CRYSTAL GROWTH AND DEVICE FABRICATIONS

1) Fill in the blank with the correct answers

(angle between primary
and secondary flats)
Type Orientation
45 !111"
#$ % !1$$"
1&$ !1$$"
$
o
% !111"
') ame three techni()es a*ailable for semicond)ctor crystal growing process+
,ngot silicon crystal (-.ochralski techni()e)
Float .one method
/ridgman techni()e
0) 1i*e two methods that can be )sed to introd)ce imp)rities into semicond)ctor+
,on implantation
Thermal diff)sion
1as so)rce doping
4) 2hat is epita3ial process4
Epitaxy refers to the deposition of an o*erlayer on a crystalline s)bstrate5
The o*erlayer is called an epita3ial film or epitaxial layer+
The term epita3y comes from the 1reek roots epi5 meaning 6abo*e65 and ta3is5 meaning 6in ordered
manner6+ ,t can be translated 6to arrange )pon6+
For most technological applications, it is desired that the deposited material form a crystalline
overlayer that has one well-defined orientation with respect to the substrate crystal structure.
7pita3ial films may be grown from gaseo)s or li()id prec)rsors+
,f an epita3ial film is deposited on a s)bstrate of the same composition5 the process is called
homoepita3y8 otherwise it is called heteroepita3y+
9omoepita3y is a kind of epita3y performed with only one material+ ,n homoepita3y5 a crystalline
film is grown on a s)bstrate or film of the same material+ This technology is )sed to grow a film
which is more p)re than the s)bstrate and to fabricate layers ha*ing different doping le*els+ ,n
academic literat)re5 homoepita3y is often abbre*iated to 6homoepi6+
9eteroepita3y is a kind of epita3y performed with materials that are different from each other+ ,n
heteroepita3y5 a crystalline film grows on a crystalline s)bstrate or film of a different material+
73amples incl)de galli)m nitride (1a) on sapphire5 al)mini)m galli)m indi)m phosphide
(:l1a,n%) on galli)m arsenide (1a:s) or diamond or iridi)m+;1<
5) =ist three of the epita3ial techni()es+
>/7
=%7
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Tutorial SECO! SE"ESTE# $%&$'$%&(
PN JUNCTION DIODES
1) 73plain how a p@n A)nction can be )sed to work as a diode+
') 2hat is the significance of Bbarrier potentialC in a p@n A)nction4
0) : re*erseDbiased p@n A)nction has a wide depletion region+ 73plain+
4) 2hat do yo) mean by forward biasing and re*erse biasing of a p@n A)nction4
5) Eketch the typical *oltageFc)rrent characteristics for a forwardDbiased and re*erseDbiased p@n A)nction+
/riefly mention the salient points+
G) 2hat is an ideal diode4 Hraw its characteristic+
:n ideal diode is simply a pn A)nction where the change from pDtype to nDtype material is ass)med to
occ)r instantaneo)sly5 also referred to as an abr)pt A)nction+ The easiest way to concept)ali.e this is
that we ha*e two separate Ich)nksJ of doped semicond)ctor that somehow we are able to IstickJ
together with no change in either segment (the same approach we took when talking abo)t the pn
A)nction)+
K) 2hat limits the power con*ersion efficiency of a solar cell4
&) 73plain how a Lener diode can be )sed as *oltage reg)lator+
:nsM Lener diode as a ?oltage Neg)latorM ,t pro*ides a constant *oltage to the load from a so)rce
whose *oltage may *ary o*er s)fficient range+ Fig+01(a) shows the circ)it arrangement+ The .ener
diode of .ener *oltage ?. is re*erse connected across the load N= across which constant *oltage (?o
O ?.) is desired+ : resistor N is connected in series with the circ)it which absorbs the inp)t *oltage
fl)ct)ations so as to maintain constant *oltage (?o) across the load+ =et a *ariable *oltage ?in be
applied to the reg)lator+ 2hen the *al)e of ?in is less than Lener *oltage ?. of the .ener diode5 no
c)rrent flows thro)gh it and the same *oltage appears across the load+ 2hen the inp)t *oltage ?in is
