1

full title Emma

author Jane Austen
type of work Novel
genre Comedy of manners
language English
time and place written 18141815, Chawton, England
date of first publication 1816
publisher John Murray
narrator The narrator is anonymous and narrates some time after the events of the novel take place. The novel is
narrated using free indirect discourse, which means that the narrator steps into and out of Emmas thoughts,
sometimes using language we would imagine Emma to use without placing it in quotation marks.
point of view The novel is narrated in the third person by a narrator who tells us what individual characters think
and feel, and who also provides insight and commentary. For the most part, the narrator relates events from Emmas
perspective, but at times she enters into the thoughts of other characters. Chapter 41, for example, is narrated from
Mr. Knightleys perspective.
tone Ironic, satirical, sympathetic
tense Immediate past
setting (time) Early nineteenth century
setting (place) Highbury, England
protagonist Emma Woodhouse
major conflict Emma struggles to shed her vanity and her fear of confronting her own feelings, both of which
cause her to misunderstand those around her and to meddle harmfully in the lives of others.
rising action Emma realizes that she was horribly wrong to think she could make a match between Mr. Elton and
Harriet, because not only are the two ill-suited to one another, but Mr. Elton has had feelings for her all along that
she intentionally or unintentionally failed to acknowledge. She decides to be in love with Frank and flirts
aggressively with him, though she recognizes that her feelings are not, in fact, very strong. When she cruelly insults
Miss Bates at the Box Hill party, Mr. Knightley reprimands her, and Emma feels extreme remorse about the cruelty
of her actions.
climax Emma realizes that she is in love with Mr. Knightley after Harriet discloses the same to Emma.
falling action Emma and Mr. Knightley confess their feelings for one another. Knightley proposes to Emma; the
happiness of Harriet, Frank, and Jane, which Emmas intrusion had endangered, is secured as Harriet accepts Mr.
Martins proposal and Jane and Frank prepare to marry.
themes Marriage and social status, the confined nature of womens existence, the blinding power of imagination,
the obstacles to open expression
motifs Visits, parties, conversational subtexts
symbols The riddle, the word game, tokens of affection
foreshadowing Almost every chapter includes foreshadowing. For example, in Chapter 27, we are told that Emma
felt as if the spring would not pass without bringing a crisis, an event, a something to alter her present composed
and tranquil state.











2

full title Pride and Prejudice
author Jane Austen
type of work Novel
genre Comedy of manners
language English
time and place written England, between 1796 and 1813
date of first publication 1813
publisher Thomas Egerton of London
narrator Third-person omniscient
climax Mr. Darcys proposal to Elizabeth (Volume 3, Chapter 16)
protagonist Elizabeth Bennet
antagonist Snobbish class-consciousness (epitomized by Lady Catherine de Bourgh and Miss Bingley)
setting (time) Some point during the Napoleonic Wars (17971815)
setting (place) Longbourn, in rural England
point of view The novel is primarily told from Elizabeth Bennets point of view.
falling action The two chapters of the novel after Darcys proposal
tense Past tense
foreshadowing The only notable example of foreshadowing occurs when Elizabeth visits Pemberley, Darcys
estate, in Volume 3, Chapter 1. Her appreciation of the estate foreshadows her eventual realization of her love for its
owner.
tone Comicor, in Jane Austens own words, light and bright, and sparkling
themes Love; Reputation; Class
motifs Courtship; Journeys
symbols The novel is light on symbolism, except on the visit to Pemberley, which is described as being neither
formal, nor falsely adorned, and is clearly meant to symbolize the character of Mr. Darcy.

























3

full title Wuthering Heights
author Emily Bront
type of work Novel
genre Gothic novel (designed to both horrify and fascinate readers with scenes of passion and cruelty;
supernatural elements; and a dark, foreboding atmosphere); also realist fiction (incorporates vivid circumstantial
detail into a consistently and minutely thought-out plot, dealing mostly with the relationships of the characters to one
another)
language English (including bits of Yorkshire dialect)
time and place written In 18461847, Emily Bront wrote Wuthering Heights in the parsonage of the isolated
village of Haworth, in Yorkshire.
date of first publication 1847
publisher Thomas C. Newby
narrator Lockwood, a newcomer to the locale of Wuthering Heights, narrates the entire novel as an entry in his
diary. The story that Lockwood records is told to him by Nelly, a servant, and Lockwood writes most of the
narrative in her voice, describing how she told it to him. Some parts of Nellys story are narrated by other characters,
such as when Nelly receives a letter from Isabella and recites its contents verbatim.
point of view Most of the events of the novel are narrated in Nellys voice, from Nellys point of view, focusing
only on what Nelly can see and hear, or what she can find out about indirectly. Nelly frequently comments on what
the other characters think and feel, and on what their motivations are, but these comments are all based on her own
interpretations of the other charactersshe is not an omniscient narrator.
tone It is not easy to infer the authors attitude toward the events of the novel. The melodramatic quality of the
first half of the novel suggests that Bront views Catherine and Heathcliffs doomed love as a tragedy of lost
potential and wasted passion. However, the outcome of the second half of the novel suggests that Bront is more
interested in celebrating the renewal and rebirth brought about by the passage of time, and the rise of a new
generation, than she is in mourning Heathcliff and Catherine.
tense Both Lockwoods and Nellys narrations are in the past tense.
setting (time) The action of Nellys story begins in the 1770s; Lockwood leaves Yorkshire in 1802.
setting (place) All the action of Wuthering Heights takes place in or around two neighboring houses on the
Yorkshire moorsWuthering Heights and Thrushcross Grange.
protagonists Heathcliff, Catherine
major conflicts Heathcliffs great natural abilities, strength of character, and love for Catherine Earnshaw all
enable him to raise himself from humble beginnings to the status of a wealthy gentleman, but his need to revenge
himself for Hindleys abuse and Catherines betrayal leads him into a twisted life of cruelty and hatred; Catherine is
torn between her love for Heathcliff and her desire to be a gentlewoman, and her decision to marry the genteel Edgar
Linton drags almost all of the novels characters into conflict with Heathcliff.
rising action Heathcliffs arrival at Wuthering Heights, Hindleys abusive treatment of Heathcliff, and Catherines
first visit to Thrushcross Grange set the major conflicts in motion; once Heathcliff hears Catherine say it would
degrade her to marry him, the conversation between Nelly and Catherine, which he secretly overhears, drives him
to run away and pursue his vengeance.
climax Catherines death is the culmination of the conflict between herself and Heathcliff and removes any
possibility that their conflict could be resolved positively; after Catherines death, Heathcliff merely extends and
deepens his drives toward revenge and cruelty.
falling action Heathcliff destroys Isabella and drives her away, takes possession of young Linton, forces Catherine
and Linton to marry, inherits Thrushcross Grange, then loses interest in the whole project and dies; Hareton and
young Catherine are to be engaged to be married, promising an end to the cycle of revenge.
themes The destructiveness of a love that never changes; the precariousness of social class
motifs Doubles, repetition, the conflict between nature and culture
symbols The moors, ghosts
4

foreshadowing Lockwoods initial visit to Wuthering Heights, in which the mysterious relationships and lurking
resentments between the characters create an air of mystery; Lockwoods ghostly nightmares, during the night he
spends in Catherines old bed, prefigure many of the events of the rest of the novel.
full title Alices Adventures in Wonderland
author Lewis Carroll
type of work Novella
genre Fairy tale; childrens fiction; satire; allegory
language English
time and place written 18621863, Oxford
date of first publication 1865
publisher Macmillan & Co.
narrator The narrator is anonymous and does not use many words to describe events in the story.
point of view The narrator speaks in third person, though occasionally in first and second person. The narrative
follows Alice around on her travels, voicing her thoughts and feelings.
tone Straightforward; avuncular
tense Past
setting (time) Victorian era, circa publication date
setting (place) England, Wonderland
protagonist Alice
major conflict Alice attempts to come to terms with the puzzle of Wonderland as she undergoes great individual
changes while entrenched in Wonderland.
rising action Alice follows the White Rabbit down a well and pursues him through Wonderland.
climax Alice gains control over her size and enters the garden, where she participates in the trial of the Knave of
Hearts.
falling action Alice realizes that Wonderland is a sham and knocks over the playing card court, causing her to
wake up and dispel the dream of Wonderland.
themes The tragic and inevitable loss of childhood innocence; Life as a meaningless puzzle; Death as a constant
and underlying menace
motifs Dream; subversion; language; curious, nonsense, and confusing
symbols The garden; the mushroom
foreshadowing The Mouses history about Fury and the Mouse foreshadows the trial at the end of the story.



















