EXISTENTIALISM

AND HUMAN EMOTIONS

EXISTENTIALISM
I should like on this occasion to defend existentialism against some chages !hich ha"e #een #ought against it$
%ist& it has #een chaged !ith in"iting 'eo'le to emain in a kind of des'eate (uietism #ecause& since no solutions ae
'ossi#le& !e should ha"e to conside action in this !old as (uite im'ossi#le$ )e should then end u' in a 'hiloso'h* of
contem'lation+ and since contem'lation is a luxu*& !e come in the end to a #ougeois 'hiloso'h*$ The communists in
'aticula ha"e made these chages$
On the othe hand& !e ha"e #een chaged !ith d!elling on human degadation& !ith 'ointing u' e"e*!hee the sodid&
shad*& and slim*& and neglecting the gacious and #eautiful& the #ight side of human natue+ fo exam'le& accoding to
Mlle$ Mecie& a ,atholic citic& !ith fogetting the smile of the child$ -oth sides chage us !ith ha"ing ignoed human
solidait*& !ith consideing man as an isolated #eing$ The communists sa* that the main eason fo this is that !e take
'ue su#.ecti"it*& the ,atesian I think& as ou stating 'oint+ in othe !ods& the moment in !hich man #ecomes full*
a!ae of !hat it means to him to #e an isolated #eing+ as a esult& !e ae una#le to etun to a state of solidait* !ith the
men !ho ae not ousel"es& a state !hich !e can ne"e each in the cogito$
%om the ,histian stand'oint& !e ae chaged !ith den*ing the ealit* and seiousness of human undetakings& since& if
!e e.ect /od0s commandments and the etenal "eities& thee no longe emains an*thing #ut 'ue ca'ice& !ith e"e*one
'emitted to do as he 'leases and inca'a#le& fom his o!n 'oint of "ie!& of condemning the 'oints of "ie! and acts of
othes$
I shall t* toda* to ans!e these diffeent chages$ Man* 'eo'le ae going to #e su'ised at !hat is said hee a#out
humanism$ )e shall t* to see in !hat sense it is to #e undestood$ In an* case& !hat can #e said fom the "e* #eginning
is that #* existentialism !e mean a doctine !hich makes human life 'ossi#le and& in addition& declaes that e"e* tuth
and e"e* action im'lies a human setting and a human su#.ecti"it*$
As is geneall* kno!n& the #asic chage against us is that !e 'ut the em'hasis on the dak side of human life$ Someone
ecentl* told me of a lad* !ho& !hen she let sli' a "ulga !od in a moment of iitation& excused heself #* sa*ing& 1I
guess I0m #ecoming an existentialist$1 ,onse(uentl*& existentialism is egaded as something ugl*+ that is !h* !e ae said
to #e natualists+ and if !e ae& it is athe su'ising that in this da* and age !e cause so much moe alam and scandal
than does natualism& 'o'el* so called$ The kind of 'eson !ho can take in his stide such a no"el as 2ola0s The Eath is
disgusted as soon as he stats eading an existentialist no"el+ the kind of 'eson !ho is esigned to the !isdom of the
ages33!hich is 'ett* sad33finds us e"en sadde$ 4et& !hat can #e moe disillusioning than sa*ing 1tue chait* #egins at
home1 o 1a scoundel !ill al!a*s etun e"il fo good15
)e kno! the common'lace emaks made !hen this su#.ect comes u'& emaks !hich al!a*s add u' to the same thing6
!e shouldn0t stuggle against the 'o!es3that3#e+ !e shouldn0t esist& authoit*+ !e shouldn0t t* to ise a#o"e ou station+
an* action !hich doesn0t confom to authoit* is omantic+ an* effot not #ased on 'ast ex'eience is doomed to failue+
ex'eience sho!s that man0s #ent is al!a*s to!ad tou#le& that thee must #e a stong hand to hold him in check& if not&
thee !ill #e anach*$ Thee ae still 'eo'le !ho go on mum#ling these melanchol* old sa!s& the 'eo'le !ho sa*& 1It0s
onl* human71 !hene"e a moe o less e'ugnant act is 'ointed out to them& the 'eo'le !ho glut themsel"es on chansons
8alistes+ these ae the 'eo'le !ho accuse existentialism of #eing too gloom*& and to such an extent that I !onde !hethe
the* ae com'laining a#out it& not fo its 'essimism& #ut much athe its o'timism$ ,an it #e that !hat eall* scaes them
in the doctine I shall t* to 'esent hee is that it lea"es to man a 'ossi#ilit* of choice5 To ans!e this (uestion& !e must
e3examine it on a stictl* 'hiloso'hical 'lane$ )hat is meant #* the tem existentialism5
Most 'eo'le !ho use the !od !ould #e athe em#aassed if the* had to ex'lain it& since& no! that the !od is all the
age& e"en the !ok of a musician o 'ainte is #eing called existentialist$ A gossi' columnist in ,lat8s signs himself The
Existentialist& so that #* this time the !od has #een so stetched and has taken on so #oad a meaning& that it no longe
means an*thing at all$ It seems that fo !ant of an ad"ance3guad doctine analogous to suealism& the kind of 'eo'le !ho
ae eage fo scandal and flu* tun to this 'hiloso'h* !hich in othe es'ects does not at all se"e thei 'u'oses in this
s'hee$
Actuall*& it is the least scandalous& the most austee of doctines$ It is intended stictl* fo s'ecialists and 'hiloso'hes$ 4et
it can #e defined easil*$ )hat com'licates mattes is that thee ae t!o kinds of existentialist+ fist& those !ho ae
,histian& among !hom I !ould include 9as'es and /a#iel Macel& #oth ,atholic+ and on the othe hand the atheistic
existentialists& among !hom I class Heidegge& and then the %ench existentialists and m*self$ )hat the* ha"e in common
is that the* think that existence 'ecedes essence& o& if *ou 'efe& that su#.ecti"it* must #e the stating 'oint$
9ust !hat does that mean5 Let us conside some o#.ect that is manufactued& fo exam'le& a #ook o a 'a'e3cutte6 hee is
an o#.ect !hich has #een made #* an atisan !hose ins'iation came fom a conce't$ He efeed to the conce't of !hat a
'a'e3cutte is and like!ise to a kno!n method of 'oduction& !hich is 'at of the conce't& something !hich is& #* and
lage& a outine$ Thus& the 'a'e3cutte is at once an o#.ect 'oduced in a cetain !a* and& on the othe hand& one ha"ing a
s'ecific use+ and one can not 'ostulate a man !ho 'oduces a 'a'e3cutte #ut does not kno! !hat it is used fo$
Theefoe& let us sa* that& fo the 'a'e3cutte& essence33that is& the ensem#le of #oth the 'oduction outines and the
'o'eties !hich ena#le it to #e #oth 'oduced and defined33'ecedes existence$ Thus& the 'esence of the 'a'e3cutte o
#ook in font of me is detemined$ Theefoe& !e ha"e hee a technical "ie! of the !old !hee#* it can #e said that
'oduction 'ecedes existence$
)hen !e concei"e /od as the ,eato& He is geneall* thought of as a su'eio sot of atisan$ )hate"e doctine !e ma*
#e consideing& !hethe one like that of Descates o that of Lei#nit:& !e al!a*s gant that !ill moe o less follo!s
undestanding o& at the "e* least& accom'anies it& and that !hen /od ceates He kno!s exactl* !hat He is ceating$
Thus& the conce't of man in the mind of /od is com'aa#le to the conce't of 'a'e3cutte in the mind of the manufactue&
and& follo!ing cetain techni(ues and a conce'tion& /od 'oduces man& .ust as the atisan& follo!ing a definition and a
techni(ue& makes a 'a'e3cutte$ Thus& the indi"idual man is the eali:ation of a cetain conce't in the di"ine intelligence$
In the eighteenth centu*& the atheism of the 'hiloso'hes discaded the idea of /od& #ut not so much fo the notion that
