Relativistic Doppler Effect

Statement of the problem: A source of light is moving at constant speed u

toward a stationary observer (Stanley). The source emits EM waves with f
0
=
1/T
0
in its rest frame. What is the frequency measured by Stanley?
Relativistic Doppler Effect
From Stanley point of view, ( ) cT uT c u T = =
Then, since f = c, we have
( )
c
f
c u T
=

As we have seen, time intervals are measured differently by different observers.

T
0
is measured in the rest frame of the source so that it is the proper
measurement and T is not and in fact, T is dilated, i.e.,
0 0
0
2 2 2 2
1
T cT
T T
u c c u
= = =

This gives,
2
0
0
2 2 2
1 1
f
T
c u c u
T c c

= =
(dist. between wave crests)
0 0
cT =
0 0
f c =
Note:
In the S (rest fr),
0
0
1
f
T

=
`
)
Relativistic Doppler Effect
Now substitute expressions for 1/T into the boxedequation,
c
f =
2 2
( )
c u
c u c

0
0
( )( )
( )
f
c u c u
f f
c u
+
=

0
c u
f f
c u
+
=

(Doppler Shift for an approaching source)

For source receding, the only difference is the sign of the relative speed u -u,
0
c u
f f
c u

=
+
(Doppler Shift for a receding source)
higher freq blue shifted
lower freq red shifted
Example: Red Shifted Red Dwarf Star
From Weins Displacement Law: A red dwarf
star at 3000K has a peak in its emittance at
1000nm but observing from Earth, the red
dwarf appears red (650 nm). Estimate its
receding speed with respect to Earth. (see
Q38.19)
0
0
f c u
f c u

= =
+
( )
( )
2
2
0
0
2
0
1
0.406
1
c u
u c c
c u

| |

| |
= = = |
|
|
+
\ . +
\ .
(Dopper Shift for Receding Object)
General Relativity and Gravity
Equivalence of gravity and acceleration.
General Relativity and Space-Time
Massive objects curve space-time
Object or light paths will be deflected along the curved
surface. Verified by Arthur Eddington during a solar
eclipse in 1919.
Gravity Lens
Distant galaxy lensed by Cluster Abell 2218
J -P Kneib and R. Ellis (Caltech) 2004
Chapter 38: Light Waves Behaving as
Particles
Photoelectric Effects
X-ray Production
Compton Scattering & Pair
Production
Heisenberg Uncertainty
Principle
Wave/Particle Duality
Quantum Nature of Light
By the end of the 19
th
century, most physicists (Maxwell, Hertz,
and others) have firmly established that electromagnetic waves are
waves which exhibit interference and diffraction (Ch. 35-36).
Two seemingly paradoxical nature of light (EM waves):
But newer experiments on the emissions and absorptions of EM
waves have shown behaviors which CANNOT be explained with light
being as waves It requires a radical new thinking of light as
quantized packets of energy called photons (as particles).
Quantum Nature of Light
X Rays Production, Compton Scattering, &
Pair Production:
X-rays were discovered in 1895 in high-voltage
electric discharge tubes but no one understood the
process in their production and what determine
their wavelengths. In particular, when x-rays
collide with matter, the scatter rays can have a
different (longer) wavelengths.
Photoelectric Effect: When light struck a metal
surface, some electrons near the surface will be
emitted. The absorption and emission process
can only be explained by assuming light is
quantized into packets of energy.
Absorption of Light as Particles:
The Photoelectric Effect
An experimental demonstration of the particle nature of light.
Observation: Light causes the cathode to emit
electrons (photoelectrons), which are pushed
toward the anode by the electric-field force.
Electrons on the metal surface
(cathode) are normally bounded to
the positive ions on the surface.
If an electron absorb enough energy from the
incident radiations to overcome the potential-
energy, it can be ejected.
The minimum amount of energy an individual e
has to gain to escape is call the work function |
Rationale:
and i is called the photocurrent
The Photoelectric Effect
The maximum KE (K
max
) of these
electrons can be calculated by
measuring this ,
Above a certain potential strength ,
NO e- can reach the anode!
max 0
K eV =
The minimum needed to stop all e-
getting across to the anode is called
the stopping potential V
0
and
0
(reversed)
AC
V V
0
V
0
V
0
V
The Photoelectric Effect
Unexpected Results:
No electrons will be ejected if f <f
0
(threshold frequency) independent of
light intensity
Even at very low intensity with f >f
0
,
emission is immediate
V
0
is independent of intensity
Classical Expectation:
Energy of EM wave depends on intensity
emission will monotonically depends
on intensity
Intensity of light not dependent on f
For low intensity light, emission is
expected to be delayed
Photoelectric Effect
The dependence of V
0
(K
max
of the ejected electrons) on f
is also another unexpected
(unexplainable by classical
physics) result.
Energy of light was not
expected (classically) to
depend on its frequency f.
Einsteins Photon Explanation
In 1905, Einstein published his theory on photoelectric effect which resulted
in his Nobel prize in 1921.
Built upon Max Plancks hypothesis of quantized light (photon). [later]
hc
E hf

= =
(energy of a photon)
34
where 6.626 10 h J s

= is a universal constant called Plancks Constant.