5




full title Heart of Darkness
author Joseph Conrad
type of work Novella (between a novel and a short story in length and scope)
genre Symbolism, colonial literature, adventure tale, frame story, almost a romance in its insistence on heroism
and the supernatural and its preference for the symbolic over the realistic
language English
time and place written England, 18981899; inspired by Conrads journey to the Congo in 1890
date of first publication Serialized in Blackwoods magazine in 1899; published in 1902 in the volume Youth: A
Narrative; and Two Other Stories
publisher J. M. Dent & Sons, Ltd.
narrator There are two narrators: an anonymous passenger on a pleasure ship, who listens to Marlows story, and
Marlow himself, a middle-aged ships captain.
point of view The first narrator speaks in the first-person plural, on behalf of four other passengers who listen to
Marlows tale. Marlow narrates his story in the first person, describing only what he witnessed and experienced, and
providing his own commentary on the story.
tone Ambivalent: Marlow is disgusted at the brutality of the Company and horrified by Kurtzs degeneration, but
he claims that any thinking man would be tempted into similar behavior.
tense Past
setting (time) Latter part of the nineteenth century, probably sometime between 1876 and 1892
setting (place) Opens on the Thames River outside London, where Marlow is telling the story that makes up
Heart of Darkness. Events of the story take place in Brussels, at the Companys offices, and in the Congo, then a
Belgian territory.
protagonist Marlow
major conflict Both Marlow and Kurtz confront a conflict between their images of themselves as civilized
Europeans and the temptation to abandon morality completely once they leave the context of European society.
rising action The brutality Marlow witnesses in the Companys employees, the rumors he hears that Kurtz is a
remarkable and humane man, and the numerous examples of Europeans breaking down mentally or physically in the
environment of Africa.
climax Marlows discovery, upon reaching the Inner Station, that Kurtz has completely abandoned European
morals and norms of behavior
falling action Marlows acceptance of responsibility for Kurtzs legacy, Marlows encounters with Company
officials and Kurtzs family and friends, Marlows visit to Kurtzs Intended
themes The hypocrisy of imperialism, madness as a result of imperialism, the absurdity of evil
motifs Darkness (very seldom opposed by light), interiors vs. surfaces (kernel/shell, coast/inland, station/forest,
etc.), ironic understatement, hyperbolic language, inability to find words to describe situation adequately, images of
ridiculous waste, upriver versus downriver/toward and away from Kurtz/away from and back toward civilization
(quest or journey structure)
symbols Rivers, fog, women (Kurtzs Intended, his African mistress), French warship shelling forested coast,
grove of death, severed heads on fence posts, Kurtzs Report, dead helmsman, maps, whited sepulchre of
Brussels, knitting women in Company offices, man trying to fill bucket with hole in it
foreshadowing Permeates every moment of the narrativemostly operates on the level of imagery, which is
consistently dark, gloomy, and threatening





6



full title The Life and Strange Surprizing Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, of York, Mariner: Who lived Eight and
Twenty Years, all alone in an uninhabited Island on the Coast of America, near the Mouth of the Great River of
Oroonoque; Having been cast on Shore by Shipwreck, wherein all the Men perished but himself. With An Account
how he was at last as strangely deliverd by Pyrates
author Daniel Defoe
type of work Novel
genre Adventure story; novel of isolation
language English
time and place written 1719; London, England
date of first publication 1719
publisher William Taylor
narrator Robinson Crusoe is both the narrator and main character of the tale.
point of view Crusoe narrates in both the first and third person, presenting what he observes. Crusoe occasionally
describes his feelings, but only when they are overwhelming. Usually he favors a more factual narrative style
focused on actions and events.
tone Crusoes tone is mostly detached, meticulous, and objective. He displays little rhetorical grandeur and few
poetic or colorful turns of phrase. He generally avoids dramatic storytelling, preferring an inventorylike approach to
the facts as they unfold. He very rarely registers his own feelings, or those of other characters, and only does so
when those feelings affect a situation directly, such as when he describes the mutineers as tired and confused,
indicating that their fatigue allows them to be defeated.
tense Past
setting (time) From 1659 to 1694
setting (place) York, England; then London; then Sallee, North Africa; then Brazil; then a deserted island off
Trinidad; then England; then Lisbon; then overland from Spain toward England; then England; and finally the island
again
protagonist Robinson Crusoe
major conflict Shipwrecked alone, Crusoe struggles against hardship, privation, loneliness, and cannibals in his
attempt to survive on a deserted island.
rising action Crusoe disobeys his father and goes out to sea. Crusoe has a profitable first merchant voyage, has
fantasies of success in Brazil, and prepares for a slave-gathering expedition.
climax Crusoe becomes shipwrecked on an island near Trinidad, forcing him to fend for himself and his basic
needs.
falling action Crusoe constructs a shelter, secures a food supply, and accepts his stay on the island as the work of
Providence.
themes The ambivalence of mastery; the necessity of repentance; the importance of self-awareness
motifs Counting and measuring; eating; ordeals at sea
symbols The footprint; the cross; Crusoes bower
foreshadowing Crusoe suffers a storm at sea near Yarmouth, foreshadowing his shipwreck years later. Crusoe
dreams of cannibals arriving, and later they come to kill Friday. Crusoe invents the idea of a governor of the island
to intimidate the mutineers, foreshadowing the actual governors later arrival.








7



full title Great Expectations
author Charles Dickens
type of work Novel
genres Bildungsroman, social criticism, autobiographical fiction
language English
time and place written London, 1860-1861
date of first publication Published serially in England from December 1860 to August 1861; published in book
form in England and America in 1861
publisher Serialized in All the Year Round; published in England by Chapman & Hall; published in America by
Harper & Brothers
narrator Pip
climax A sequence of climactic events occurs from Chapter 51 to Chapter 56: Miss Havishams burning in the
fire, Orlicks attempt to murder Pip, and Pips attempt to help Magwitch escape London.
protagonist Pip
antagonist Great Expectations does not contain a traditional single antagonist. Various characters serve as figures
against whom Pip must struggle at various times: Magwitch, Mrs. Joe, Miss Havisham, Estella, Orlick, Bentley
Drummle, and Compeyson. With the exception of the last three, each of the novels antagonists is redeemed before
the end of the book.
setting (time) Mid-nineteenth century
settings (place) Kent and London, England
point of view First person
falling action The period following Magwitchs capture in Chapter 54, including Magwitchs death, Pips
reconciliation with Joe, and Pips reunion with Estella eleven years later
tense Past
foreshadowing Great Expectations contains a great deal of foreshadowing. The repeated references to the convict
(the man with the file in the pub, the attack on Mrs. Joe) foreshadow his return; the second convict on the marsh
foreshadows the revelation of Magwitchs conflict with Compeyson; the man in the pub who gives Pip money
foreshadows the revelation that Pips fortune comes from Magwitch; Miss Havishams wedding dress and her
bizarre surroundings foreshadow the revelation of her past and her relationship with Estella; Pips feeling that Estella
reminds him of someone he knows foreshadows his discovery of the truth of her parentage; the fact that Jaggers is a
criminal lawyer foreshadows his involvement in Magwitchs life; and so on. Moreover, the weather often
foreshadows dramatic events: a storm brewing generally means there will be trouble ahead, as on the night of
Magwitchs return.
tone Comic, cheerful, satirical, wry, critical, sentimental, dark, dramatic, foreboding, Gothic, sympathetic
themes Ambition and the desire for self-improvement (social, economic, educational, and moral); guilt,
criminality, and innocence; maturation and the growth from childhood to adulthood; the importance of affection,
loyalty, and sympathy over social advancement and class superiority; social class; the difficulty of maintaining
superficial moral and social categories in a constantly changing world
motifs Crime and criminality; disappointed expectations; the connection between weather or atmosphere and
dramatic events; doubles (two convicts, two secret benefactors, two invalids, etc.)
symbols The stopped clocks at Satis House symbolize Miss Havishams attempt to stop time; the many objects
relating to crime and guilt (gallows, prisons, handcuffs, policemen, lawyers, courts, convicts, chains, files)
symbolize the theme of guilt and innocence; Satis House represents the upper-class world to which Pip longs to
belong; Bentley Drummle represents the grotesque caprice of the upper class; Joe represents conscience, affection,
loyalty, and simple good nature; the marsh mists represent danger and ambiguity.