more than ?L5 this will ca)se the Lener diode to cond)ct a large c)rrent ,L+
#) 73plain the principle of operation of =7H and mention the materials )sed for it+
Pri!iple "# "perati" "# LED$ The operation of =ight 7mitting Hiode (=7H) is based on the
phenomenon of electroDl)minance5 which is the emission of light from semicond)ctor )nder the
infl)ence of an electric field+
2hen a %D A)nction diode is forward biased5 as shown in fig+ 0K+15 the potential barrier is lowered+ The cond)ction band
free electrons from Dregion cross the barrier and enter the %Dregion+ :s these electrons enter the %Dregion5 they fall into
the holes lying in the *alence band+ 9ence they fall from higher energy le*el to a lower energy le*el+ ,n the process5 they
radiate energy+ ,n the ordinary diodes (rectifier and signal diodes)5 this energy radiates in the form of heat as these diodes
are made of silicon or germani)m which are opa()e materials and block the passage of light+
%aterial& '&e( #"r LED)&$
(i) 1a:s (1alli)m :rsenide) emit in*isible infra red light
(ii) 1a:s%(1alli)m :rsenide %hosphide) emit either red or yellow light (iii) 1a% (1alli)m
%hosphide) emits either red or green light+
Eo5 the abo*e materials radiate energy in the form light (or photons) and hence they glow+
'
Tutorial SECO! SE"ESTE# $%&$'$%&(
=7HCs are made from galli)m arsenide phosphide (1a:s%) and galli)m phosphide (1a%) and these
radiate energy in the form light (or photons) and hence they glow+
:pplicationsM =7Hs that emit *isible light (s)ch as red5 green5 bl)e etc+) find their applications in the
following areas
(i),nstr)ment Hisplay panel indicator (ii)Higital watches
(iii)-alc)lators
(i*)>)ltimeters
(*),ntercom
(*i)Telephone switch boards
,nfrared =7HCs find applications in remote control schemes5 obAect detectors etc+
BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS
1) ,n a /PT with QO1$$5 e()als4
,n a /PT with e()als
(:) ## (/) $+## (-) 1+$ (H) 1+$1
:nsM -
') Hraw the three config)rations in which a transistor may be connected showing battery connections for
each+
0) : bipolar transistor with an emitter c)rrent of 1 m: has an emitter efficiency of $+##5 a base transport
factor of $+##5 and a depletion layer recombination factor of $+##&+ -alc)late the base c)rrent5 the collector
c)rrent5 the transport factor and the c)rrent gain of the transistor+
S"l'ti"
The transport factor and c)rrent gain areM
and
OR7TSr O$+##T$+##5T$+##&O$+#&0 QO

O5&+1
The collector c)rrent then e()als
,- O ,7 O$+#&0m:
:nd the base c)rrent is obtained fromM
,/ O,7 U,- O1KV:
1U
%S CONTACTS AND SCHOTT*Y DIODES
1) 2hat is a flatband diagram4
') 2hat mechanism(s) ca)se(s) c)rrent in a metalDsemicond)ctor A)nction4
0) The diode in which imp)rities are hea*ily doped is called4
(:) ?aractor diode (/) %, diode +C, T'el (i"(e (H) Lener diode
4) %roblem 14+1 a)5 b)5 d)5 h)5 i) of %ierret+
5) %roblem 14+0 of %ierret+
G) Hescribe the phenomenon of a*alanche and .ener breakdown ;4<+
0
Tutorial SECO! SE"ESTE# $%&$'$%&(
:nsM A-ala!.e Brea/("0M The minority carriers5 )nder re*erse biased conditions5 flowing
thro)gh the A)nction ac()ires a kinetic energy5 which increases with the increase in re*erse *oltage+
:t a s)fficiently high re*erse *oltage (say 5* or more)5 the kinetic energy of minority carriers
becomes so large that they knock o)t electrons from the co*alent bonds of the semicond)ctor
material+ :s a res)lt of collision5 the liberated electrons in t)rn liberate more electrons and the
c)rrent becomes *ery large leading the breakdown of the crystal str)ct)re itself+ This phenomenon is
called :*alanche /reakdown+
1eer Brea/("0M Wnder a *ery high re*erse *oltage5 the depletion region e3pands and the
potential barrier increases leading to a *ery high electric field (0X1$K ?Fm) across the A)nction+ The