essence 'ecedes existence$ To a cetain extent& this idea is found e"e*!hee+ !e find it in Dideot& in ;oltaie& and e"en
in <ant$ Man has a human natue+ this human natue& !hich is the conce't of the human& is found in all men& !hich
means that each man is a 'aticula exam'le of a uni"esal conce't& man$ In <ant& the esult of this uni"esalit* is that the
!ild3man& the natual man& as !ell as the #ougeois& ae cicumsci#ed #* the same definition and ha"e the same #asic
(ualities$ Thus& hee too the essence of man 'ecedes the histoical existence that !e find in natue$
Atheistic existentialism& !hich I e'esent& is moe coheent$ It states that if /od does not exist& thee is at least one #eing
in !hom existence 'ecedes essence& a #eing !ho exists #efoe he can #e defined #* an* conce't& and that this #eing is
man& o& as Heidegge sa*s& human ealit*$ )hat is meant hee #* sa*ing that existence 'ecedes essence5 It means that&
fist of all& man exists& tuns u'& a''eas on the scene& and& onl* afte!ads& defines himself$ If man& as the existentialist
concei"es him& is indefina#le& it is #ecause at fist he is nothing$ Onl* afte!ad !ill he #e something& and he himself !ill
ha"e made !hat he !ill #e$ Thus& thee is no human natue& since thee is no /od to concei"e it$ Not onl* is man !hat he
concei"es himself to #e& #ut he is also onl* !hat he !ills himself to #e afte this thust to!ad existence$
Man is nothing else #ut !hat he makes of himself$ Such is the fist 'inci'le of existentialism$ It is also !hat is called
su#.ecti"it*& the name !e ae la#eled !ith !hen chages ae #ought against us$ -ut !hat do !e mean #* this& if not that
man has a geate dignit* than a stone o ta#le5 %o !e mean that man fist exists& that is& that man fist of all is the #eing
!ho huls himself to!ad a futue and !ho is conscious of imagining himself as #eing in the futue$ Man is at the stat a
'lan !hich is a!ae of itself& athe than a 'atch of moss& a 'iece of ga#age& o a cauliflo!e+ nothing exists 'io to this
'lan+ thee is nothing in hea"en+ man !ill #e !hat he !ill ha"e 'lanned to #e$ Not !hat he !ill !ant to #e$ -ecause #* the
!od 1!ill1 !e geneall* mean a conscious decision& !hich is su#se(uent to !hat !e ha"e alead* made of ousel"es$ I
ma* !ant to #elong to a 'olitical 'at*& !ite a #ook& get maied+ #ut all that is onl* a manifestation of an ealie& moe
s'ontaneous choice that is called 1!ill$1 -ut if existence eall* does 'ecede essence& man is es'onsi#le fo !hat he is$
Thus& existentialism0s fist mo"e is to make e"e* man a!ae of !hat he is and to make the full es'onsi#ilit* of his
existence est on him$ And !hen !e sa* that a man is es'onsi#le fo himself& !e do not onl* mean that he is es'onsi#le
fo his o!n indi"idualit*& #ut that he is es'onsi#le fo all men$
The !od su#.ecti"ism has t!o meanings& and ou o''onents 'la* on the t!o$ Su#.ecti"ism means& on the one hand& that
an indi"idual chooses and makes himself+ and& on the othe that it is im'ossi#le fo man to tanscend human su#.ecti"it*$
The second of these is the essential meaning of existentialism$ )hen !e sa* that man chooses his o!n self& !e mean that
e"e* one of us does like!ise+ #ut !e also mean #* that that in making this choice he also chooses all men$ In fact& in
ceating the man that !e !ant to #e& thee is not a single one of ou acts !hich does not at the same time ceate an image
of man as !e think he ought to #e$ To choose to #e this o that is to affim at the same time the "alue of !hat !e choose&
#ecause !e can ne"e choose e"il$ )e al!a*s choose the good& and nothing can #e good fo us !ithout #eing good fo all$
If& on the othe hand& existence 'ecedes essence& and if !e gant that !e exist and fashion ou image at one and the same
time& the image is "alid fo e"e*#od* and fo ou !hole age$ Thus& ou es'onsi#ilit* is much geate than !e might ha"e
su''osed& #ecause it in"ol"es all mankind$ If I am a !okingman and choose to .oin a ,histian tade3union athe than #e
a communist& and if #* #eing a mem#e I !ant to sho! that the #est thing fo man is esignation& that the kingdom of man
is not of this !old& I am not onl* in"ol"ing m* o!n case3I !ant to #e esigned fox e"e*one$ As a esult& m* action has
in"ol"ed all humanit*$ To take a moe indi"idual matte& if I !ant to ma*& to ha"e childen+ e"en if this maiage
de'ends solel* on m* o!n cicumstances o 'assion o !ish& I am in"ol"ing all humanit* in monogam* and not meel*
m*self$ Theefoe& I am es'onsi#le fo m*self and fo e"e*one else$ I am ceating a cetain image of man of m* o!n
choosing$ In choosing m*self& I choose man$
This hel's us undestand !hat the actual content is of such athe gandilo(uent !ods as anguish& folonness& des'ai$
As *ou !ill see& it0s all (uite sim'le$
%ist& !hat is meant #* anguish5 The existentialists sa* at once that man is anguish$ )hat that means is this6 the man !ho
in"ol"es himself and !ho eali:es that he is not onl* the 'eson he chooses to #e& #ut also a la!make !ho is& at the same
time& choosing all mankind as !ell as himself& can not hel' esca'e the feeling of his total and dee' es'onsi#ilit*$ Of
couse& thee ae man* 'eo'le !ho ae not anxious+ #ut !e claim that the* ae hiding thei anxiet*& that the* ae fleeing
fom it$ ,etainl*& man* 'eo'le #elie"e that !hen the* do something& the* themsel"es ae the onl* ones in"ol"ed& and
!hen someone sa*s to them& 1)hat if e"e*one acted that !a*51 the* shug thei shouldes and ans!e& 1E"e*one doesn0t
act that !a*$1 -ut eall*& one should al!a*s ask himself& 1)hat !ould ha''en if e"e*#od* looked at things that !a*51
Thee is no esca'ing this distu#ing thought exce't #* a kind of dou#le3dealing$ A man !ho lies and makes excuses fo
himself #* sa*ing 1not e"e*#od* does that&1 is someone !ith an uneas* conscience& #ecause the act of l*ing im'lies that a
uni"esal "alue is confeed u'on the lie$
Anguish is e"ident e"en !hen it conceals itself$ This is the anguish that <iekegaad called the anguish of A#aham$ 4ou
kno! the sto*6 an angel has odeed A#aham to sacifice his son+ if it eall* !ee an angel !ho has come and said& 14ou
ae A#aham& *ou shall sacifice *ou son&1 e"e*thing !ould #e all ight$ -ut e"e*one might fist !onde& 1Is it eall* an
angel& and am I eall* A#aham5 )hat 'oof do I ha"e51
Thee !as a mad!oman !ho had hallucinations+ someone used to s'eak to he on the tele'hone and gi"e he odes$ He
docto asked he& 1)ho is it !ho talks to *ou51 She ans!eed& 1He sa*s it0s /od$1 )hat 'oof did she eall* ha"e that it
!as /od5 If an angel comes to me& !hat 'oof is thee that it0s an angel5 And if I hea "oices& !hat 'oof is thee that the*
come fom hea"en and not fom hell& o fom the su#conscious& o a 'athological condition5 )hat 'o"es that the* ae
addessed to me5 )hat 'oof is thee that I ha"e #een a''ointed to im'ose m* choice and m* conce'tion of man on
humanit*5 I0ll ne"e find an* 'oof o sign to con"ince me of that$ If a "oice addesses me& it is al!a*s fo me to decide