Note the smallness of this number.
Einsteins Photon Explanation
e
-
|
hf
K
max
Incident light as a collection
of photons (particles)
Each photon has energy hf
Intensity of light ~#of photons
The interaction is an all-or-none process. Electrons bounded to the surface of the
metal can absorb a single photon at a time or none at all. If hf is large enough to
overcome |, an electron will be ejected with kinetic energy K
max
.
By energy conservation, we have:
max
K hf | = | depends on the metal surface
0
eV hf | =
Einsteins Photon Explanation
Since K
max
has to be positive, if hf <|, no electrons will gain enough kinetic
energy to leave. Therefore, there is a threshold frequency and is given by,
Unexpected Results Explained:
Since intensity I is proportional to the #of photons and K
max
(or V
0
)
depends only on the energy of the individual photon hf.
0
hf | =
K
max
linear dependence on f: It is explicit with the above equation.
Increasing intensity will only increase the #of electrons being
ejected and it will increase the photocurrent being observed but it will
not affect the stopping potential V
0
.
Notes
1eV =energy required to move one unit of chargeacross an electric potential of 1 V.
( )( )
19 19
1eV 1.602 10 1 1.602 10 C V J

= =
- Convenient Energy Units:
- Energy and Momentum of a Photon:
E hf
c
h
P
c
= = =
(momentum of a photon)
( )
34 15
19
15 8 6
1
6.626 10 4.136 10
1.602 10
4.136 10 3.00 10 / 1.241 10 1241
eV
h J s eV s
J
hc eV s m s eV m eV nm

| |
= =
|

\ .
= = =
- The duality of light (wave & particle) applied to the entire EM spectrum !
Emission of Light as Particles:
X-Ray Production
X-rays are produced when rapidly
moving electrons that have been
accelerated through a large
potential difference (10
3
to 10
6
V)
strike a metal target.
X-rays emission is the inverse of
the photoelectric effect.
Photoelectric: hf K of e
X-Ray prod: K of e hf
Two Processes
1. Independent of target material: bremsstrahlung (braking radiation) gives
maximum f (energy) or minimum
max
min
AC
hc
eV hf

= =
max KE of accelerated e
2. Dependent of target material: electrons with sufficient KE can excite
atoms in the target material. When they decay back to their ground state,
characteristic spectrum of X-Rays will be emitted. (The energy levels
involved in these transition are typically separated by hundreds or
thousands of eVs, rather than a few eVs as is typical for visible photons.)
Both of these cannot be explained by classical physics !
deceleration of high energy e
-
should produce
EM waves of all f.
Medical Applications of X-Rays
High-energy photons (such as X-Rays) can
penetrate denser materials such as bones
which low-energy photons (such as visible
light) can not. Then, by measuring the
degree of penetration, one can map out
different biology structures in your body.
High-energy photons can also damage
biological tissues by breaking molecular
bonds and creating highly reactive free
radical such as H or OH .
Compton Scattering
In 1923, Arthur H. Compton provided an additional direct conformation on
the quantum nature of x-rays.
- X-rays of well defined are made to fall on a graphite target
- For various scattering angle |, intensities of scattered x-rays are measured
as a function of the wavelength.
NOTE: Energy of photon
>>binding energy of e
-
in graphite.
Compton Scattering
Experimental Observation:
The scattered x-rays have
intensity peaks at two
wavelengths:
0
and .
0
' A =
is called the Compton Shift.
Compton Scattering
But, most importantly,
A is found to be a function of the
observation angle | !
Classical prediction:
Electrons in graphite absorbs x-rays
and reemit them back.
- If the electron is stationary, then
the reemitted =
0
.
- But electrons are moving before
& after scattering, so that will
be Doppers shifted depending
on e
-
s velocity.
Compton Scattering
Classical prediction:
Since diff. electrons will have diff.
velocity, the intensity profile for the
scattered x-rays is expected to be a
single peak with a spread around
0
.
But, the actual experiment gives two
peaks with a Compton Shift which
depends on |. Classical physics cant
explain this !
Compton Scattering
Quantum Explanation:
Compton and his co-workers showed that if we take the x-rays as particles with
/
E hf
p hf c
=
=
and treat the scattering process as a billiard-like collision,
then, the observation of A s dependence on | can be explained !