electric field will break some of the co*alent bonds of the semicond)ctor re*erse c)rrent+ This is
called the Lener effect+ The breakdown occ)rs at a partic)lar and constant *al)e of re*erse *oltage
called the breakdown *oltage+
K) 2hat is meant by the t)nneling phenomenon ;4<4
:nsM T'eli2 P.e"3e"M : t)nnel diode is a high cond)cti*ity twoDterminal %D A)nction
doped hea*ily abo)t 15$$$ times higher than a con*entional A)nction diode+ /eca)se of hea*y doping
depletion layer width is red)ced to an e3tremely small *al)e of the order of 1$D5 nm5 re*erse
breakdown *oltage is also red)ced to a *ery small *al)e (approaching .ero) res)lting in appearance
of the diode to be broken for any re*erse *oltage5 and a negati*e resistance section is prod)ced+ ,t is
fo)nd that the red)ced depletion layer can res)lt in carriers Bp)nching thro)ghC the A)nction with the
*elocity of light e*en when they do not possess eno)gh energy to o*ercome the potential barrier+ The
res)lt is that large forward c)rrent is prod)ced at relati*ely low forward *oltage (less than 1$$ m?)+
E)ch a mechanism of cond)ction in which electrons (possessing *ery little energy) p)nch thro)gh a
barrier directly instead of climbing o*er it is called t)nneling phenomenon+
FIELD EFFECT INTRODUCTION 4 THE JFET AND %ESFET
1) -ompared to bipolar transistor5 a PF7T has YYYYYYYY impedance and YYYYYYYYY *oltage gain4
(:) lower inp)t impedance
(/) higher *oltage gain
(-) higher inp)t impedance and high *oltage gain
(H) higher inp)t impedance and low *oltage gain
:nsM H
') -hoose correct or the best alternati*e in the followingM PF7T is a4
(:) -)rrent controlled de*ice with high inp)t resistance
(/) ?oltage controlled de*ice with high inp)t resistance
(-) -)rrent -ontrolled -)rrent Eo)rce (---E)
(H) ?oltage -ontrolled ?oltage Eo)rce (?-?E)
0) %roblem 15+1 a)5 b)5 e)5 h) of %ierret+
4) >ention three applications each for PF7T and >OEF7T+
:pplications of JFET$
/)ffer amplifier5 =ow oise :mplifier5 -ascaded :mplifier5 :nalog Ewitch -hopper5 %hase Ehift
Oscillator circ)its5 ?oltage ?ariable Nesistors in Operational :mplifiers and tone controls etc+5
For >i3er operation on F> and T? recei*ers
4
Tutorial SECO! SE"ESTE# $%&$'$%&(
:pplications of >OEF7TM >OEF7Ts can also be )sed for most applications where PF7T is )sed+
>OEF7Ts ha*e become *ery pop)lar for digital logic circ)its d)e to high density of fabrication and
low power dissipation+
1+ >OEF7T is )sed in Eample and 9old circ)it as a switch+
'+ %D>OEF7T and D>OEF7T are )sed in digital logic circ)its
-D>OEF7T is *ery pop)lar in fabricating of >E, and =E, technology+
5) Etate two limitation of F7T+
(i) ,t has relati*e small gainDbandwidth prod)ct
(ii) 1reater s)sceptibility to damage in its handling+
(iii) ,t has low *oltage gain5 beca)se of small tanscond)ctance
G) 73plain the operation of a =i()id -rystal Hisplay (=-H)+ 2here are =-HCs )sed 4
=-H is a field effect de*ice+ The key to its operation is the li()id crystal or organic fl)id
sandwitched between two glass plates+ :n ac *oltage is applied across the fl)id from the top
metalli.ed segments to the metalli.ed back plane+ 2hen affected by the magnetic field of ac *oltage5
the fl)id transmits light differently and the energi.ed element appears as black on a sil*ery
backgro)nd+ ,t )ses a polari.ing filter on the top and bottom of the display as shown in fig+ &$+1(a) Z
&$+1(b) The back plane and the segments are internally wired to contacts on the edge of =-H+ Fig+
&$+1(a) Z &$+1(b) shows only two of those contacts+
:nsM Operation of a =i()id -rystal Hisplay (=-H)M :n =-H does not radiate any ill)mination+ ,t
only reflects or transmits incidents ill)mination+ =i()id crystal is organic fl)id shaped like small
cigars and sealed between two glass sheets ha*ing a transparent cond)cting s)rface+ 2hen a low
