but the content cannot be e=ualed:
o i0vrKno vi%eMe executive council (but it can be an executive
council so the meaning is not conveed) government (more
appropriate translation)!
o doprinos contribution (it does not conve the meaning) tax
(less precise$ but more appropriate)
o druKtveni proi0vod social product gross material product
o narodnost nationalit national minorit
o privredna #omora chamber of econom chamber of
commerce
o osobni dohoci personal incomes wages and salaries
14
4. concepts exist in both cultures but the term in one language is such
that lexical translation of it would completel distort the content:
o druKtveni radni# social wor#er public figure
o druKtvena d%elatnost social activities non-productive
branches of the econom
o radniO#a #ontrola wor#ers? control wor#ers? supervision
o sindi#at sndicate trade union$ labor union
5. a concept exist in one culture$ but not in the other the easiest wa is
to cal=ue it and define it
o osnovna organi0aci%a udruNenog rada basic organi0ation of
associated labor (basic production$ accounting and self-
management unit)
o #uMni sav%et house council (house tenants committee)
o samoupravni a#ti basic self-management documents
o delegats#i sustav sstem of delegates
o %edinstveno trNiKte integral mar#et
o sluNba druKtvenog #n%igovodstva social audit service
6. polsem in the SL and the translator has to opt for the appropriate
translation:
o druKtveno vlasniKtvo public>social ownership or property
o federaci%a federation or federal government
o grads#a s#upKtina municipal assembl or town hall
o organi vlasti authorities or police
o preds%edni# president$ chairman$ maor
&ONTRASTI,E ANAL2SIS 9 %ENERAL ISSUES
(n the process of translation$ two language sstems are set against each other.
The analsis of translation includes examining categories of one language sstem
in relation to the corresponding categories of the other language sstem
1ontrastive analsis can be defined as the sstematic stud of a pair of
languages with a view to identifing their structural differences and similarities
There are two tpes of contrastive analsis:
o 8edagogical - contrasts pairs of categories of two languages$ noting their
differences and similarities! where differences occur$ it implies possible
difficulties in learning the foreign language
o Tpological views models of linguistic description that can be applied to
both languages and confirm their similarit or difference
1ontrastive analsis puts together those categories of two language sstems that
share a certain semantic or formal feature that feature serves as tertium
comparationis$ which allows them to be compared
6xamples: eventualan eventual (formal)$ #onaOan eventual (semantic)$
novela novel$ pretendirati to pretend
Lexicall$ contrastive analsis results in a bilingual dictionar for each specific
lexical unit of one language$ it provides as man lexical units of the other
language as necessar to include its complete semantic content. (t also specifies
the conditions in which a certain unit from that set of corresponding lexical units
should be chosen as translation
15
6xamples: #andidat candidate applicant! uredniKtvo editorial board$
editorial staff$ editing$ editorship
<rammaticall$ contrastive analsis should result in contrastive grammar for
each grammatical categor of one language$ it should list and provide differential
description$ i.e. specif the conditions in which a certain grammatical categor
should be chosen
6xamples: 4 #ovOegu %e nosio svu svo%u imovinu. (lo#ativ)
(n the suitcase he carried all his belongings. (preposition)
4 ovom se #ovOegu moNe nositi sve Kto Oov%e#u treba na putu.
(refle#sivni glagol)
This suitcase can carr everthing that one needs on a %ourne.
(sub%ect in nominative)
1ontrastive analsis allows better and more useful bilingual dictionaries to be
constructed$ as well as the dictionaries of appropriate grammatical structures.
TRANSLATION E=UI,ALEN&E AND FORMAL &ORRES/ONDEN&E
6=uivalence is the #e concept in translation and is established in a
communicative situation.
;ormal correspondence is established between language sstems and can be
defined as the relationship between a linguistic unit of one language and the
corresponding linguistic unit of another language.
Iost commonl$ formal correspondents are those units that share the same
metalinguistic term 1roatian and <erman present$ 6nglish and (talian article$
1roatian and 6nglish possessive ad%ective
(n some cases$ translation e=uivalent differs from the formal correspondent and
can be accomplished even when a formal correspondent does not exist.
" second tpe of formal correspondence can be established between semanticall
connected units for example$ progressive tense glagols#i vid (svrKeno$
nesvrKeno)
6xample: 6nglish possessive ad%ective has F formal correspondents (possessive
ad%ective$ reflexive ad%ective$ personal pronoun$ correspondent)
( too# his advice. 8rimio sam n%egov sav%et.
-e too# his boo#s and left. 40eo %e svo%e #n%ige i otiKao.