8



full title Oliver Twist: The Parish Boys Progress
author Charles Dickens
type of work Novel
genre Childrens story; detective story; novel of social protest
language English
time and place written 183738, London
date of first publication Published in serial form between February 1837 and April 1839; first book edition
published in November 1838
publisher First published serially in Bentleys Miscellany, a periodical edited by Dickens
narrator Anonymous narrator
point of view The narrator is third person omniscient, and assumes the points of view of various characters in turn.
The narrators tone is not objective; it is sympathetic to the protagonists and far less so to the novels other
characters. When dealing with hypocritical or morally objectionable characters, the narrative voice is often ironic or
sarcastic.
tone Sentimental, sometimes ironic, hyperbolic, crusading
tense Past
setting (time) 1830s
setting (place) London and environs; an unnamed smaller English city; the English countryside
protagonist Oliver Twist
major conflict Although Oliver is fundamentally righteous, the social environment in which he is raised
encourages thievery and prostitution. Oliver struggles to find his identity and rise above the abject conditions of the
lower class.
rising action Oliver is taken care of by a gang of London thieves, but refuses to participate in their thievery. An
upper-class family takes him in, but the thieves and a mysterious character, Monks, continue to pursue him.
climax Nancy is murdered for disclosing Monkss plans to Olivers guardians. Mr. Brownlow gets the full story of
Olivers origins from Monks.
falling action Fagin is executed and Sikes dies; Oliver and his new family live out their days in happiness.
themes The failures of charity; the folly of individualism; purity in a corrupt city; the countryside idealized
motifs Disguised or mistaken identities; hidden family relationships; surrogate families; Olivers face
symbols Characters names; Bulls-eye; London Bridge
foreshadowing The truth about Olivers parentage is foreshadowed by the portrait in Mr. Brownlows house, by
the locket that Old Sally has stolen, and by Monkss pursuit of Oliver.
















9



full title A Passage to India
author E.M. Forster
type of work Novel
genre Modernist novel; psychological novel
language English
time and place written 19121924; India, England
date of first publication 1924
publisher Edward Arnold
narrator Forster uses an unnamed third-person narrator
point of view The third-person narrator is omniscient, attuned both to the physical world and the inner states of
the characters
tone Forsters tone is often poetic and sometimes ironic or philosophical
tense Immediate past
setting (time) 1910s or 1920s
setting (place) India, specifically the cities of Chandrapore and Mau
protagonist Dr. Aziz
major conflict Adela Quested accuses Dr. Aziz of attempting to sexually assault her in one of the Marabar Caves.
Aziz suspects Fielding has plotted against him with the English.
rising action Adela Quested and Mrs. Moores arrival in India; the womens befriending of Aziz; Adelas
reluctant engagement to Ronny Heaslop; Ronny and the other Englishmens disapproval of the womens interaction
with Indians; Azizs organization of an outing to the Marabar Caves for his English friends; Adelas and Mrs.
Moores harrowing experiences in the caves; Adelas public insinuation that Aziz assaulted her in the caves; the
inflammation of racial tensions between the Indians and English in Chandrapore
climax Azizs trial; Adelas final admission that she is mistaken in her accusations and that Aziz is innocent; the
courtrooms eruption; Azizs release; the English communitys rejection of Adela
falling action Fieldings conversations with Adela; Fielding and Azizs bickering over Azizs desire for
reparations from Adela; Azizs assumption that Fielding has betrayed him and will marry Adela; Azizs increasingly
anti-British sentiment; Fieldings visit to Aziz with his new wife, Stella; Azizs befriending of Ralph and forgiveness
of Fielding
themes The difficulty of English-Indian friendship; the unity of all living things; the muddle of India; the
negligence of British colonial government
motifs The echo; Eastern and Western architecture; Godboles song
symbols The Marabar Caves; the green bird; the wasp
foreshadowing Adelas concern about breaking down during the trial; Fieldings interest in Hinduism at the end
of Part II













10




full title Lord of the Flies
author William Golding
type of work Novel
genre Allegory; adventure story; castaway fiction; loss-of-innocence fiction
language English
time and place written Early 1950s; Salisbury, England
date of first publication 1954
publisher Faber and Faber
narrator The story is told by an anonymous third-person narrator who conveys the events of the novel without
commenting on the action or intruding into the story.
point of view The narrator speaks in the third person, primarily focusing on Ralphs point of view but following
Jack and Simon in certain episodes. The narrator is omniscient and gives us access to the characters inner thoughts.
tone Dark; violent; pessimistic; tragic; unsparing
tense Immediate past
setting (time) Near future
setting (place) A deserted tropical island
protagonist Ralph
major conflict Free from the rules that adult society formerly imposed on them, the boys marooned on the island
struggle with the conflicting human instincts that exist within each of themthe instinct to work toward civilization
and order and the instinct to descend into savagery, violence, and chaos.
rising action The boys assemble on the beach. In the election for leader, Ralph defeats Jack, who is furious when
he loses. As the boys explore the island, tension grows between Jack, who is interested only in hunting, and Ralph,
who believes most of the boys efforts should go toward building shelters and maintaining a signal fire. When
rumors surface that there is some sort of beast living on the island, the boys grow fearful, and the group begins to
divide into two camps supporting Ralph and Jack, respectively. Ultimately, Jack forms a new tribe altogether, fully
immersing himself in the savagery of the hunt.
climax Simon encounters the Lord of the Flies in the forest glade and realizes that the beast is not a physical entity
but rather something that exists within each boy on the island. When Simon tries to approach the other boys and
convey this message to them, they fall on him and kill him savagely.
falling action Virtually all the boys on the island abandon Ralph and Piggy and descend further into savagery and
chaos. When the other boys kill Piggy and destroy the conch shell, Ralph flees from Jacks tribe and encounters the
naval officer on the beach.
themes Civilization vs. savagery; the loss of innocence; innate human evil
motifs Biblical parallels; natural beauty; the bullying of the weak by the strong; the outward trappings of savagery
(face paint, spears, totems, chants)
symbols The conch shell; Piggys glasses; the signal fire; the beast; the Lord of the Flies; Ralph, Piggy, Jack,
Simon, and Roger
foreshadowing The rolling of the boulders off the Castle Rock in Chapter 6 foreshadows Piggys death; the Lord
of the Fliess promise to have some fun with Simon foreshadows Simons death








11



full title Tess of the dUrbervilles
author Thomas Hardy
type of work Novel
genre Victorian, tragic
language English
time and place written 1880s, England
date of first publication 1891
publisher Random House, but also published serially in different periodicals
narrator Anonymous
point of view The narrator speaks in the third person, and looks deep into the characters minds. The narrator is
objective but has an omniscient understanding of future implications of characters actions as they happen.
tone Realistic, pessimistic
tense Past
setting (time) The 1880s and 1890s
setting (place) Wessex, the southwest of England
protagonist Tess Durbeyfield
major conflict Tess is seduced, impregnated, and abandoned by the son of her upper-class patroness, making her
unacceptable to her true love Angel later in life.
rising action Tesss familys discovery that they are ancient English aristocracy, giving them all fantasies of a
higher station in life; Tesss accidental killing of the family horse, which drives her to seek help from the
dUrbervilles, where she is seduced and dishonored.
climax Tesss new husband discovers her earlier seduction by Alec and decides to leave her, going off to Brazil
and not answering her letters, and bringing Tess to despair.
falling action Tesss last-ditch decision to marry Alec, who claims to love her; Angels return from Brazil to
discover Tess marriage to her former seducer, and his meeting with Tess; Tesss murder of Alec and short-lived
escape with Angel before being apprehended and executed
themes The injustice of existence; changing ideas of social class in Victorian England; men dominating women
motifs Birds; the Book of Genesis; variant names
symbols Prince; the dUrberville family vault; Brazil
foreshadowing Tesss killing of the pheasants foreshadows her own death by hanging; Alecs assertion that he
will master Tess again foreshadows his reemergence in her life

