fre()ency low *oltage is applied5 the crystal molec)les rearrange their orientation to prod)ce the
display+
1=:EE
E%:-7N Z E7:=7N
Fig+&$+1(a)
7=7-TNOH7
=,[W,H -N\ET:=
%OS FUNDA%ENTAL
1) 2hat is the difference between a so)rce and a drain of a >OEF7T4
') 2hat is the difference between an nDtype and a pDtype >OEF7T4
0) 9ow does the o3ide thickness and s)bstrate doping affect the threshold *oltage of a >OEF7T+
4) 2hat are the ad*antages of ,-s o*er con*entional circ)its4
(1) 73tremely small si.eD tho)sand times smaller than discrete circ)it+
(') ?ery small weight owing to miniat)ri.ed circ)it+
(0) ?ery low cost beca)se of sim)ltaneo)s prod)ction of h)ndred of similar circ)its on a small
semicond)ctor wafer+
(4) >ore reliable beca)se of elimination of soldered Aoints and need for fewer interDconnections+
(5) =ow power cons)mption beca)se of their smaller si.e+
(G) 7asy replacement as it is more economical to replace them than to repair them
(K) ,ncreased operating speeds beca)se of parasitic capacitance effect+
(&) ,mpro*ed f)nctional performance as more comple3 circ)its can be fabricated for achie*ing better
characteristics+
(#) E)itable for small signal operation+
5
Tutorial SECO! SE"ESTE# $%&$'$%&(
5) -alc)late the threshold *oltage of a silicon n>OEF7T when applying a s)bstrate *oltage5 ?/E O $5 D'+55
D55 DK+5 and D1$ ?+ The capacitor has a s)bstrate doping a O 1$
1K
cmD05 a '$ nm thick o3ide (e
o3
O 0+# e
$
)
and an al)min)m gate (F
>
O 4+1 ?)+ :ss)me there is no fi3ed charge in the o3ide or at the o3ideDsilicon
interface+
Eol)tion
-alc)late the threshold *oltage of a silicon n>OEF7T when applying a s)bstrate *oltage5 ?/E O $5
D'+55 D55 DK+5 and D1$ ?+ The capacitor has a s)bstrate doping a O 1$1K cmD05 a '$ nm thick o3ide
(]o3 O 0+# ]$) and an al)min)m gate (^> O 4+1 ?)+ :ss)me there is no fi3ed charge in the o3ide or
at the o3ideD silicon interface+
The threshold *oltage at ?/E O D'+5 ? e()alsM ?T O?T$_
R
( 1_?E/ U1)
'`F
'`F
OU$+$#_
$+K5
( 1_
'+5
U1)O$+K0?
'T$+4'
'T$+4'
2here the flatband *oltage witho)t s)bstrate bias5 ?T$5 was
already calc)lated in e3ample G+'+ The body effect parameter was obtained fromM
R O
']s(a
O
'T11+#T&+&5T1$U14 T1+GT1$U1# T1$1K
-o3
0+# T &+&5 T1$U14 F '$ T1$U
K
O $+K5 ?D1F'
The threshold *oltages for the different s)bstrate *oltages are listed in the table below+
?/E OD'+5? D5? DK+5? D1$? ?T $+K0 ? 1+'G ? 1+G& ? '+$4 ?
SOLUTIONS
The *aractor diode is )s)ally +A, Forward biased +B, re*erse biased
+D, holes and electronics+C, Wnbiased A&$ B
'$+ 2hich of the following diodes is operated in re*erse bias mode 4
+A, %D A)nction +C, T)nnel +B, Lener +D, Echottky
A&$ B
5678 Hisc)ss the similarities and differences between PF7T and >OEF7T with regard to their constr)ction and
applications+ %ar/& +9,
A&$ Si3ilaritie& i C"&tr'!ti"
(i) PF7T is a three terminal semicond)ctor de*ice(so)rce5 gate and drain) in which c)rrent cond)ction is by maAority
carriers (electrons or holes)5 whereas >OEF7T is also a three terminal semicond)ctor de*ice in which c)rrent
cond)ction is by maAority carriers+ (ii) PF7T is ?oltage -ontrollable He*ice (i+e+5 the gate terminal is )sed for
controlling the drain c)rrent whereas >OEF7T is also a ?oltage -o
Di##ere!e& i C"&tr'!ti"$
(1) :n Dchannel PF7T is shown in fig+ 1&(a)+ ,t consists of a thin Dtype silicon bar with two islands of %Dtype
semicond)ctor material embedded in the sides5 th)s forming two % A)nctions+ 2hereas in Dchannel Hepletion
>OEF7T5 there is only one pDregion instead of two+ This region is known as s)bstrate+ The two %Dregions are
embedded in it as shown in fig+ 1&(b)
(') ,n Dchannel PF7T5 the two p regions are connected with each other (e3ternally or internally) and are called gate
(1)+ Ohmic contacts are made at the two ends of the D type semicond)ctor bar+ One terminal known as the so)rce (E)