Jou?ve endangered his life. 4gro0ili ste mu Nivot.
-e shrugged his shoulders. Slegnuo %e ramenima.
The first tpe of formal correspondence refers to the identit of function in two
language sstems$ while the second refers to the identit of function as the
carriers of meaning in a text
:A&><TRANSLATION AS A TEST ON FORMAL &ORRES/ONDEN&E
The second tpe of formal correspondence is derived from the translation
e=uivalence ever formal correspondent is necessaril a potential translation
e=uivalent$ but ever translation e=uivalent is not necessaril a formal
correspondent
" test on formal correspondence is bac#-translation formal correspondents are
those units that can be translated bac# to the units of the original text
The lived on the same bloc#.
16
Qiv%eli su u isto% ulici. communicative e=uivalence
The lived on the same street bac#-translation
Cac#-translation confirms or negates the existence of formal correspondence in
translation e=uivalence
;ormal correspondence presents a linguistic component that the translator uses
as a basis for establishing translation e=uivalence
(t ensures that the translation will not be a paraphrase$ %ust as the
communicative component ensures that the translation will not be mere transfer
of linguistic units$ but a natural e=uivalent of the source message
&ONTRASTI,E ANAL2SIS AND TRANSLATION ON T-E
/-ONOLO%I&AL LE,EL
8honolog deals with the structure and functioning of the sound sstem of the
language
Tertium comparationis are the acoustic features and the place in the sound
sstems of the two analsed languages
8honological translation occurs when a term is transferred in another language
together with the semantic content$ but is necessaril transformed according to
the re=uirements and possibilities of the target language (computer
#omp%utor)
8honological modification occurs at each place in which the target language lac#
the same expressive means as the source language
(t is necessar if two languages have different scripts or orthographic rules
(n 1roatian$ personal nouns remain in the original form (unli#e in Serbian)
Dew Jor# (D%u%or#)$ Reats (Ric)$ -ugo ((go)
2ther nouns are written in a wa that matches their pronunciation as closel as
possible interv%u$ deterdNent$ re0ime$ sla%d$ vis#i
4ntil the become a part of the 1roatian lexicon$ the do not behave as our
words (no declension$ no con%ugation) and are written in italics in their original
form
(f sounds of the source and target language correspond$ phonological
modification is unambiguous: hardware hardver$ butterfl baterfla%
8roblem occurs if there is no such correspondence: "dams ("dams or 6dems)$
Thac#era (Ta#eri or Te#eri)$ "ddison ("dison or 6dison)
Ghen it comes to general nouns SeT outweighs: %am dNem$ %a00 dNe0$ badge
bedN$ bac# be#
&ONTRASTI,E ANAL2SIS AND TRANSLATION ON T-E
%RA/-OLO%I&AL LE,EL
<raphological level deals with the wa letters are written$ and orthographic level
considers differences in orthograph
The differences in grapholog and orthograph are important in those cases
where the can be interpreted incorrectl$ especiall with numbers and personal
nouns>names
6nglish writing of @TA is similar to 1roatian writing of @(A! 6nglish writing of @3A is
similar to 1roatian writing of @TA
17
2rthographic differences include:
o :ecimal numbers and thousands 6nglish: ,.& or .&! ,$5''
1roatian: ,$& or '$&! ,.5''
o Uuotation mar#s 6nglish: Veventuall?!
1roatian: Weventualno@
o Cibliograph 6nglish: Cran#o ;raniM$ @4rbani Nivot i urbani problemiA
(4rban Life and 4rban problems)$ Naa Misao$ X$ E$ )*+/$
,' &+
1roatian: Cran#o ;raniM$ rbani !i"ot i urbani proble#i$
@DaKa IisaoA$ X$ E$ )*+/.$ ,' &+
o "ddresses
o :ates
Transliteration is the process of representing text in the characters of another
alphabet
6xample: 1rillic to Latin writing: 8 B$ - D! phonological tertium
comparationis
&ONTRASTI,E ANAL2SIS AND TRANSLATION ON T-E LE?I&AL
LE,EL
2n the lexical level$ contrastive analsis deals with vocabular$ in two was:
o 1onsidering the relationship between the word and the extralinguistic
content it represents (stado a group of a number of animals of a certain
#ind)
o 1onsidering the relationship between a set of interrelated words and their
mutual relationships (snonm stado$ #rdo$ Oopor$ %ato$ rul%a$ gomila!$
antonm milostiv$ o#rutan! hponm agrumi$ naranOe! common
lexical fields #uhati$ peMi$ prNiti)
The role of contrastive analsis on the lexical level is to provide better
understanding of the relationships between the lexical units of two language
sstems and results in more appropriate bilingual dictionaries
(t begins the lexical units of one language sstem and their formal
correspondents in the other language
6xample:
o -erd #rdo$ stado$ Oopor (un#nown number of animal entities in an
unstructured group)
gomila$ rul%a (un#nown number of human individuals in an
unstructured group)
pastir (refers to an individual)
o (n 6nglish$ the distinction between herd$ floc#$ drove and pac# depends on
the #ind and si0e of the animal$ while in 1roatian it refers to their
behaviour and the si0e of the group:
Cuffalos live in herds. Civoli Nive u #rdima.