12



full title The Ambassadors
author Henry James
type of work Novel
genre Dark comedy; social study; stream-of-consciousness narrative
language English
time and place written 1903, England
date of first publication 1903
publisher North American Review
narrator An unnamed voice that relates the thoughts, feelings, actions, and observations of Lambert Strether as
they occur over the course of Strethers visit to Europe.
point of view The novel is narrated in the third person, following the perspective of Lambert Strether throughout
the entire book. The narrative voice is also subjective: although it relates the exterior actions and statements of all
the characters, it relates the complete interior and exterior life of the subject Lambert Strether.
tone The narrator is mostly detached from the story, with some sympathy for Strethers plight.
tense Past
setting (time) Early 1900s
setting (place) Chester and London, England; Paris, France
protagonist Lambert Strether
major conflict Strether is sent to Paris to retrieve Chad Newsome, to convince Chad to sever his ties to his
European lover, and to bring Chad home to Woollett, Massachusetts. While there, Strether must battle his own
realization that Europe may be a better setting for Chad, and for himself.
rising action As Strether spends more time in Europe, he begins to feel enlivened by its culture and observes it as
having a positive effect on Chad. He begins to doubt the virtue of sending Chad to Woollett, where he will become a
member of the provincial Massachusetts business world and be apart from his lover, Madame de Vionnet.
climax Strether, previously convinced of Madame de Vionnets virtue, spots her with Chad in an intimate and
private setting, which forces him to question his perspective on relationships and on Europes influence on the
young man.
falling action Strether decides that even though Chads love affair with Madame de Vionnet is not virtuous, it
would still benefit Chad to stay in Paris.
themes The importance of place; the lived vs. unlived life; the American abroad
motifs Water; the Virgin Mary
symbols Gardens; Paris; Woollett
foreshadowing When Strether first arrives in Paris, Chad is absent, but his charming and seemingly innocent
friendsBilham and Miss Barracehave only good things to say about his character. Neither Chad nor Bilham ever
refer to Chads lover by name. Waymarsh is bored by Europe, but Strether finds Europe immediately refreshing.













13



full title A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man
author James Joyce
type of work Novel
genre Bildungsroman, autobiographical novel
language English
time and place written 19071915; Trieste, Dublin, Zurich
date of first publication 1916
publisher B. W. Huebsch, New York
narrator The narrator is anonymous, and speaks with the same voice and tone that Stephen might.
point of view Although most of A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man is in the third person, the point of view is
Stephen's: as Stephen develops as a person, the language and perspective of the narration develop with him. We see
everything in the manner in which he thinks and feels it. At the very end of the novel, there is a brief section in
which the story is told through Stephen's diary entries. This section is in the first person.
tone The tone is generally serious and introspective, especially during Stephen's several heartfelt epiphanies.
tense Past
setting (time) 18821903
setting (place) Primarily Dublin and the surrounding area
protagonist Stephen Dedalus
major conflict Stephen struggles to decide whether he should be loyal to his family, his church, his nation, or his
vocation as an artist.
rising action Stephen's encounters with prostitutes; his emotional reaction to Father Arnall's hellfire sermons; his
temporary devotion to religious life; his realization that he must confront the decision of whether to center his life
around religion or art
climax Stephen's decision in Chapter 4 to reject the religious life in favor of the life of an artist
falling action Stephen's enrollment in University College, where he gradually forms his aesthetic theory; Stephen's
distancing of himself from his family, church, and nation
themes The development of individual consciousness; the pitfalls of religious extremism; the role of the artist; the
need for Irish autonomy
motifs Music; flight; prayers, secular songs, and Latin phrases
symbols Green and maroon; Emma; the girl on the beach
foreshadowing Stephen's heartfelt emotional and aesthetic experiences foreshadow his ultimate acceptance of the
life of an artist. Additionally, Joyce often refers to Stephen's vague sense, even very early in his life, that a great
destiny awaits him.















14



full title Dubliners
author James Joyce
type of work Collection of short stories
genre Realist fiction; urban literature
language English (with some Irish and Hiberno-English sayings)
time and place written Early 1900s, Ireland and Italy
date of first publication 1914
publisher Grant Richards
narrator The first three stories are narrated by the main character of each story, which in all three cases is a young,
unnamed boy. The rest of the stories are narrated by an anonymous third person who pays close attention to
circumstantial detail though in a detached manner.
point of view The first three stories, told from the first person, focus on the thoughts and observations of the
narrators. In the stories told from the third person, the narrators detail objective information and present characters as
they would appear to an outsider, but also present thoughts and actions from the protagonists points of view, giving
the reader a sense of what the characters are feeling.
tone Though told mainly by an anonymous narrator, the stories of Dubliners form a self-conscious examination of
Joyces native city in Ireland. Because the narrator maintains a neutral and distant presence, detecting Joyces
attitude toward his characters is not always easy. The abundance of details about the grim realities of the city and the
focus on hardships, however, create a tragic tone and offer a subtle critique.
tense Past tense
setting (time) Early 1900s
setting (place) Dublin
major conflict Various figures struggle with the challenges of complicated relationships and life in Dublin.
themes The prison of routine; the desire for escape; the intersection of life and death
motifs Paralysis; epiphany; betrayal; religion
symbols Windows; dusk and nighttime; food
foreshadowing The death of Father Flynn in The Sisters announces the focus on death in later stories like The
Dead; story titles hint at events in the stories




















15



full title The Most Excellent and Lamentable Tragedy of Romeo and Juliet
author William Shakespeare
type of work Play
genre Tragic drama
language English
time and place written London, mid-1590s
date of first publication 1597 (in the First Quarto, which was likely an unauthorized incomplete edition); 1599
(in the Second Quarto, which was authorized)
publisher Thomas Creede (in the Second Quarto, using the title The Most Excellent and Lamentable Tragedie, of
Romeo and Juliet)
climax The deaths of Romeo and Juliet in the Capulet tomb (5.3)
protagonists Romeo; Juliet
antagonists The feuding Montagues and Capulets; Tybalt; the Prince and citizens of Verona; fate
settings (time) Renaissance (fourteenth or fifteenth century)
settings (place) Verona and Mantua (cities in northern Italy)
point of view Insofar as a play has a point of view, that of Romeo and Juliet; occasionally the play uses the point
of view of the Montague and Capulet servants to illuminate the actions of their masters.
falling action The end of Act 5, scene 3, when the Prince and the parents discover the bodies of Romeo and Juliet,
and agree to put aside their feud in the interest of peace.
tense Present
foreshadowing The Choruss first speech declaring that Romeo and Juliet are doomed to die and star-crossed.
The lovers frequent thoughts of death: My grave is like to be my wedding bed (Juliet, 1.5.132). The lovers
thoughts of suicide, as when Romeo threatens to kill himself after killing Tybalt. Friar Lawrences warnings to
behave moderately if Romeo and Juliet wish to avoid tragedy: These violent delights have violent ends . . .
Therefore love moderately (2.5.914). The lovers mutual impression that the other looks pale and deathlike after
their wedding night (3.5). Juliets faked death by Friar Lawrences potion. Romeos dream-vision of Juliet kissing
his lips while he is dead (5.1). Romeos outbursts against fate: O, I am fortunes fool! (3.1.131) and Then I defy
you, stars (5.1.24).
tones Passionate, romantic, intense, rhapsodic, violent, prone to extremes of emotion (ecstasy, rage, misery, etc.)
themes The forcefulness of love; love as a cause of violence; the individual versus society; the inevitability of fate
motifs Light/dark imagery; opposite points of view
symbols Poison; thumb-biting; Queen Mab
