thro)gh which the maAority carriers (electrons in this case) enter the bar+ The other terminal as the drain (H) thro)gh
which these maAority carriers lea*e the bar+ /)t in >OEF7T5 o*er the left side of the channel5 a thin layer of metal
o3ide ()s)ally silicon dio3ide) is deposited+ : metallic 1ate is deposited o*er the silicon dio3ide +The gate is ins)lated
from the semicond)ctor since silicon dio3ide is an ins)lator+ That is why >OEF7T is also known as ,ns)lated 1ate
F7T+ =ike PF7T5 ohmic contacts are made at the two ends (Hrain and Eo)rce) of the Dtype semicond)ctor bar+
(0) Eince the gate is ins)lated from the channel by a thin layer of silicon dio3ide5 the inp)t impedance of >OEF7T is
*ery high (of the order of 1$4 to 1$# >a) whereas the inp)t impedance of PF7T is 1$$>a as for a re*erse biased pn
G
Tutorial SECO! SE"ESTE# $%&$'$%&(
A)nction+
(4) Wnlike the PF7T5 a >OEF7T has no gate diode5 it forms a capacitor+ The capacitor has gate and channel as
electrodes and the o3ide layer is dielectric+ /eca)se of this property5 the de*ice can be operated with negati*e as well
as positi*e gate *oltages+
-onse()ently5 more c)rrent flows thro)gh series resistor N which increases the *oltage drop across it+ Th)s5 the inp)t
*oltage e3cess of ?. (i+e+ ?in @ ?.Y) is absorbed by the series resistor+ 9ence a constant *oltage ?$ (O?.) is
maintained across the load N=+ 2hen the load resistance N= decreases for constant inp)t *oltage ?in5 load c)rrent ,=
increases+ This additional c)rrent is not s)pplied from the so)rce of s)pply b)t the demand of additional load c)rrent
is met by decrease in Lener c)rrent ,.+
This keeps the *oltage drop across series resistance N constant and also the o)tp)t *oltage ?o)t+ The diode c)rrent ,.
attains its ma3im)m ,.ma3 when load c)rrent ,= becomes .ero+ Th)s the *al)e of series resistor N can be determined
from the e()ation
Di##eretiate :et0ee FET a( BJT tra&i&t"r&6 %ar/& +;,
(i) F7T operation depends )pon the flow of maAority carriers only5 it is
therefore5 a )niDpolar (c)rrent cond)ction is d)e to one type of carriers either electrons or holes) de*ice+ On the other
hand5 the c)rrent cond)ction in /PT is d)e to both maAority and minority carriers5 it is therefore a bipolar de*ice+
(ii) F7T has high inp)t impedance (of the order of 1$$ >egaohms)5 beca)se its inp)t circ)it (gate to so)rce) is re*erse
biased5 and so permits high degree of isolation between the inp)t and o)tp)t circ)its+ On the other hand5 /PT has low
inp)t impedance5 beca)se its inp)t circ)it is forward biased+
(iii) F7T carries *ery small c)rrent beca)se of re*erse biased gate and inp)t *oltage controls the o)tp)t c)rrent+ This is
the reason that F7T is essentially a *oltage dri*en de*ice+ /PT carries high c)rrent beca)se of forward biased and it is
a c)rrent operated de*ice5 since inp)t c)rrent controls the o)tp)t c)rrent+
(i*) /PT )ses a c)rrent into its base for controlling a large c)rrent between collector and emitter whereas in a F7T5
*oltage on the gate terminal is )sed for controlling the drain c)rrent (c)rrent between drain and so)rce+ Th)s an
ordinary transistor5 gain is characteri.ed by c)rrent gain whereas the F7T gain is characteri.ed as the
transcond)ctance+
(*) F7T has no A)nction like /PT and the cond)ction is thro)gh b)lk material c)rrent carriers (Dtype or %Dtype
semicond)ctor material) that do not cross A)nctions+ 9ence the inherent noise of /PT (owing to A)nction transitions) is
not present in F7T
(*i) F7T has small gainDbandwidth prod)ct5 low *oltage gain in comparision to /PT+
56<7 Di&!'&& ."0 a (epleti" layer i& #"r3e( i a P=N (i"(e a( ."0 ("e& it -ary 0it. :ia&i2 > Dra0 V=I
!.ara!teri&ti!& "# P=N ?'!ti" (i"(e6 %ar/& +9,
A&$ F"r3ati" "# Depleti" Layer i a P=N ?'!ti" Di"(e$ The two types of e3trinsic semicond)ctors are pDtype