that this is the angel0s "oice+ if I conside that such an act is a good one& it is I !ho !ill choose to sa* that it is good athe
than #ad$
No!& I0m not #eing singled out as an A#aham& and *et at e"e* moment I0m o#liged to 'efom exem'la* acts$ %o e"e*
man& e"e*thing ha''ens as if all mankind had its e*es fixed on him and !ee guiding itself #* !hat he does$ And e"e*
man ought to sa* to himself& 1Am I eall* the kind of man !ho has the ight to act in such a !a* that humanit* might
guide itself #* m* actions51 And if he does not sa* that to himself& he is masking his anguish$
Thee is no (uestion hee of the kind of anguish !hich !ould lead to (uietism& to inaction$ It is a matte of a sim'le sot of
anguish that an*#od* !ho has had es'onsi#ilities is familia !ith$ %o exam'le& !hen a milita* office takes the
es'onsi#ilit* fo an attack and sends a cetain num#e of men to death& he chooses to do so& and in the main he alone
makes the choice$ Dou#tless& odes come fom a#o"e& #ut the* ae too #oad+ he inte'ets them& and on this inte'etation
de'end the li"es of ten o fouteen o t!ent* men$ In making a decision he can not hel' ha"ing a cetain anguish$ All
leades kno! this anguish$ That doesn0t kee' them fom acting+ on the conta*& it is the "e* condition of thei action$ %o
it im'lies that the* en"isage a num#e of 'ossi#ilities& and !hen the* choose one& the* eali:e that it has "alue onl*
#ecause it is chosen$ )e shall see that this kind of anguish& !hich is the kind that existentialism desci#es& is ex'lained& in
addition& #* a diect es'onsi#ilit* to the othe men !hom it in"ol"es$ It is not a cutain se'aating us fom action& #ut is
'at of action itself$
)hen !e s'eak of folonness& a tem Heidegge !as fond of& !e mean onl* that /od does not exist and that !e ha"e to
face all the conse(uences of this$ The existentialist is stongl* o''osed to a cetain kind of secula ethics !hich !ould like
to a#olish /od !ith the least 'ossi#le ex'ense$ A#out =>>?& some %ench teaches tied to set u' a secula ethics !hich
!ent something like this6 /od is a useless and costl* h*'othesis+ !e ae discading it+ #ut& mean!hile& in ode fo thee to
#e an ethics& a societ*& a ci"ili:ation& it is essential that cetain "alues #e taken seiousl* and that the* #e consideed as
ha"ing an a 'ioi existence$ It must #e o#ligato*& a 'ioi& to #e honest& not to lie& not to #eat *ou !ife& to ha"e childen&
etc$& etc$ So !e0e going to t* a little de"ice !hich !ill make it 'ossi#le to sho! that "alues exist all the same& insci#ed in
a hea"en of ideas& though othe!ise /od does not exist$ In othe !ods33and this& I #elie"e& is the tendenc* of e"e*thing
called efomism in %ance33nothing !ill #e changed if /od does not exist$ )e shall find ousel"es !ith the same noms of
honest*& 'ogess& and humanism& and !e shall ha"e made of /od an outdated h*'othesis !hich !ill 'eacefull* die off #*
itse6f$
The existentialist& on the conta*& thinks it "e* distessing that /od does not exist& #ecause all 'ossi#ilit* of finding
"alues in a hea"en of ideas disa''eas along !ith Him+ thee can no longe #e an a 'ioi /ood& since thee is no infinite
and 'efect consciousness to think it$ No!hee is it !itten that the /ood exists& that !e must #e honest& that !e must not
lie+ #ecause the fact is !e ae on a 'lane !hee thee ae onl* men$ Dostoie"sk* said& 1If /od didn0t exist& e"e*thing
!ould #e 'ossi#le$1 That is the "e* stating 'oint of existentialism$ Indeed& e"e*thing is 'emissi#le if /od does not
exist& and as a esult man is folon& #ecause neithe !ithin him no !ithout does he find an*thing to cling to$ He can0t
stat making excuses fo himself$
If existence eall* does 'ecede essence& thee is no ex'laining things a!a* #* efeence to a fixed and gi"en human
natue$ In othe !ods& thee is no deteminism& man is fee& man is feedom$ On the othe hand& if /od does not exist& !e
find no "alues o commands to tun to !hich legitimi:e ou conduct$ So& in the #ight ealm of "alues& !e ha"e no excuse
#ehind us& no .ustification #efoe us$ )e ae alone& !ith no excuses$
That is the idea I shall t* to con"e* !hen I sa* that man is condemned to #e fee$ ,ondemned& #ecause he did not ceate
himself& *et& in othe es'ects is fee+ #ecause& once tho!n into the !old& he is es'onsi#le fo e"e*thing he does$ The
existentialist does not #elie"e in the 'o!e of 'assion$ He !ill ne"e agee that a s!ee'ing 'assion is a a"aging toent
!hich fatall* leads a man to cetain acts and is theefoe an excuse$ He thinks that man is es'onsi#le fo his 'assion$
The existentialist does not think that man is going to hel' himself #* finding in the !old some omen #* !hich to oient
himself$ -ecause he thinks that man !ill inte'et the omen to suit himself$ Theefoe& he thinks that man& !ith no su''ot
and no aid& is condemned e"e* moment to in"ent man$ @onge& in a "e* fine aticle& has said& 1Man is the futue of man$1
That0s exactl* it$ -ut if it is taken to mean that this futue is ecoded in hea"en& that /od sees it& then it is false& #ecause it
!ould eall* no longe #e a futue$ If it is taken to mean that& !hate"e a man ma* #e& thee is a futue to #e foged& a
"igin futue #efoe him& then this emak is sound$ -ut then !e ae folon$
To gi"e *ou an exam'le !hich !ill ena#le *ou to undestand folonness #ette& I shall cite the case of one of m* students
!ho came to see me unde the follo!ing cicumstances6 his fathe !as on #ad tems !ith his mothe& and& moeo"e& !as
inclined to #e a colla#oationist+ his olde #othe had #een killed in the /eman offensi"e of =AB?& and the *oung man&
!ith some!hat immatue #ut geneous feelings& !anted to a"enge him$ His mothe li"ed alone !ith him& "e* much u'set
#* the half3teason of he hus#and and the death of he olde son+ the #o* !as he onl* consolation$
The #o* !as faced !ith the choice of lea"ing fo England and .oining the %ee %ench %oces33that is& lea"ing his mothe
#ehind o emaining !ith his mothe and hel'ing he to ca* on$ He !as full* a!ae that the !oman li"ed onl* fo him
and that his going off33and 'eha's his death33!ould 'lunge he into des'ai$ He !as also a!ae that e"e* act that he did
fo his mothe0s sake !as a sue thing& in the sense that it !as hel'ing he to ca* on& !heeas e"e* effot he made
to!ad going off and fighting !as an uncetain mo"e !hich might un agound and 'o"e com'letel* useless+ fo exam'le&
on his !a* to England he might& !hile 'assing though S'ain& #e detained indefinitel* in a S'anish cam'+ he might each
England o Algies and #e stuck in an office at a desk .o#$ As a esult& he !as faced !ith t!o "e* diffeent kinds of action6
one& concete& immediate& #ut concening onl* one indi"idual+ the othe concened an incom'aa#l* "aste gou'& a
national collecti"it*& #ut fo that "e* eason !as du#ious& and might #e inteu'ted en oute$ And& at the same time& he
!as !a"eing #et!een t!o kinds of ethics$ On the one hand& an ethics of s*m'ath*& of 'esonal de"otion+ on the othe& a
#oade ethics& #ut one !hose efficac* !as moe du#ious$ He had to choose #et!een the t!o$