Ge had two herds of cattle. (mali smo dva stada goveda.
(f a dictionar provides onl the relationship herd Y stado or stado Y herd$ floc#$
it is inappropriate
The correct choice of the word re=uires intuitive or explicit #nowledge of the
interlingustic and crosslinguistic relations$ without which incorrect pairing occurs
18
;alse pairs are the pairs of linguistic units that share a common feature but are
not identical still$ the translator considers them to be e=uivalent because of
the common feature the share
8artial similarit can be found in:
o the form (eventuall - eventualan)$
o shared metalinguistic term (1roatian pre0ent 6nglish present)$
o the aspects of the semantic content (stado - floc#)
False pairs 9 internationalis's
;alse pairs can come from the words that exist in both the source and target
language$ but were originall ta#en from another (usuall <ree# or Latin)
language and have developed different meanings in the SL and TL
There are also false pairs of words that share their form$ but a part of meaning
as well
There are three possible relationships between pairs of words:
o L) Y L, (the meanings are e=uivalent)
o L) L, (the meanings are completel different)
o L) Z[ L, (L) has wider meaning>L, has wider meaning)
False pairs 9 e@ui(alent 'eanin
Gords that have the same meaning in both languages$ but often differ in their
collocation potential
6xample: mole#ula molecule$ fi0iologi%a phsiolog$ #ine0iterapi%a
#inesitherap$ teori%a theor
1ollocation differences:
o #emi%s#o OiKMen%e dr cleaning
o #emi%s#a olov#a ball-point pen
o #emi%s#i od%el chemistr department
o stils#o po#uMstvo period furniture
o elastiOni mo0a# flexible mind
o re0ervni dio spare part
Some words do exist in both languages but are rarel used in one of them if
the translator does not #now that or ignores it$ the e=uivalence of the
communicative situation will be betraed:
o aerodrom airport (\aerodrome)
o analfabet illiterate (\analphabet)
o di%apo0itiv slide (\diapositive)
o natalitet birth rate (\natalit)
o re0ime summar$ abstract (\resume)
o angina sore throat (\angina in everda speech)
o stenografi%a short hand writing (\stenograph)
o fun#cionar official$ officer$ executive (\functionar stlisticall
mar#ed)
False pairs 9 different 'eanin
Gords that have the same form but completel different meaning:
o afirmirati se (gain a reputation) - affirm (potvrditi)
o a#tualan (current$ present) - actual (0bil%s#i$ stvaran)
o dire#ci%a (top management$ board of directors) - direction (sm%er$
pravac)
o eventualan (possible) - eventual (#onaOan$ #ra%n%i)
19
o evidenci%a (records$ files) - evidence (do#a0)
o gimna0i%a (grammar school) - gmnasium (gimnastiO#a dvorana)
o honorarni (part-time) - honorar (poOasni)
o #ompo0itor (composer) - compositor (slagar)
o #on#urenci%a (competition) - concurrence (st%ecan%e)
o pretendirati (claim$ aspire) - pretend (pretvarati se)
o promoci%a (graduation ceremon) - promotion (re#lama)
o prospe#t (brochure$ leaflet) - prospect (i0gled$ perspe#tiva)
o realan (realistic) - real (stvaran)
o repre0entaci%a (national team) - representation (predstavl%an%e)
o re0imirati (summari0e) - resume (nastaviti)
o simpatiOan (nice$ pleasant) - smpathetic (sous%eMa%an)
o solidan (reliable$ good) - solid (#rut$ Ovrst)
Sometimes$ due to incorrect translation$ the components of meaning from one
language can be infiltrated into another (petrole% #erosene oil petroleum
nafta! concept first draft concept 0amisao$ po%am)
6arlier meanings remain and the new are added
False pairs 9 o(erlappin in 'eanin