16




full title The Tragedy of Julius Caesar
author William Shakespeare
type of work Play
genre Tragic drama, historical drama
language English
time and place written 1599, in London
date of first publication Published in the First Folio of 1623, probably from the theater companys official
promptbook rather than from Shakespeares manuscript
publisher Edward Blount and William Jaggard headed the group of five men who undertook the publication of
Shakespeares First Folio
narrator None
climax Cassiuss death (V.iii), upon ordering his servant, Pindarus, to stab him, marks the point at which it
becomes clear that the murdered Caesar has been avenged, and that Cassius, Brutus, and the other conspirators have
lost in their attempt to keep Rome a republic rather than an empire. Ironically, the conspirators defeat is not yet as
certain as Cassius believes, but his death helps bring about defeat for his side.
protagonists Brutus and Cassius
antagonists Antony and Octavius
setting (time) 44 b.c.
setting (place) Ancient Rome, toward the end of the Roman republic
point of view The play sustains no single point of view; however, the audience acquires the most insight into
Brutuss mind over the course of the action
falling action Titiniuss realization that Cassius has died wrongly assuming defeat; Titiniuss suicide; Brutuss
discovery of the two corpses; the final struggle between Brutuss men and the troops of Antony and Octavius;
Brutuss self-impalement on his sword upon recognizing that his side is doomed; the discovery of Brutuss body by
Antony and Octavius
tense Present
foreshadowing The play is full of omens, including lightning and thunder, the walking dead, and lions stalking
through the city (I.iii). Additionally, the Soothsayer warns Caesar to beware the Ides of March (I.ii); Calpurnia
dreams that she sees Caesars statue running with blood (II.ii); and Caesars priests sacrifice animals to the gods
only to find that the animals lack hearts (II.ii)all foreshadow Caesars impending murder and the resulting chaos
in Rome. Caesars ghost visits Brutus prior to the battle (IV.ii), and birds of prey circle over the battlefield in sight
of Cassius (V.i); both incidents foreshadow Caesars revenge and the victory of Antony and Octavius.
tone Serious, proud, virtuous, enraged, vengeful, idealistic, anguished
themes Fate versus free will; public self versus private self; misinterpretation and misreading of signs and events;
commitment to ideals versus adaptability and compromise; the relationship between rhetoric and power; allegiance
and rivalry among men
motifs Omens and portents, letters
symbols The women in the play, Portia and Calpurnia, symbolize the neglected private lives of their respective
husbands, Brutus and Caesar. The men dismiss their wives as hindrances to their public duty, ignoring their
responsibilities to their own mortal bodies and their private obligations as friends, husbands, and feeling men.







17




full title The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark
author William Shakespeare
type of work Play
genre Tragedy, revenge tragedy
language English
time and place written London, England, early seventeenth century (probably 16001602)
date of first publication 1603, in a pirated quarto edition titled The Tragicall Historie of Hamlet; 1604 in a
superior quarto edition
protagonist Hamlet
major conflict Hamlet feels a responsibility to avenge his fathers murder by his uncle Claudius, but Claudius is
now the king and thus well protected. Moreover, Hamlet struggles with his doubts about whether he can trust the
ghost and whether killing Claudius is the appropriate thing to do.
rising action The ghost appears to Hamlet and tells Hamlet to revenge his murder; Hamlet feigns madness to his
intentions; Hamlet stages the mousetrap play; Hamlet passes up the opportunity to kill Claudius while he is praying.
climax When Hamlet stabs Polonius through the arras in Act III, scene iv, he commits himself to overtly violent
action and brings himself into unavoidable conflict with the king. Another possible climax comes at the end of Act
IV, scene iv, when Hamlet resolves to commit himself fully to violent revenge.
falling action Hamlet is sent to England to be killed; Hamlet returns to Denmark and confronts Laertes at
Ophelias funeral; the fencing match; the deaths of the royal family
setting (time) The late medieval period, though the plays chronological setting is notoriously imprecise
settings (place) Denmark
foreshadowing The ghost, which is taken to foreshadow an ominous future for Denmark
tone Dark, ironic, melancholy, passionate, contemplative, desperate, violent
themes The impossibility of certainty; the complexity of action; the mystery of death; the nation as a diseased
body
motifs Incest and incestuous desire; ears and hearing; death and suicide; darkness and the supernatural; misogyny
symbols The ghost (the spiritual consequences of death); Yoricks skull (the physical consequences of death)




















18



full title A Midsummer Nights Dream
author William Shakespeare
type of work Play
genres Comedy; fantasy; romance; farce
language English
time and place written London, 1594 or 1595
date of first publication 1600
publisher Thomas Fisher
narrator None
climax In the strictest sense, there is no real climax, as the conflicts of the play are all resolved swiftly by magical
means in Act IV; the moment of greatest tension is probably the quarrel between the lovers in Act III, scene ii.
protagonist Because there are three main groups of characters, there is no single protagonist in the play; however,
Puck is generally considered the most important character.
antagonist None; the plays tensions are mostly the result of circumstances, accidents, and mistakes.
settings (time) Combines elements of Ancient Greece with elements of Renaissance England
settings (place) Athens and the forest outside its walls
point of view Varies from scene to scene
falling action Act V, scene i, which centers on the craftsmens play
tense Present
foreshadowing Comments made in Act I, scene i about the difficulties that lovers face
tones Romantic; comedic; fantastic; satirical; dreamlike; joyful; farcical
symbols Theseus and Hippolyta represent order, stability, and wakefulness; Theseuss hounds represent the
coming of morning; Oberons love potion represents the power and instability of love.
themes The difficulties of love; magic; the nature of dreams; the relationships between fantasy and reality and
between environment and experience
motifs Love out of balance; contrast (juxtaposed opposites, such as beautiful and ugly, short and tall, clumsy and
graceful, ethereal and earthy)





















19




full title Gullivers Travels, or, Travels into Several Remote Nations of the World, by Lemuel Gulliver
author Jonathan Swift
type of work Novel
genre Satire
language English
time and place written Approximately 17121726, London and Dublin
date of first publication 1726 (1735 unabridged)
publisher George Faulkner (unabridged 1735 edition)
narrator Lemuel Gulliver
point of view Gulliver speaks in the first person. He describes other characters and actions as they appear to him.
tone Gullivers tone is gullible and nave during the first three voyages; in the fourth, it turns cynical and bitter.
The intention of the author, Jonathan Swift, is satirical and biting throughout.
tense Past
setting (time) Early eighteenth century
setting (place) Primarily England and the imaginary countries of Lilliput, Blefuscu, Brobdingnag, Laputa, and the
land of the Houyhnhnms
protagonist Lemuel Gulliver
major conflict On the surface, Gulliver strives to understand the various societies with which he comes into
contact and to have these societies understand his native England. Below the surface, Swift is engaged in a conflict
with the English society he is satirizing.
rising action Gullivers encounters with other societies eventually lead up to his rejection of human society in the
fourth voyage
climax Gulliver rejects human society in the fourth voyage, specifically when he shuns the generous Don Pedro as
a vulgar Yahoo
falling action Gullivers unhappy return to England accentuates his alienation and compels him to buy horses,
which remind him of Houyhnhnms, to keep him company
themes Might versus right; the individual versus society; the limits of human understanding
motifs Excrement; foreign languages; clothing
symbols Lilliputians; Brobdingnagians; Laputans; Houyhnhnms; England
foreshadowing Gullivers experiences with various flawed societies foreshadow his ultimate rejection of human
society in the fourth voyage.
