)ho could hel' him choose5 ,histian doctine5 No$ ,histian doctine sa*s& 1-e chaita#le& lo"e *ou neigh#o& take the
moe ugged 'ath& etc$& etc$1 -ut !hich is the moe ugged 'ath5 )hom should he lo"e as a #othe5 The fighting man o
his mothe5 )hich does the geate good& the "ague act of fighting in a gou'& o the concete one of hel'ing a 'aticula
human #eing to go on li"ing5 )ho can decide a 'ioi5 No#od*$ No #ook of ethics can tell him$ The <antian ethics sa*s&
1Ne"e teat an* 'eson as a means& #ut as an end$1 ;e* !ell& if I sta* !ith m* mothe& I0ll teat he as an end and not as a
means+ #ut #* "itue of this "e* fact& I0m unning the isk of teating the 'eo'le aound me !ho ae fighting& as means+
and& con"esel*& if I go to .oin those !ho ae fighting& I0ll #e teating them as an end& and& #* doing that& I un the isk of
teating m* mothe as a means$
If "alues ae "ague& and if the* ae al!a*s too #oad fo the concete and s'ecific case that !e ae consideing& the onl*
thing left fo us is to tust ou instincts$ That0s !hat this *oung man tied to do+ and !hen I sa! him& he said& 1In the end&
feeling is !hat counts$ I ought to choose !hiche"e 'ushes me in one diection$ If I feel that I lo"e m* mothe enough to
sacifice e"e*thing else fo he33m* desie fo "engeance& fo action& fo ad"entue33then I0ll sta* !ith he$ If& on the
conta*& I feel that m* lo"e fo m* mothe isn0t enough& I0ll lea"e$1
-ut ho! is the "alue of a feeling detcmined5 )hat gi"es his feeling fo his mothe "alue5 @ecisel* the fact that he
emained !ith he$ I ma* sa* that I like so3and3so !ell enough to sacifice a cetain amount of mone* fo him& #ut I ma*
sa* so onl* if I0"e done it$ I ma* sa* 1I lo"e m* mothe !ell enough to emain !ith he1 if I ha"e emained !ith he$ The
onl* !a* to detemine the "alue of this affection is& 'ecisel*& to 'efom an act !hich confims and defines it$ -ut& since I
e(uie this affection to .ustif* m* act& I find m*self caught in a "icious cicle$
On the othe hand& /ide has !ell said that a mock feeling and a tue feeling ae almost indistinguisha#le+ to decide that I
lo"e m* mothe and !ill emain !ith he& o to emain !ith he #* 'utting on an act& amount some!hat to the same thing6
In othe !ods& the feeling is fomed #* the acts one 'efoms+ so& I can not efe to it in ode to act u'on it$ )hich means
that I can neithe seek !ithin m*self the tue condition !hich !ill im'el me to act& no a''l* to a s*stem of ethics fo
conce'ts !hich !ill 'emit me to act$ 4ou !ill sa*& 1At least& he did go to a teache fo ad"ice$1 -ut if *ou seek ad"ice
fom a 'iest& fo exam'le& *ou ha"e chosen this 'iest+ *ou alead* kne!& moe o less& .ust a#out !hat ad"ice he !as
going to gi"e *ou$ In othe !ods& choosing *ou ad"ise is in"ol"ing *ouself$ The 'oof of this is that if *ou ae a
,histian& *ou !ill sa*& 1,onsult a 'iest$1 -ut some 'iests ae colla#oating& some ae .ust making time& some ae
esisting$ )hich to choose5 If the *oung man chooses a 'iest !ho is esisting o colla#oating& he has alead* decided on
the kind of ad"ice he0s going to get$ Theefoe& in coming to see me he kne! the ans!e I !as going to gi"e him& and I had
onl* one ans!e to gi"e6 14ou0e fee& choose& that is& in"ent$1 No geneal ethics can sho! *ou !hat is to #e done+ thee ae
no omens in the !old$ The ,atholics !ill e'l*& 11-ut thee ae$1 /anted33#ut& in an* case& I m*self choose the meaning
the* ha"e$
)hen I !as a 'isone& I kne! a athe emaka#le *oung man !ho !as a 9esuit$ He had enteed the 9esuit ode in the
follo!ing !a*6 he had had a num#e of "e* #ad #eaks+ in childhood& his fathe died& lea"ing him in 'o"et*& and he !as
a scholashi' student at a eligious institution !hee he !as constantl* made to feel that he !as #eing ke't out of chait*+
then& he failed to get an* of the honos and distinctions that childen like+ late on& at a#out eighteen& he #ungled a lo"e
affai+ finall*& at t!ent*3t!o& he failed in milita* taining& a childish enough matte& #ut it !as the last sta!$
This *oung fello! might !ell ha"e felt that he had #otched e"e*thing$ It !as a sign of something& #ut of !hat5 He might
ha"e taken efuge in #itteness o des'ai$ -ut he "e* !isel* looked u'on all this as a sign that he !as not made fo
secula tium'hs& and that onl* the tium'hs of eligion& holiness& and faith !ee o'en to him$ He sa! the hand of /od in
all this& and so he enteed the ode$ )ho can hel' seeing that he alone decided !hat the sign meant5
Some othe inte'etation might ha"e #een da!n fom this seies of set#acks+ fo exam'le& that he might ha"e done #ette
to tun ca'ente o e"olutionist$ Theefoe& he is full* es'onsi#le fo the inte'etation$ %olonness im'lies that !e
ousel"es choose ou #eing$ %olonness and anguish go togethe$
As fo des'ai& the tem has a "e* sim'le meaning$ It means that !e shall confine ousel"es to eckoning onl* !ith !hat
de'ends u'on ou !ill& o on the ensem#le of 'o#a#ilities !hich make ou action 'ossi#le$ )hen !e !ant something& !e
al!a*s ha"e to eckon !ith 'o#a#ilities$ I ma* #e counting on the ai"al of a fiend$ The fiend is coming #* ail o
steet3ca+ this su''oses that the tain !ill ai"e on schedule& o that the steet3ca !ill not .um' the tack$ I am left in the
ealm of 'ossi#ilit*+ #ut 'ossi#ilities ae to #e eckoned !ith onl* to the 'oint !hee m* action com'ots !ith the ensem#le
of these 'ossi#ilities& and no futhe$ The moment the 'ossi#ilities I am consideing ae not igoousl* in"ol"ed #* m*
action& I ought to disengage m*self fom them& #ecause no /od& no scheme& can ada't the !old and its 'ossi#ilities to m*
!ill$ )hen Descates said& 1,on(ue *ouself athe than the !old&1 he meant essentiall* the same thing$
The Maxists to !hom I ha"e s'oken e'l*& 14ou can el* on the su''ot of othes in *ou action& !hich o#"iousl* has
cetain limits #ecause *ou0e not going to li"e foe"e$ That means6 el* on #oth !hat othes ae doing else!hee to hel'
*ou& in ,hina& in Cussia& and !hat the* !ill do late on& afte *ou death& to ca* on the action and lead it to its
fulfillment& !hich !ill #e the e"olution$ 4ou e"en ha"e to el* u'on that& othe!ise *ou0e immoal$1 I e'l* at once that I
!ill al!a*s el* on fello!3fightes insofa as these comades ae in"ol"ed !ith me in a common stuggle& in the unit* of a
'at* o a gou' in !hich I can moe o less make m* !eight felt+ that is& one !hose anks I am in as a fighte and !hose
mo"ements I am a!ae of at e"e* moment$ In such a situation& el*ing on the unit* and !ill of the 'at* is exactl* like
counting on the fact that the tain !ill ai"e on time o that the ca !on0t .um' the tack$ -ut& gi"en that man is fee and
that thee is no human natue fo me to de'end on& I can not count on men !hom I do not kno! #* el*ing on human
goodness o man0s concen fo the good of societ*$ I don0t kno! !hat !ill #ecome of the Cussian e"olution+ I ma* make
an exam'le of it to the extent that at the 'esent time it is a''aent that the 'oletaiat 'la*s a 'at in Cussia that it 'la*s in
no othe nation$ -ut I can0t s!ea that this !ill ine"ita#l* lead to a tium'h of the 'oletaiat$ I0"e got to limit m*self to