The word in the L) (1roatian) can have a wider meaning than the word in the L,
(6nglish)
6xample:
o administraci%a administration$ government$ clerical service$ office staff$
paper wor#$ office
2nl when the translator sees all the possible translations$ will he>she be able to
grasp the meaning of the word
The translator starts with the original expression and see#s a corresponding term
in the TL when he>she finds it$ hr>she accepts it and does not see# further
6xamples:
o administrativan administrative$ clerical$ office$ paper$ government
o a#ademi%a academ$ college$ ceremon
o a#ci%a action$ drive$ campaign$ operation$ plan$ raising
o auditori%um auditorium$ audience
o e#onomi%a econom$ economics$ farm
o fotografi%a photograph$ photograph
o himna hmn$ anthem
o industri%a industr$ wor#s$ factor$ plant
o #arta card$ map$ tic#et$ chart
o ob%e#t ob%ect$ pro%ect$ facilit$ establishment$ installation
o parti%a part$ lot$ match
o profesor professor$ teacher
o propaganda propaganda$ advertising
The word in the L, (6nglish) can have a wider meaning than the word in L)
(1roatian)
6xamples:
o champion prva#$ poborni#$ 0agovorni#$ branitel%
o minister ministar$ sveMeni#
o officer oficir$ polica%ac$ referent$ fun#cionar
20
o catholic #atoliO#i$ Kiro#$ liberalan
In(ented pairs
Translators are often more than read to ma#e up lexical pairs$ according to their
own language the invent a completel new word or add a wrong suffix or
prefix
6xamples:
o agrotehni#a modern farming methods (\agrotechnics)
o apsolvent senior undergraduate (\absolvent)
o da#tilograf#in%a tpist (\dactlographer)
o de#linaci%a declension (\declination)
o dirigent conductor (\dirigent)
o e#sponat exhibit (\exponate)
o grafos#op overhead pro%ector (\graphoscope)
o interpun#ci%a punctuation (\interpunction)
o licitaci%a bidding (\licitation)
o referat paper$ report (\referate)
o anorgans#i inorganic (\anorganic)
o autoportret self-portrait (\autoportrait)
o hiperprodu#ci%a overproduction (\hperproduction)
o autogram autograph (\autogram)
o turistiO#i tourist (\touristic)
False pairs )ith different for's
:ifferentiating between snonmous words in L, is a ver difficult tas#
The translator has to be aware of the nuances of meaning! has to #now all the
foreign words for expressing those meanings$ and has to differentiate between
those foreign words
6xample (L) [ L,): - discover$ uncover$ unveil$ reveal$ disclose ot#riti
- treasur$ cashier?s office$ cash des#$ boo#ing office$ box
office$ cash register$ cash box blaga%na
- woman$ wife Nena woman$ female Nena
- municipal assembl$ town hall grads#a s#upKtina

(L) Z L,): - plima$ ose#a tide
- udati se$ oNeniti se marr
- stric$ u%a# uncle
Le!ical and conceptual aps
Lexical gap is a place in the lexical sstem that is not occupied
6xample: coc# hen chic#en
dra#e duc# duc#ling
tur#e - > - > hen-tur#e$ bab-tur#e
6ach language functions as a sstem and has no obvious gaps for its own users$
but the gaps come up when elements of culture are translated from another
language
6xample: odgo% i obra0ovan%e education
odgo% personalit development (H)
Coli me ru#a>noga.
I arm(hand)>foot(leg) hurts.
21
- in 6nglish it has to be specified$ otherwise there is a gap
facilities (sports$ production$ travel$ coo#ing$ sleeping)
sports#i ob%e#ti$ proi0vodni #apaciteti$ prometna sredstva$
pogodnosti 0a #uhan%e$ moguMnosti 0a spavan%e
- in 1roatian it has to be specified$ otherwise there is a gap
ob%e#t (graPevins#i$ industri%s#i$ ugostitel%s#i$ plovni$ vo%ni)
construction pro%ect>building! industrial pro%ect>facilit$ plant!