20





full title To the Lighthouse
author Virginia Woolf
type of work Novel
genre Stream of consciousness
language English
time and place written 1926, London
date of first publication 1927
publisher Hogarth Press
narrator The narrator is anonymous.
point of view The narrator speaks in the third person and describes the characters and actions subjectively, giving
us insight into the characters feelings. The narrative switches constantly from the perceptions of one character to
those of the next.
tone Elegiac, poetic, rhythmic, imaginative
tense Past
setting (time) The years immediately preceding and following World War I
setting (place) The Isle of Skye, in the Hebrides (a group of islands west of Scotland)
protagonist Although Mrs. Ramsay is the central focus of the beginning of To the Lighthouse, the novel traces the
development of Lily Briscoe to the end, making it more accurate to describe Lily as the protagonist.
major conflict The common struggle that each of the characters faces is to bring meaning and order to the chaos
of life.
rising action Jamess desire to journey to the lighthouse; Mr. Ramsays need to ask Mrs. Ramsay for sympathy;
Charles Tansleys insistence that women cannot paint or write; Lily Briscoes stalled attempt at her painting
climax Mrs. Ramsays dinner party
falling action Mr. Ramsays trip to the lighthouse with Cam and James; Lily Briscoes completion of her painting
themes The transience of life and work; art as a means of preservation; the subjective nature of reality; the
restorative effects of beauty
motifs The differing behaviors of men and women; brackets
symbols The lighthouse, Lilys painting, the Ramsays house, the sea, the boars skull, the fruit basket
foreshadowing Jamess initial desire and anxiety surrounding the voyage to the lighthouse foreshadows the trip he
makes a decade later.
















21



full title Mrs. Dalloway
author Virginia Woolf
type of work Novel
genre Modernist; formalist; feminist
language English
time and place written Woolf began Mrs. Dalloway in Sussex in 1922 and completed the novel in London in
1924.
date of first publication May 14, 1925
publisher Hogarth Press, the publishing house created by Leonard and Virginia Woolf in 1917
narrator Anonymous. The omniscient narrator is a commenting voice who knows everything about the characters.
This voice appears occasionally among the subjective thoughts of characters. The critique of Sir William
Bradshaws reverence of proportion and conversion is the narrators most sustained appearance.
point of view Point of view changes constantly, often shifting from one characters stream of consciousness
(subjective interior thoughts) to anothers within a single paragraph. Woolf most often uses free indirect discourse, a
literary technique that describes the interior thoughts of characters using third-person singular pronouns (he and she).
This technique ensures that transitions between the thoughts of a large number of characters are subtle and smooth.
tone The narrator is against the oppression of the human soul and for the celebration of diversity, as are the books
major characters. Sometimes the mood is humorous, but an underlying sadness is always present.
tense Though mainly in the immediate past, Peters dream of the solitary traveler is in the present tense.
setting (time) A day in mid-June, 1923. There are many flashbacks to a summer at Bourton in the early 1890s,
when Clarissa was eighteen.
setting (place) London, England. The novel takes place largely in the affluent neighborhood of Westminster,
where the Dalloways live.
protagonist Clarissa Dalloway
major conflict Clarissa and other characters try to preserve their souls and communicate in an oppressive and
fragmentary postWorld War I England.
rising action Clarissa spends the day organizing a party that will bring people together, while her double, Septimus
Warren Smith, eventually commits suicide due to the social pressures that oppress his soul.
climax At her party, Clarissa goes to a small room to contemplate Septimuss suicide. She identifies with him and
is glad he did it, believing that he preserved his soul.
falling action Clarissa returns to her party and is viewed from the outside. We do not know whether she will
change due to her moment of clarity, but we do know that she will endure.
themes Communication vs. privacy; disillusionment with the British Empire; the fear of death; the threat of
oppression
motifs Time; Shakespeare; trees and flowers; waves and water
symbols The prime minister; Peter Walshs pocketknife and other weapons; the old woman in the window; the old
woman singing an ancient song
foreshadowing
At the opening of the novel, Clarissa recalls having a premonition one June day at Bourton that something awful
was about to happen. This sensation anticipates Septimuss suicide.
Peter thinks of Clarissa when he wakes up from his nap in Regents Park and considers how she has the gift of
making the world her own and standing out among a crowd. Peter states simply, there she was, a line he will
repeat as the last line of the novel, when Clarissa appears again at her party.





22



full title The Sound and the Fury
author William Faulkner
type of work Novel
genre Modernist novel
language English
time and place written 1928; Oxford, Mississippi
date of first publication 1929
publisher Jonathan Cape and Harrison Smith
narrator The story is told in four chapters by four different narrators: Benjy, the youngest Compson son; Quentin,
the oldest son; Jason, the middle son; and Faulkner himself, acting as an omniscient, third-person narrator who
focuses on Dilsey, the Compsons servant.
point of view Benjy, Quentin, and Jason narrate in the first person, as participants. They narrate in a stream of
consciousness style, attentive to events going on around them in the present, but frequently returning to memories
from the past. The final section is narrated in third-person omniscient.
tone The world outside the minds of the narrators slowly unravels through personal thoughts, memories, and
observations. The tone differs in each chapter, depending on the narrator.
tense Present and past
setting (time) Three of the chapters are set during Easter weekend, 1928, while Quentins section is set in June,
1910. However, the memories the narrators recall within these sections cover the period from 1898 to 1928.
setting (place) Jefferson, Mississippi, and Cambridge, Massachusetts (Harvard University)
protagonist The four Compson children: Caddy, Quentin, Benjy, and Jason
major conflict The aristocratic Compson familys long fall from grace and struggle to maintain its distinguished
legacy. This conflict is manifest in Caddys promiscuity, her out-of-wedlock pregnancy, her short marriage, and the
ensuing setbacks and deaths that her family members suffer.
rising action Caddys climbing of a tree with muddy drawers; Benjys name change; Caddys pregnancy and
wedding; Quentins suicide; Benjys castration; Mr. Compsons death from alcoholism
climax Miss Quentins theft of Jasons money, and her elopement with the man with the red tie
falling action Dilseys taking Benjy to Easter Sunday service and Benjys trip to the cemetery
themes The corruption of Southern aristocratic values; resurrection and renewal; the failure of language and
narrative
motifs Time; order and chaos; shadows; objectivity and subjectivity
symbols Water; Quentins watch; Caddys muddy underclothes; Caddys perfume
foreshadowing Caddys muddy drawers when she climbs the pear tree foretell an inevitable dirtying of the
Compson name that will never wash away.














23





full title The Great Gatsby
author F. Scott Fitzgerald
type of work Novel
genre Modernist novel, Jazz Age novel, novel of manners
language English
time and place written 19231924, America and France
date of first publication 1925
publisher Charles Scribners Sons
narrator Nick Carraway; Carraway not only narrates the story but implies that he is the books author
point of view Nick Carraway narrates in both first and third person, presenting only what he himself observes.
Nick alternates sections where he presents events objectively, as they appeared to him at the time, with sections
where he gives his own interpretations of the storys meaning and of the motivations of the other characters.
tone Nicks attitudes toward Gatsby and Gatsbys story are ambivalent and contradictory. At times he seems to
disapprove of Gatsbys excesses and breaches of manners and ethics, but he also romanticizes and admires Gatsby,
describing the events of the novel in a nostalgic and elegiac tone.
tense Past
setting (time) Summer 1922
settings (place) Long Island and New York City
protagonist Gatsby and/or Nick
major conflict Gatsby has amassed a vast fortune in order to win the affections of the upper-class Daisy
Buchanan, but his mysterious past stands in the way of his being accepted by her.
rising action Gatsbys lavish parties, Gatsbys arrangement of a meeting with Daisy at Nicks
climax There are two possible climaxes: Gatsbys reunion with Daisy in Chapters 56; the confrontation between
Gatsby and Tom in the Plaza Hotel in Chapter 7.
falling action Daisys rejection of Gatsby, Myrtles death, Gatsbys murder
themes The decline of the American dream, the spirit of the 1920s, the difference between social classes, the role
of symbols in the human conception of meaning, the role of the past in dreams of the future
motifs The connection between events and weather, the connection between geographical location and social
values, images of time, extravagant parties, the quest for wealth
symbols The green light on Daisys dock, the eyes of Doctor T. J. Eckleburg, the valley of ashes, Gatsbys parties,
East Egg, West Egg
foreshadowing The car wreck after Gatsbys party in Chapter 3, Owl Eyess comments about the theatricality of
Gatsbys life, the mysterious telephone calls Gatsby receives from Chicago and Philadelphia