!hat I see$
/i"en that men ae fee and that tomoo! the* !ill feel* decide !hat man !ill #e& I can not #e sue that& afte m* death&
fello!3fightes !ill ca* on m* !ok to #ing it to its maximum 'efection$ Tomoo!& afte m* death& some men ma*
decide to set u' %ascism& and the othes ma* #e co!adl* and muddled enough to let them do it$ %ascism !ill then #e the
human ealit*& so much the !ose fo us$
Actuall*& things !ill #e as man !ill ha"e decided the* ae to #e$ Does that mean that I should a#andon m*self to (uietism5
No$ %ist& I should in"ol"e m*self+ then& act on the old sa!& 1Nothing "entued& nothing gained$1 No does it mean that I
shouldn0t #elong to a 'at*& #ut athe that I shall ha"e no illusions and shall do !hat I can$ %o exam'le& su''ose I ask
m*self& 1)ill sociali:ation& as such& e"e come a#out51 I kno! nothing a#out it$ All I kno! is that I0m going to do
e"e*thing in m* 'o!e to #ing it a#out$ -e*ond that& I can0t count on an*thing$ Duietism is the attitude of 'eo'le !ho
sa*& 1Let othes do !hat I can0t do$1 The doctine I am 'esenting is the "e* o''osite of (uietism& since it declaes& 1Thee
is no ealit* exce't in action$1 Moeo"e& it goes futhe& since it adds& 1Man is nothing else than his 'lan+ he exists onl* to
the extent that he fulfills himself+ he is theefoe nothing else than the ensem#le of his acts& nothing else than his life$1
Accoding to this& !e can undestand !h* ou doctine hoifies cetain 'eo'le$ -ecause often the onl* !a* the* can #ea
thei !etchedness is to think& 1,icumstances ha"e #een against me$ )hat I0"e #een and done doesn0t sho! m* tue
!oth$ To #e sue& I0"e had no geat lo"e& no geat fiendshi'& #ut that0s #ecause I ha"en0t met a man o !oman !ho !as
!oth*$ The #ooks I0"e !itten ha"en0t #een "e* good #ecause I ha"en0t had the 'o'e leisue$ I ha"en0t had childen to
de"ote m*self to #ecause I didn0t find a man !ith !hom I could ha"e s'ent m* life$ So thee emains !ithin me& unused
and (uite "ia#le& a host of 'o'ensities& inclinations& 'ossi#ilities& that one !ouldn0t guess fom the mee seies of things
I0"e done$1
No!& fo the existentialist thee is eall* no lo"e othe than one !hich manifests itself in a 'eson0s #eing in lo"e$ Thee is
no genius othe than one !hich is ex'essed in !oks of at+ the genius of @oust is the sum of @oust0s !oks+ the genius
of Cacine is his seies of tagedies$ Outside of that& thee is nothing$ )h* sa* that Cacine could ha"e !itten anothe
taged*& !hen he didn0t !ite it5 A man is in"ol"ed in life& lea"es his im'ess on it& and outside of that thee is nothing$ To
#e sue& this ma* seem a hash thought to someone !hose life hasn0t #een a success$ -ut& on the othe hand& it 'om'ts
'eo'le to undestand that ealit* alone is !hat counts& that deams& ex'ectations& and ho'es !aant no moe than to
define a man as a disa''ointed deam& as miscaied ho'es& as "ain ex'ectations$ In othe !ods& to define him negati"el*
and not 'ositi"el*$ Ho!e"e& !hen !e sa*& 14ou ae nothing else than *ou life&1 that does not im'l* that the atist !ill #e
.udged solel* on the #asis of his !oks of at+ a thousand othe things !ill conti#ute to!ad summing him u'$ )hat !e
mean is that a man is nothing else than a seies of undetakings& that he is the sum& the ogani:ation& the ensem#le of the
elationshi's !hich make u' these undetakings$
)hen all is said and done& !hat !e ae accused of& at #ottom& is not ou 'essimism& #ut an o'timistic toughness$ If 'eo'le
tho! u' to us ou !oks of fiction in !hich !e !ite a#out 'eo'le !ho ae soft& !eak& co!adl*& and sometimes e"en
do!night #ad& it0s not #e$ cause these 'eo'le ae soft& !eak& co!adl*& o #ad+ #ecause if !e !ee to sa*& as 2ola did& that
the* ae that !a* #ecause of heedit*& the !okings of en"ionment& societ*& #ecause of #iological o 's*chological
deteminism& 'eo'le !ould #e eassued$ The* !ould sa*& 1)ell& that0s !hat !e0e like& no one can do an*thing a#out it$1
-ut !hen the existentialist !ites a#out a co!ad& he sa*s that this co!ad is es'onsi#le fo his co!adice$ He0s not like
that #ecause he has a co!adl* heat o lung o #ain+ he0s not like that on account of his 'h*siological make3u'+ #ut he0s
like that #ecause he has made himself a co!ad #* his acts$ Thee0s no such thing as a co!adl* constitution+ thee ae
ne"ous constitutions+ thee is 'oo #lood& as the common 'eo'le sa*& o stong constitutions$ -ut the man !hose #lood is
'oo is not a co!ad on that account& fo !hat makes co!adice is the act of enouncing o *ielding$ A constitution is not
an act+ the co!ad is defined on the #asis of the acts he 'efoms$ @eo'le feel& in a "ague sot of !a*& that this co!ad
!e0e talking a#out is guilt* of #eing a co!ad& and the thought fightens them$ )hat 'eo'le !ould like is that a co!ad o
a heo #e #on that !a*$
One of the com'laints most fe(uentl* made a#out The )a*s of %eedomE can #e summed u' as follo!s6 1Afte all& these
'eo'le ae so s'ineless& ho! ae *ou going to make heoes out of them51 This o#.ection almost makes me laugh& fo it
assumes that 'eo'le ae #on heoes$ That0s !hat 'eo'le eall* !ant to think$ If *ou0e #on co!adl*& *ou ma* set *ou
mind 'efectl* at est+ thee0s nothing *ou can do a#out it+ *ou0ll #e co!adl* all *ou life& !hate"e *ou ma* do$ If *ou0e
#on a heo& *ou ma* set *ou mind .ust as much at est+ *ou0ll #e a heo all *ou life+ *ou0ll dink like a heo and eat like a
heo$ )hat the existentialist sa*s is that the co!ad makes himself co!adl*& that the heo makes himself heoic$ Thee0s
al!a*s a 'ossi#ilit* fo the co!ad not to #e co!adl* an* moe and fo the heo to sto' #eing heoic$ )hat counts is total
in"ol"ement+ some one 'aticula action o set of cicumstances is not total in"ol"ement$
ELes ,hemins de =a Li#et8& M$ Sate0s 'o.ected tilog* of no"els& t!o of !hich& L0Age de Caison FThe Age of CeasonG
and Le Susis FThe Ce'ie"eG ha"e alead* a''eaed$33Tanslato0s note$Thus& I think !e ha"e ans!eed a num#e of the
chages concening existentialism$ 4ou see that it can not #e taken fo a 'hiloso'h* of (uietism& since it defines man in
tems of action+ no fo a 'essimistic desci'tion of man33thee is no doctine moe o'timistic& since man0s destin* is
!ithin himself+ no fo an attem't to discouage man fom acting& since it tells him that the onl* ho'e is in his acting and
that action is the onl* thing that ena#les a man to li"e$ ,onse(uentl*& !e ae dealing hee !ith an ethics of action and
in"ol"ement$
Ne"etheless& on the #asis of a fe! notions like these& !e ae still chaged !ith immuing man in his 'i"ate su#.ecti"it*$
Thee again !e0e "e* much misundestood$ Su#.ecti"it* of the indi"idual is indeed ou 'oint of de'atue& and this fo
stictl* 'hiloso'hic easons$ Not #ecause !e ae #ougeois& #ut #ecause !e !ant a doctine #ased on tuth and not a lot of
fine theoies& full of ho'e #ut !ith no eal #asis$ Thee can #e no othe tuth to take off fom than this6 I think+ theefoe& I
exist$ Thee !e ha"e the a#solute tuth of consciousness #ecoming a!ae of itself$ E"e* theo* !hich takes man out of the