catering facilit! sailing vessel! militar installation
&ollocations and fi!ed le!ical sets
Gords are not alwas translated with their e=uivalents$ but rather in a wa which
is re=uired b the language (e.g. #emi%s#o OiKMen%e dr cleaning)
Dative spea#er intuitivel #now which words go together$ while collocations might
represent a problem for a translator
6xamples:
o #uhin%s#a sol table salt
o 0emni plin natural gas
o generalni po#us dress rehearsal
o radni naslov tentative title
o robna #uMa department store
o slat#ovodna riba freshwater fish
o doni%eti odlu#u ma#e a decision
o redovni student full-time student
Some languages #eep the same word in different collocations$ while other have
different words for each of those collocations
6xamples:
o braOni Nivot married life
o braOno stan%e marital status
o braOna 0a%ednica matrimon
o braOna l%ubav con%ugal love
o braOni drug spouse
o braOno putovan%e honemoon
o compulsor education obve0no K#olovan%e
o compulsor measures prisilne m%ere
o common sense 0drav ra0um
o common law obiOa%no pravo
o common denominator 0a%edniO#i na0ivni#
Some collocations can be translated literall$ but then the lose their natural
expression
6xamples:
o poprimiti obli# ta#e the form (assume the form)
o pohaPati teOa% ta#e a course (attend a course)
o voditi rat ma#e war (wage war)
o s#lopiti mir ma#e peace (conclude peace)
o 0araditi novac ma#e mone (earn mone)
Set phrases and idio's
22
8roverbs and set phrases usuall exist in TL and are not to be altered under an
circumstances (Col%e i#ad nego ni#ad Y Cetter late than never Cetter ever than
never)
The expressions and meanings might be ver similar>e=uivalent:
o Di%e 0lato sve Kto s%a "ll that glitters is not gold
o Dova metla dobro mete Dew brooms sweep clean
The meaning is the same$ but the linguistic expression differs:
o Inogo babica$ #ilavo di%ete Too man coo#s spoil the broth
o Dapraviti i0 buhe slona Ia#e a mountain out of a molehill
o T#o prvi$ n%egova d%evo%#a ;irst come$ first served
o ]idati #ule u oblacima Cuild castles in Spain
o Rao bubreg u lo%u "s snug as the bug in the rug
o De moNeK imati i ovce i novce Jou cannot have our ca#e and eat it
The meaning and the expression differ:
o " rolling stone gathers no moss
o Trla baba lan da %o% proPe dan
(n this case$ the translator can translate it literall$ but it will not produce the
same effect as in the SL however$ if it becomes more fre=uent$ the meaning
might develop
"nother possibilit is to paraphrase it neutrall (6ngage in useless wor# %ust to
spend the da Trla baba lan da %o% proPe dan)
The translator might opt for an existing proverb with a similar meaning (^to %e
babi milo$ to %o% se i snilo The wish is the father of the thought)
&ONTRASTI,E ANAL2SIS AND TRANSLATION ON T-E
%RAMMATI&AL LE,EL
correspondents are those linguistic units of two language sstems that function in
the same wa as carriers of the same meaning in two texts that are
translationall e=uivalent
contrastive analsis on the grammatical level re=uires specification of conditions
in which a certain grammatical construction will be translated in a certain wa
bac#-translation should show all the 6nglish constructions that can be considered
correspondents to 1roatian structures
%ra''atical false pairs
arise because of the grammatical form$ term or meaning
three tpes:
o those that are not acceptable in the TL:
2n %e roPen u ]agrebu. \-e is born in ]agreb. due to literal
translation of the form
o those that are possible in the TL but are stlisticall mar#ed:
The boo# was written b a well-#nown author. Rn%iga %e napisana
od po0natog autora.
o those that are acceptable and normal$ but fail to conve the exact
meaning of the message:
9rata se 0a#l%uOava%u sva#u veOer u Kest sati. The gate loc#s
itself at six o?cloc# ever evening. it is not necessaril so$ the
translation ma also be: The gate is loc#ed at six o?cloc# ever
evening.
Transposition
23
grammatical units are polsemous so the need for transposition arises
transposition is changing the grammatical construction from the SL into a
different grammatical construction in the TL
example: 1roatian reflexive construction:
o 2n se prisilo da %ede. -e forced himself to eat. reflexive pronoun
o 2n se bri%e sva#o %utro. - -e shaves ever morning. no ob%ect
o 6ngles#i se danas govori po ci%elom svi%etu. 6nglish is spo#en
throughout the world. passive
o D%egova se nova #n%iga dobro proda%e. -is new boo# sells well. active
o 2ni se vole. The love each other. @each other>one anotherA
o 2na se nasmi%ala. She laughed. element
Translation of prepositions and prepositional phrases
prepositions have their own lexical meaning$ but at the same time have a
grammatical meaning
1roatian preposition @naA:
o static meaning: na Y on on the floor$ on the wall$ on the roof
o dnamic meaning: na Y onto>on climb onto the roof$ throw on the floor
o large areas>space: na Y in>into in the world$ come into the world
leNati na suncu Y lie in the sun! leNati na Suncu Y lie on the Sun
o referring to a certain point in space: na Y at at the source$ at the fair
o figurative meaning static: at the wedding$ at the match
o figurative meaning dnamic: come to dinner$ ad%ust to temperature
o temporal meaning: na Y on on that da$ on a given date
o manner: na Y in in that wa$ fold in two$ sa something in 6nglish
24