24




full title The Scarlet Letter
author Nathaniel Hawthorne
type of work Novel
genre Symbolic; semi-allegorical; historical fiction; romance (in the sense that it rejects realism in favor of
symbols and ideas)
language English
time and place written Salem and Concord, Massachusetts; late 1840s
date of first publication 1850
publisher Ticknor, Reed, and Fields
narrator The narrator is an unnamed customhouse surveyor who writes some two hundred years after the events
he describes took place. He has much in common with Hawthorne but should not be taken as a direct mouthpiece for
the authors opinions.
point of view The narrator is omniscient, because he analyzes the characters and tells the story in a way that
shows that he knows more about the characters than they know about themselves. Yet, he is also a subjective
narrator, because he voices his own interpretations and opinions of things. He is clearly sympathetic to Hester and
Dimmesdale.
tone Variescontemplative and somewhat bitter in the introduction; thoughtful, fairly straightforward, yet
occasionally tinged with irony in the body of the narrative
tense The narrator employs the past tense to recount events that happened some two hundred years before his
time, but he occasionally uses the present tense when he addresses his audience.
setting (time) Middle of the seventeenth century
setting (place) Boston, Massachusetts
protagonist Hester Prynne
major conflict Her husband having inexplicably failed to join her in Boston following their emigration from
Europe, Hester Prynne engages in an extramarital affair with Arthur Dimmesdale. When she gives birth to a child,
Hester invokes the condemnation of her communitya condemnation they manifest by forcing her to wear a letter
A for adulteroras well as the vengeful wrath of her husband, who has appeared just in time to witness her
public shaming.
rising action Dimmesdale stands by in silence as Hester suffers for the sin he helped to commit, though his
conscience plagues him and affects his health. Hesters husband, Chillingworth, hides his true identity and, posing as
a doctor to the ailing minister, tests his suspicions that Dimmesdale is the father of his wifes child, effectively
exacerbating Dimmesdales feelings of shame and thus reaping revenge.
climax There are at least two points in The Scarlet Letter that could be identified as the books climax. The first
is in Chapter 12, at the exact center of the book. As Dimmesdale watches a meteor trace a letter A in the sky, he
confronts his role in Hesters sin and realizes that he can no longer deny his deed and its consequences. The key
characters confront one another when Hester and Pearl join Dimmesdale in an electric chain as he holds his vigil
on the marketplace scaffold, the location of Hesters original public shaming. Chillingworth appears in this scene as
well. The other climactic scene occurs in Chapter 23, at the end of the book. Here, the characters secrets are
publicly exposed and their fates sealed. Dimmesdale, Hester, and Chillingworth not only acknowledge their secrets
to themselves and to each other; they push these revelations to such extremes that they all must leave the community
in one way or another.
falling action Depending on ones interpretation of which scene constitutes the books climax, the falling action
is either the course of events that follow Chapter 12 or the final reports on Hesters and Pearls lives after the deaths
of Dimmesdale and Chillingworth.
themes Sin, experience, and the human condition; the nature of evil; identity and society
motifs Civilization versus the wilderness; night versus day; evocative names
symbols The scarlet letter; the town scaffold; the meteor; Pearl; the rosebush next to the prison door
25

foreshadowing Foreshadowing is minimal, because the symbols tend to coincide temporally with events,
enriching their meaning rather than anticipating their occurrence.
full title The Old Man and the Sea
author Ernest Hemingway
type of work Novella
genre Parable; tragedy
language English
time and place written 1951, Cuba
date of first publication 1952
publisher Scribners
narrator The novella is narrated by an anonymous narrator.
point of view Sometimes the narrator describes the characters and events objectively, that is, as they would appear
to an outside observer. However, the narrator frequently provides details about Santiagos inner thoughts and
dreams.
tone Despite the narrators journalistic, matter-of-fact tone, his reverence for Santiago and his struggle is apparent.
The text affirms its hero to a degree unusual even for Hemingway.
tense Past
setting (time) Late 1940s
setting (place) A small fishing village near Havana, Cuba; the waters of the Gulf of Mexico
protagonist Santiago
major conflict For three days, Santiago struggles against the greatest fish of his long career.
rising action After eighty-four successive days without catching a fish, Santiago promises his former assistant,
Manolin, that he will go far out into the ocean. The marlin takes the bait, but Santiago is unable to reel him in,
which leads to a three-day struggle between the fisherman and the fish.
climax The marlin circles the skiff while Santiago slowly reels him in. Santiago nearly passes out from exhaustion
but gathers enough strength to harpoon the marlin through the heart, causing him to lurch in an almost sexual climax
of vitality before dying.
falling action Santiago sails back to shore with the marlin tied to his boat. Sharks follow the marlins trail of blood
and destroy it. Santiago arrives home toting only the fishs skeletal carcass. The village fishermen respect their
formerly ridiculed peer, and Manolin pledges to return to fishing with Santiago. Santiago falls into a deep sleep and
dreams of lions.
themes The honor in struggle, defeat, and death; pride as the source of greatness and determination
motifs Crucifixion imagery; life from death; the lions on the beach
symbols The marlin; the shovel-nosed sharks
foreshadowing Santiagos insistence that he will sail out farther than ever before foreshadows his destruction;
because the marlin is linked to Santiago, the marlins death foreshadows Santiagos own destruction by the sharks.














26




full title Moby-Dick; or The Whale
author Herman Melville
type of work Novel
genre Epic, adventure story, quest tale, allegory, tragedy
language English
time and place written Between 1850 and 1851, in Pittsfield, Massachusetts, and New York City
date of first publication 1851
publisher Harper & Brothers in America (simultaneously published in England by Richard Bentley as The Whale
)
narrator Ishmael, a junior member of the Pequods crew, casts himself as the author, recounting the events of the
voyage after he has acquired more experience and studied the whale extensively.
point of view Ishmael narrates in a combination of first and third person, describing events as he saw them and
providing his own thoughts. He presents the thoughts and feelings of the other characters only as an outside observer
might infer them.
tone Ironic, celebratory, philosophical, dramatic, hyperbolic
tense Past
setting (time) 1830s or 1840s
setting (place) Aboard the whaling ship the Pequod, in the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans
major conflict Ahab dedicates his ship and crew to destroying Moby Dick, a white sperm whale, because he sees
this whale as the living embodiment of all that is evil and malignant in the universe. By ignoring the physical
dangers that this quest entails, setting himself against other men, and presuming to understand and fight evil on a
cosmic scale, Ahab arrogantly defies the limitations imposed upon human beings.
rising action Ahab announces his quest to the other sailors and nails the doubloon to the mast; the Pequod
encounters various ships with news and stories about Moby Dick.
climax In Chapter 132, The Symphony, Ahab interrogates himself and his quest in front of Starbuck, and
realizes that he does not have the will to turn aside from his purpose.
falling action The death of Ahab and the destruction of the Pequod by Moby Dick; Ishmael, the only survivor of
the Pequods sinking, floats on a coffin and is rescued by another whaling ship, the Rachel.
themes The limits of knowledge; the deceptiveness of fate; the exploitative nature of whaling
motifs Whiteness; surfaces and depths
symbols The Pequod symbolizes doom; Moby Dick, on an objective level, symbolizes humankinds inability to
understand the world; Queequegs coffin symbolizes both life and death
foreshadowing Foreshadowing in Moby-Dick is extensive and inescapable: everything from the Pequods
ornamentation to the behavior of schools of fish to the appearance of a giant squid is read as an omen of the eventual
catastrophic encounter with Moby Dick.