moment in !hich he #ecomes a!ae of himself is& at its "e* #eginning& a theo* !hich confounds tuth& fo outside the
,atesian cogito& all "ie!s ae onl* 'o#a#le& and a doctine of 'o#a#ilit* !hich is not #ound to a tuth dissol"es into thin
ai$ In ode to desci#e the 'o#a#le& *ou must ha"e a fim hold on the tue$ Theefoe& #efoe thee can #e an* tuth
!hatsoe"e& thee must #e an a#solute tuth+ and this one is sim'le and easil* ai"ed at+ it0s on e"e*one0s dooste'+ it0s a
matte of gas'ing it diectl*$
Secondl*& this theo* is the onl* one !hich gi"es man dignit*& the onl* one !hich does not educe him to an o#.ect$ The
effect of all mateialism is to teat all men& including the one 'hiloso'hi:ing& as o#.ects& that is& as an ensem#le of
detemined eactions in no !a* distinguished fom the ensem#le of (ualities and 'henomena !hich constitute a ta#le o a
chai o a stone$ )e definitel* !ish to esta#lish the human ealm as an ensem#le of "alues distinct fom the mateial
ealm$ -ut the su#.ecti"it* that !e ha"e thus ai"ed at& and !hich !e ha"e claimed to #e tuth& is not a stictl* indi"idual
su#.ecti"it*& fo !e ha"e demonstated that one disco"es in the cogito not onl* himself& #ut othes as !ell$
The 'hiloso'hies of Descates and <ant to the conta*& though the I think !e each ou o!n self in the 'esence of
othes& and the othes ae .ust as eal to us as ou o!n self$ Thus& the man !ho #ecomes a!ae of himself though the
cogito also 'ecei"es all othes& and he 'ecei"es them as the condition of his o!n existence$ He eali:es that he can not #e
an*thing Fin the sense that !e sa* that someone is !itt* o nast* o .ealousG unless othes ecogni:e it as such$ In ode to
get an* tuth a#out m*self& I must ha"e contact !ith anothe 'eson$ The othe is indis'ensa#le to m* o!n existence& as
!ell as to m* kno!ledge a#out m*self$ This #eing so& in disco"eing m* inne #eing I disco"e the othe 'eson at the
same time& like a feedom 'laced in font of me !hich thinks and !ills onl* fo o against me$ Hence& let us at once
announce the disco"e* of a !old !hich !e shall call intesu#.ecti"it*+ this is the !old in !hich man decides !hat he is
and !hat othes ae$
-esides& if it is im'ossi#le to find in e"e* man some uni"esal essence !hich !ould #e human natue& *et thee does exist
a uni"esal human condition$ It0s not #* chance that toda*0s thinkes s'eak moe eadil* of man0s condition than of his
natue$ -* condition the* mean& moe o less definitel*& the a 'ioi limits !hich outline man0s fundamental situation in
the uni"ese$ Histoical situations "a*+ a man ma* #e #on a sla"e in a 'agan societ* o a feudal lod o a 'oletaian$
)hat does not "a* is the necessit* fo him to exist in the !old& to #e at !ok thee& to #e thee in the midst of othe
'eo'le& and to #e motal thee$ The limits ae neithe su#.ecti"e no o#.ecti"e& o& athe& the* ha"e an o#.ecti"e and a
su#.ecti"e side$ O#.ecti"e #ecause the* ae to #e found e"e*!hee and ae ecogni:a#le e"e*!hee+ su#.ecti"e #ecause
the* ae li"ed and ae nothing if man does not li"e them& that is& feel* detemine his existence !ith efeence to them$
And though the configuations ma* diffe& at least none of them ae com'letel* stange to me& #ecause the* all a''ea as
attem'ts eithe to 'ass #e*ond these limits o ecede fom them o den* them o ada't to them$ ,onse(uentl*& e"e*
configuation& ho!e"e indi"idual it ma* #e& has a uni"esal "alue$
E"e* configuation& e"en the ,hinese& the Indian& o the Nego& can #e undestood #* a )estene$ 1,an #e undestood1
means that #* "itue of a situation that he can imagine& a Euo'ean of =ABH can& in like manne& 'ush himself to his limits
and econstitute !ithin himself the configuation of the ,hinese& the Indian& o the Afican$ E"e* configuation has
uni"esalit* in the sense that e"e* configuation can #e undestood #* e"e* man$ This does not at all mean that this
configuation defines man foe"e& #ut that it can #e met !ith again$ Thee is al!a*s a !a* to undestand the idiot& the
child& the sa"age& the foeigne& 'o"ided one has the necessa* infomation$
In this sense !e ma* sa* that thee is a uni"esalit* of man+ #ut it is not gi"en& it is 'e'etuall* #eing made$ I #uild the
uni"esal in choosing m*self+ I #uild it in undestanding the configuation of e"e* othe man& !hate"e age he might ha"e
li"ed in$ This a#soluteness of choice does not do a!a* !ith the elati"eness of each e'och$ At heat& !hat existentialism
sho!s is the connection #et!een the a#solute chaacte of fee in"ol"ement& #* "itue of !hich e"e* man eali:es himself
in eali:ing a t*'e of mankind& an in"ol"ement al!a*s com'ehensi#le in an* age !hatsoe"e and #* an* 'eson
!hosoe"e& and the elati"eness of the cultual ensem#le !hich ma* esult fom such a choice+ it must #e stessed that the
elati"it* of ,atesianism and the a#solute chaacte of ,atesian in"ol"ement go togethe$ In this sense& *ou ma*& if *ou
like& sa* that each of us 'efoms an a#solute act in #eathing& eating& slee'ing& o #eha"ing in an* !a* !hate"e$ Thee is
no diffeence #et!een #eing fee$ like a configuation& like an existence !hich chooses its essence& and #eing a#solute$
Thee is no diffeence #et!een #eing an a#solute tem'oail* locali:ed& that is& locali:ed in histo*& and #eing uni"esall*
com'ehensi#le$
This does not entiel* settle the o#.ection to su#.ecti"ism$ In fact& the o#.ection still takes se"eal foms$ %ist& thee is the
follo!ing6 !e ae told& 1So *ou0e a#le to do an*thing& no matte !hat71 This is ex'essed in "aious !a*s$ %ist !e ae
accused of anach*+ then the* sa*& 14ou0e una#le to 'ass .udgment on othes& #ecause thee0s no eason to 'efe one
configuation to anothe1+ finall* the* tell us& 1E"e*thing is a#ita* in this choosing of *ous$ 4ou take something fom
one 'ocket and 'etend *ou0e 'utting it into the othe$1
These thee o#.ections aen0t "e* seious$ Take the fist o#.ection$ 14ou0e a#le to do an*thing& no matte !hat1 is not to
the 'oint$ In one sense choice is 'ossi#le& #ut !hat is not 'ossi#le is not to choose$ I can al!a*s choose& #ut I ought to
kno! that if I do not choose& I am still choosing$ Though this ma* seem 'uel* fomal& it is highl* im'otant fo kee'ing
fantas* and ca'ice !ithin #ounds$ If it is tue that in facing a situation& fo exam'le& one in !hich& as a 'eson ca'a#le of
ha"ing sexual elations& of ha"ing childen& I am o#liged to choose an attitude& and if I in an* !a* assume es'onsi#ilit*
fo a choice !hich& in in"ol"ing m*self& also in"ol"es all mankind& this has nothing to do !ith ca'ice& e"en if no a 'ioi
"alue detemines m* choice$
If an*#od* thinks that he ecogni:es hee /ide0s theo* of the a#ita* act& he fails to see the enomous diffeence #et!een
this doctine and /ide0s$ /ide does not kno! !hat a situation is$ He acts out of 'ue ca'ice$ %o us& on the conta*& man
is in an ogani:ed situation in !hich he himself is in"ol"ed$ Though his choice& he in"ol"es all mankind& and he can not
a"oid making a choice6 eithe he !ill emain chaste& o he !ill ma* !ithout ha"ing childen& o he !ill ma* and ha"e