and nDtype as shown in fig+51(a) The pDtype semicond)ctor is ha*ing negati*e acceptor ions and positi*ely charged
holes+ 2hereas5 the nDtype semicond)ctor is ha*ing positi*e donor ions and negati*ely charged electrons+
W.at i& LED > Gi-e it& pri!iple "# 0"r/i2 a( appli!ati"&6 %ar/& +;,
LED$ =7H (=ight 7mitting Hiode) is a Forward /iased %D A)nction diode which emits light )nder the infl)ence of
an electric field+ The str)ct)re5 schematic diagram and symbol of =7H are shown in fig+54(i)5 54(ii) and 54(iii)+
Pri!iple "# 0"r/i2$ 2hen %D A)nction diode is forwardDbiased5 the potential barrier is lowered+ The cond)ction
band free electrons from nDregion cross the barrier and enter the pDregion+ :s these electrons enter the pDregion5 they
fall into the holes lying in the *alence band+ 9ence they fall from a higher le*el to a lower energy le*el+ ,n the process5
they radiate energy+ ,n the ordinary diodes (rectifier and signal diodes) this energy radiates in the form of heat5 as
these diodes are made of silicon or germani)m which are opa()e material and block the passage of light+
569@ Explai t.e !"('!ti" "# !'rret i a 2""( !"('!t"r6 W.y ("e& a !"('!t"r .a& l"0 re&i&ta!e > %ar/&
+9,
A&$ C"('!ti" "# !'rret i a 2""( !"('!t"r$ The s)bstances (like copper5 al)min)m5 sil*er etc+) which allow
the passage of c)rrent thro)gh them are known as cond)ctors+ ,n case of cond)cting materials5 there is no forbidden
energy gap (i+e+5 the energy gap between *alence band and cond)ction band) and the *alence and cond)ction bands
o*erlap5 as shown in fig+K'+1
C"C"('('!ti"BaB(a(
Eer2y Le-el i eV
Vale!e Ba( Vale!e Ba(
Fi269@67
The orbits in the cond)ction band are *ery large+ :n electron in the cond)ction band e3periences almost negligible
n)clear attraction+ ,n fact5 an electron in the cond)ction band does not belong to any partic)lar atom+ /)t it mo*es
K
Tutorial SECO! SE"ESTE# $%&$'$%&(
randomly thro)gho)t the solid+ This is the reason that electrons in the cond)ction band are called the free electrons+
H)e to o*erlapping of *alence and cond)ction bands5 a slight potential difference across the cond)ctor ca)ses the free
electrons to constit)te hea*y flow of electric c)rrent thro)gh them+ -ond)ctor has low resistance5 beca)se its *alence
and cond)ction band o*erlaps+ Eo5 its cond)cti*ity becomes high+
569A W.at i& itri&i! &e3i!"('!t"r6 H"0 (" 0e 3a/e it extri&i! &e3i!"('!t"rB a( 0.y &" > %ar/& +9,
A&$ Itri&i! Se3i!"('!t"r$ :n intrinsic semicond)ctor is one which is made of the semicond)ctor material in its
e3tremely p)re form+
%a/i2 "# Extri&i! Se3i!"('!t"r #r"3 Itri&i! Se3i!"('!t"r$ :ltho)gh an intrinsic semicond)ctor is
capable to cond)ct a little c)rrent e*en at room temperat)re b)t as it is5 it is not )sef)l for the preparation of *ario)s
electronic de*ices+ 9owe*er5 the electrical cond)cti*ity of intrinsic semicond)ctor can be increased many times by
adding *ery small amo)nt of imp)rity (of the order of one atom per million atoms of p)re semicond)ctor) to it in the
process of crystalli.ation+ This process is called doping and the doped material is called imp)rity or e3trinsic
semicond)ctor+
The p)rpose of adding imp)rity in the semicond)ctor crystal is to increase the n)mber of free electrons or holes to
make it cond)cti*e+ ,f a small amo)nt of penta*alent imp)rity (ha*ing 5 *alence electrons)5 s)ch as arsenic5 antimony5
bism)th or phosphor)s etc+ are added to a p)re semicond)ctor a large n)mber of free electrons will e3ist in it and it is
called Dtype (donor type) e3trinsic semicond)ctor+ ,f a small amo)nt of tri*alent imp)rity (ha*ing 0 *alence
electrons)5 s)ch as boron5 galli)m5 indi)m or al)mini)m etc+
are added to a p)re semicond)ctor5 a large n)mber of holes will e3ist in it and it is called the %Dtype (acceptor)
semicond)ctor+
&