27




full title MS. Found in a Bottle (1833); Ligeia (1838); The Fall of the House of Usher (1839); William
Wilson (1839); The Murders in the Rue Morgue (1841); The Tell-Tale Heart (1843); The Pit and the
Pendulum (1843); The Black Cat (1843); The Purloined Letter (1844); The Masque of the Red Death (1845);
The Cask of Amontillado (1846)
author Edgar Allan Poe
type of work Short story
genre Gothic short story; detective story; science fiction
language English
time and place written 18301846; Baltimore, Richmond, Philadelphia, New York
publisher Saturday Visiter (Baltimore); Southern Literary Messenger (Richmond); Burtons Gentlemans
Magazine (Philadelphia); Grahams (Philadelphia); Evening Mirror (New York)
narrator In the tales of criminal insanity, Poes narrators are unnamed and often unreliable. They claim their
sanity and then proceed to detail their pathological madness. In the detective stories, the narrator is a loyal friend of
Dupin and is in awe of the crime solvers brilliance.
point of view In the tales of criminal insanity, Poes first-person narrators produce unreliable confessions. They
control the narrative, and we see only through their eyes. However, they describe their own pathological actions so
meticulously that they demonstrate that they are actually insane. They are unable to step back from their narratives
to discern their own madness. In the detective stories, Poe employs a third-person narrator, a friend of Dupin, and
while the narrator tries to convey the tale fairly, his loyalty to Dupin prevents him from questioning or doubting
Dupins actions and strategies.
tone In the tales of criminal insanity, the narrators diction, which is precise and often ornate, suggests a serious
investment in confession as a defense of sanity. In the detective stories, Poes narrator attempts a dispassionate and
fair account of the events, but he often humbly defers to Dupin at moments of confusion or complexity.
tense The tales of criminal insanity often begin in the present tense as confessions and then flash back to recount
past crimes. The detective stories also feature little action in the present and instead convey the important events as
flashbacks.
protagonist The tales of criminal insanity establish the first-person narrators as protagonists by focusing on their
struggles with madness and the law. The detective stories feature Dupin as the protagonist by focusing on his ability
to save the Paris police with crime-solving brilliance.
themes The similarity of love and hate; the rivalry between self and alter ego; the personification of memory after
death
motifs The revenant; the doppelganger; the masquerade
symbols Eyes; the whirlpool; Fortunato














28







full title The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn
author Mark Twain (pseudonym for Samuel Clemens)
type of work Novel
genre Picaresque novel (episodic, colorful story often in the form of a quest or journey); satire of popular
adventure and romance novels; bildungsroman (novel of education or moral development)
language English; frequently makes use of Southern and black dialects of the time
time and place written 18761883; Hartford, Connecticut, and Elmira, New York
date of first publication 1884
publisher Charles L. Webster & Co.
narrator Huckleberry Finn
point of view Hucks point of view, although Twain occasionally indulges in digressions in which he shows off
his own ironic wit
tone Frequently ironic or mocking, particularly concerning adventure novels and romances; also contemplative, as
Huck seeks to decipher the world around him; sometimes boyish and exuberant
tense Immediate past
setting (time) Before the Civil War; roughly 18351845; Twain said the novel was set forty to fifty years before
the time of its publication
setting (place) The Mississippi River town of St. Petersburg, Missouri; various locations along the river through
Arkansas
protagonist Huck Finn
major conflict At the beginning of the novel, Huck struggles against society and its attempts to civilize him,
represented by the Widow Douglas, Miss Watson, and other adults. Later, this conflict gains greater focus in Hucks
dealings with Jim, as Huck must decide whether to turn Jim in, as society demands, or to protect and help his friend
instead.
rising action Miss Watson and the Widow Douglas attempt to civilize Huck until Pap reappears in town, demands
Hucks money, and kidnaps Huck. Huck escapes society by faking his own death and retreating to Jacksons Island,
where he meets Jim and sets out on the river with him. Huck gradually begins to question the rules society has
taught him, as when, in order to protect Jim, he lies and makes up a story to scare off some men searching for
escaped slaves. Although Huck and Jim live a relatively peaceful life on the raft, they are ultimately unable to escape
the evils and hypocrisies of the outside world. The most notable representatives of these outside evils are the con
men the duke and the dauphin, who engage in a series of increasingly serious scams that culminate in their sale of
Jim, who ends up at the Phelps farm.
climax Huck considers but then decides against writing Miss Watson to tell her the Phelps family is holding Jim,
following his conscience rather than the prevailing morality of the day. Instead, Tom and Huck try to free Jim, and
Tom is shot in the leg during the attempt.
falling action When Aunt Polly arrives at the Phelps farm and correctly identifies Tom and Huck, Tom reveals that
Miss Watson died two months earlier and freed Jim in her will. Afterward, Tom recovers from his wound, while
Huck decides he is done with civilized society and makes plans to travel to the West.
themes Racism and slavery; intellectual and moral education; the hypocrisy of civilized society
motifs Childhood; lies and cons; superstitions and folk beliefs; parodies of popular romance novels
symbols The Mississippi River; floods; shipwrecks; the natural world
foreshadowing Twain uses parallels and juxtapositions more so than explicit foreshadowing, especially in his
frequent comparisons between Hucks plight and eventual escape and Jims plight and eventual escape.

29



full title Slaughterhouse-Five; or, The Childrens Crusade: A Duty-Dance with Death
author Kurt Vonnegut
type of work Novel
genre Antiwar novel; historical fiction; science fiction; semi-autobiographical fiction
language English
time and place written Approximately 19451968, United States
date of first publication 1969
publisher Dell Publishing
narrator The author; or arguably, sometimes an anonymous narrator with a similar point of view
point of view The author narrates in both first and third person. The first-person sections are confined mainly to
the first and last chapters. The narration is omniscient: it reveals the thoughts and motives of several characters, and
provides details about their lives and some analysis of their motivations. The narrator primarily follows Billy Pilgrim
but also presents the point of view of other characters whom Billy encounters.
tone The narrators tone is familiar and ironic, and he uncovers touches of dark humor and absurdity that do not
diminish the lyrical and emotional power of the material. His portrayal of Billy is intimate but ambivalent, and he
occasionally emphasizes the diction of reported speech (prefacing a passage with He says that or Billy says) to
draw a distinction between reality and Billys interpretation of events.
tense The majority of the book is written in the past tense, but the narrator occasionally uses the present tense
especially in the first and last chapterswhen speaking from a personal point of view as Kurt Vonnegut. The
reporting of Billys speech is in the present tense (for example: Billy Pilgrim has come unstuck in time. Or so he
says.) Occasionally the tense switches to future, as when Billy describes his future death.
setting (time) The narrative provides a detailed account of Billys war experiences in 19441945, but it skips
around his entire life, from his early childhood in the 1920s to his death in 1976. The authors narration is set in
1968.
setting (place) The narrative thread of 19441945 concerns Billys army service in Germany and briefly in
Luxembourg, where he is captured after the Battle of the Bulge. Most of the rest of Billys life takes place in Ilium,
New York. He also travels to the planet Tralfamadore and lives there in a zoo.
protagonist Billy Pilgrim
major conflict Billy struggles to make sense out of a life forever marked by the firsthand experience of wars
tragedy.
rising action Billy and his fellow prisoners are transported across Germany and begin living in a slaughterhouse
prison and working in the city of Dresden.
climax Dresden is incinerated in a deadly firebomb attack. But Billy misses the moment of destruction, waiting
out the attack in a well-protected meat locker. Psychologically, Billy does not come to terms with this event until
nearly twenty years later, when the sight of a barbershop quartet on his wedding anniversary triggers his suppressed
sense of grief.
falling action The falling action occurs in the realm of Billys later life as he progresses toward a newfound
consciousness and an increasingly tenuous mental state. Billy experiences alien abduction and prepares to share his
new insights with the world.
themes The destructiveness of war; the illusion of free will; the importance of sight
motifs So it goes; the presence of the narrator as a character
symbols The bird who says Poo-tee-weet?; the colors blue and ivory
foreshadowing The narrative convention that Vonnegut dispenses with most thoroughly in this book is
foreshadowing. He outlines all the events of Billys life before proceeding with the story.