childen+ an*ho!& !hate"e he ma* do& it is im'ossi#le fo him not to take full es'onsi#ilit* fo the !a* he handles this
'o#lem$ Dou#tless& he chooses !ithout efeing to 'eesta#lished "alues& #ut it is unfai to accuse him of ca'ice$ Instead&
let us sa* that moal choice is to #e com'aed to the making of a !ok of at$ And #efoe going an* futhe& let it #e said at
once that !e ae not dealing hee !ith an aesthetic ethics& #ecause ou o''onents ae so dishonest that the* e"en accuse us
of that$ The exam'le I0"e chosen is a com'aison onl*$
Ha"ing said that& ma* I ask !hethe an*one has e"e accused an atist !ho has 'ainted a 'ictue of not ha"ing da!n his
ins'iation fom ules set u' a 'ioi5 Has an*one e"e asked& 1)hat 'ainting ought he to make51 It is cleal* undestood
that thee is no definite 'ainting to #e made& that the atist is engaged in the making of his 'ainting& and that the 'ainting
to #e made is 'ecisel* the 'ainting he !ill ha"e made$ It is cleal* undestood that thee ae no a 'ioi aesthetic "alues&
#ut that thee ae "alues !hich a''ea su#se(uentl* in the coheence of the 'ainting& in the coes'ondence #et!een !hat
the atist intended and the esult$ No#od* can tell !hat the 'ainting of tomoo! !ill #e like$ @ainting can #e .udged onl*
afte it has once #een made$ )hat connection does that ha"e !ith ethics5 )e ae in the same ceati"e situation$ )e ne"e
sa* that a !ok of at is a#ita*$ )hen !e s'eak of a can"as of @icasso& !e ne"e sa* that it is a#ita*+ !e undestand
(uite !ell that he !as making himself !hat he is at the "e* time he !as 'ainting& that the ensem#le of his !ok is
em#odied in his life$
The same holds on the ethical 'lane$ )hat at and ethics ha"e in common is that !e ha"e ceation and in"ention in #oth
cases$ )e can not decide a 'ioi !hat thee is to #e done$ I think that I 'ointed that out (uite sufficientl* !hen I
mentioned the case of the student !ho came to see me& and !ho might ha"e a''lied to all the ethical s*stems& <antian o
othe!ise& !ithout getting an* sot of guidance$ He !as o#liged to de"ise his la! himself$ Ne"e let it #e said #* us that
this man33!ho& taking affection& indi"idual action& and kind3heatedness to!ad a s'ecific 'eson as his ethical fist
'inci'le& chooses to emain !ith his mothe& o !ho& 'efeing to make a sacifice& chooses to go to England33has made
an a#ita* choice$ Man makes himself$ He isn0t ead* made at the stat$ In choosing his ethics& he makes himself& and
foce of cicumstances is such that he can not a#stain fom choosing one$ )e define man onl* in elationshi' to
in"ol"ement$ It is theefoe a#sud to chage us !ith a#itainess of choice$
In the second 'lace& it is said that !e ae una#le to 'ass .udgment on othes$ In a !a* this is tue& and in anothe !a*&
false$ It is tue in this sense& that& !hene"e a man sanel* and sinceel* in"ol"es himself and chooses his configuation& it
is im'ossi#le fo him to 'efe anothe configuation& egadless of !hat his o!n ma* #e in othe es'ects$ It is tue in this
sense& that !e do not #elie"e in 'ogess$ @ogess is #ettement$ Man is al!a*s the same$ The situation confonting him
"aies$ ,hoice al!a*s emains a choice in a situation$ The 'o#lem has not changed since the time one could choose
#et!een those fo and those against sla"e*& fo exam'le& at the time of the ,i"il )a& and the 'esent time& !hen one can
side !ith the Ma(uis Cesistance @at*& o !ith the ,ommunists$
-ut& ne"etheless& one can still 'ass .udgment& fo& as I ha"e said& one makes a choice in elationshi' to othes$ %ist& one
can .udge Fand this is 'eha's not a .udgment of "alue& #ut a logical .udgmentG that cetain choices ae #ased on eo and
othes on tuth$ If !e ha"e defined man0s situation as a fee choice& !ith no excuses and no ecouse& e"e* man !ho takes
efuge #ehind the excuse of his 'assions& e"e* man !ho sets u' a deteminism& is a dishonest man$
The o#.ection ma* #e aised& 1-ut !h* ma*n0t he choose himself dishonestl*51 I e'l* that I am not o#liged to 'ass moal
.udgment on him& #ut that I do define his dishonest* as an eo$ One can not hel' consideing the tuth of the matte$
Dishonest* is o#"iousl* a falsehood #ecause it #elies the com'lete feedom of in"ol"ement$ On the same gounds& I
maintain that thee is also dishonest* if I choose to state that cetain "alues exist 'io to me+ it is self3contadicto* fo me
to !ant them and at the same state that the* ae im'osed on me$ Su''ose someone sa*s to me& 1)hat if I !ant to #e
dishonest51 I0ll ans!e& 1Thee0s no eason fo *ou not to #e& #ut I0m sa*ing that that0s !hat *ou ae& and that the stictl*
coheent attitude is that of honest*$1
-esides& I can #ing moal .udgment to #ea$ )hen I declae that feedom in e"e* concete cicumstance can ha"e no
othe aim than to !ant itself& if man has once #ecome a!ae that in his folonness he im'oses "alues& he can no longe
!ant #ut one thing& and that is feedom& as the #asis of all "alues$ That doesn0t mean that he !ants it in the a#stact$ It
means sim'l* that the ultimate meaning of the acts of honest men is the (uest fo feedom as such$ A man !ho #elongs to
a communist o e"olutiona* union !ants concete goals+ these goals im'l* an a#stact desie fo feedom+ #ut this
feedom is !anted in something concete$ )e !ant feedom fo feedom0s sake and in e"e* 'aticula cicumstance$ And
in !anting feedom !e disco"e that it de'ends entiel* on the feedom of othes& and that the feedom of othes de'ends
on ous$ Of couse& feedom as the definition of man does not de'end on othes& #ut as soon as thee is in"ol"ement& I am
o#liged to !ant othes to ha"e feedom at the same time that I !ant m* o!n feedom$ I can take feedom as m* goal onl*
if I take that of othes as a goal as !ell$ ,onse(uentl*& !hen& in all honest*& I0"e ecogni:ed that man is a #eing in !hom
existence 'ecedes essence& that he is a fee #eing !ho& in "aious cicumstances& can !ant onl* his feedom& I ha"e at the
same time ecogni:ed that I can !ant onl* the feedom of othes$
Theefoe& in the name of this !ill fo feedom& !hich feedom itself im'lies& I ma* 'ass .udgment on those !ho seek to
hide fom themsel"es the com'lete a#itainess and the com'lete feedom of thei existence$ Those !ho hide thei
com'lete feedom fom themsel"es out of a s'iit of seiousness o #* means of deteministic excuses& I shall call co!ads+
those !ho t* to sho! that thei existence !as necessa*& !hen it is the "e* contingenc* of man0s a''eaance on eath& I
shall call stinkes$ -ut co!ads o stinkes can #e .udged onl* fom a stictl* un#iased 'oint of "ie!$
Theefoe though the content of ethics is "aia#le& a cetain fom of it is uni"esal$ <ant sa*s that feedom desies #oth
itself and the feedom of othes$ /anted$ -ut he #elie"es that the fomal and the uni"esal ae enough to constitute an
ethics$ )e& on the othe hand& think that 'inci'les !hich ae too a#stact un agound in t*ing to decide action$ Once
again& take the case of the student$ In the name of !hat& in the name of !hat geat moal maxim do *ou think he could
ha"e decided& in 'efect 'eace of mind& to a#andon his mothe o to sta* !ith he5 Thee is no !a* of .udging$ The content
is al!a*s concete and thee#* unfoeseea#le+ thee is al!a*s the element of in"ention$ The one thing that counts is
kno!ing !hethe the in"enting that has #een done& has #een done in the name of feedom$
%o exam'le& let us look at the follo!ing t!o cases$ 4ou !ill see to !hat extent the* coes'ond& *et diffe$ Take The Mill
on the %loss$ )e find a cetain *oung gil& Maggie Tulli"e& !ho is an em#odiment of the "alue of 'assion and !ho is
a!ae of it$ She is in lo"e !ith a *oung man& Ste'hen& !ho is engaged to an insignificant *oung gil$ This Maggie
Tulli"e& instead of heedlessl* 'efeing he o!n ha''iness& chooses& in the name of human solidait*& to sacifice heself
and gi"e u' the man she lo"es$ On the othe hand& Sanse"eina& in The ,hatehouse of @ama& #elie"ing that 'assion is
man0s tue "alue& !ould sa* that a geat lo"e dese"es sacifices+ that it is to #e 'efeed to the #analit* of the con.ugal
lo"e that !ould tie Ste'hen to the *oung ninn* he had to ma*$ She !ould choose to sacifice the gil and fulfill he
ha''iness+ and& as Stendhal sho!s& she is e"en ead* to sacifice heself fo the sake of 'assion& if this life demands it$
Hee !e ae in the 'esence of t!o stictl* o''osed moalities$ I claim that the* ae much the same thing+ in #oth cases
!hat has #een set u' as the goal is feedom$
4ou can imagine t!o highl* simila attitudes6 one gil 'efes to enounce he lo"e out of esignation+ anothe 'efes to
disegad the 'io attachment of the man she lo"es out of sexual desie$ On the suface these t!o actions esem#le those
!e0"e .ust desci#ed$ Ho!e"e& the* ae com'letel* diffeent$ Sanse"eina0s attitude is much neae that of Maggie Tulli"e&
one of heedless a'acit*$
Thus& *ou see that the second chage is tue and& at the same time& false$ One ma* choose an*thing if it is on the gounds
of fee in"ol"ement$
The thid o#.ection is the follo!ing6 14ou take something fom one 'ocket and 'ut it into the othe$ That is&
fundamentall*& "alues aen0t seious& since *ou choose them$1 M* ans!e to this is that I0m (uite "exed that that0s the !a*
it is+ #ut if I0"e discaded /od the %athe& thee has to #e someone to in"ent "alues$ 4ou0"e got to take things as the* ae$
Moeo"e& to sa* that !e in"ent "alues means nothing else #ut this6 life has no meaning a 'ioi$ -efoe *ou come ali"e&
life is nothing+ it0s u' to *ou to gi"e it a meaning& and "alue is nothing else #ut the meaning that *ou choose$ In that !a*&
*ou see& thee is a 'ossi#ilit* of ceating a human communit*$
I0"e #een e'oached fo asking !hethe existentialism is humanistic$ It0s #een said& 1-ut *ou said in Nausea that the
humanists !ee all !ong$ 4ou made fun of a cetain kind of humanist$ )h* come #ack to it no!51 Actuall*& the !od
humanism has t!o "e* diffeent meanings$ -* humanism one can mean a theo* !hich takes man as an end and as a
highe "alue$ Humanism in this sense can #e found in ,octeau0s tale Aound the )old in Eight* Hous !hen a chaacte&
#ecause he is fl*ing o"e some mountains in an ai'lane& declaes& 1Man is sim'l* ama:ing$1 That means that I& !ho did
not #uild the ai'lanes& shall 'esonall* #enefit fom these 'aticula in"entions& and that I& as man& shall 'esonall*
conside m*self es'onsi#le fo& and honoed #*& acts of a fe! 'aticula men$ This !ould im'l* that !e asci#e a "alue to
man on the #asis of the highest deeds of cetain men$ This humanism is a#sud& #ecause onl* the dog o the hose !ould
#e a#le to make such an o"e3all .udgment a#out man& !hich the* ae caeful not to do& at least to m* kno!ledge$
-ut it can not #e ganted that a man ma* make a .udgment a#out man$ Existentialism s'aes him fom an* such .udgment$
The existentialist !ill ne"e conside man as an end #ecause he is al!a*s in the making$ No should !e #elie"e that thee
is a mankind to !hich !e might set u' a cult in the manne of Auguste ,omte$ The cult of mankind ends in the self3
enclosed humanism of ,omte& and& let it #e said& of fascism$ This kind of humanism !e can do !ithout$
-ut thee is anothe meaning of humanism$ %undamentall* it is this6 man is constantl* outside of himself+ in 'o.ecting
himself& in losing himself outside of himself& he makes fo man0s existing+ and& on the othe hand& it is #* 'usuing
tanscendent goals that he is a#le to exist+ man& #eing this state of 'assing3#e*ond& and sei:ing u'on things onl* as the*
#ea u'on this 'assing3#e*ond& is at the heat& at the cente of this 'assing3#e*ond$ Thee is no uni"ese othe than a
human uni"ese& the uni"ese of human su#.ecti"it*$ This connection #et!een tanscendenc*& as a constituent element of
man33not in the sense that /od is tanscendent& #ut in the sense of 'assing #e*ond33and su#.ecti"it*& in the sense that man
is not closed in on himself #ut is al!a*s 'esent in a human uni"ese& is !hat !e call existentialism humanism$
Humanism& #ecause !e emind man that thee is no la!3make othe than himself& and that in his folonness he !ill
decide #* himself+ #ecause !e 'oint out that man !ill fulfill himself as man& not in tuning to!ad himself& #ut in seeking
outside of himself a goal !hich is .ust this li#eation& .ust this 'aticula fulfillment$
I%om these fe! eflections it is e"ident that nothing is moe un.ust than the o#.ections that ha"e #een aised against us$
Existentialism is nothing else than an attem't to da! all the conse(uences of a coheent atheistic 'osition$ It isn0t t*ing
to 'lunge man into des'ai at all$ -ut if one calls e"e* attitude of un#elief des'ai& like the ,histians& then the !od is
not #eing used in its oiginal sense$ Existentialism isn0t so atheistic that it !eas itself out sho!ing that /od doesn0t exist$
Cathe& it declaes that e"en if /od did exist& that !ould change nothing$ Thee *ou0"e got ou 'oint of "ie!$ Not that !e
#elie"e that /od exists& #ut !e think that the 'o#lem of His existence is not the issue$ In this sense existentialism is
o'timistic& a doctine of action& and it is 'lain dishonest* fo ,histians to make no distinction #et!een thei o!n des'ai
and ous and then to call us des'aiing$
%CEEDOM AND CES@ONSI-ILIT4
Although the consideations !hich ae a#out to follo! ae of inteest 'imail* to the ethicist& it ma* ne"etheless #e
!oth!hile afte these desci'tions and aguments to etun to the feedom of the fo3itself and to t* to undestand !hat
the fact of this feedom e'esents fo human destin*$
The essential conse(uence of ou ealie emaks is that man #eing condemned to #e fee caies the !eight of the !hole
!old on his shouldes+ he is es'onsi#le fo the !old and fo himself as a !a* of #eing$ )e ae taking the !od
1es'onsi#ilit*1 in its odina* sense as 1consciousness FofG #eing the incontesta#le autho of an e"ent o of an o#.ect$1 In
this sense the es'onsi#ilit* of the fo3itself is o"e!helming since heE is the one #* !hom it ha''ens that thee is a !old+
since he is also the one !ho makes himself #e& then !hate"e ma* #e the situation in !hich he finds himself& the fo3itself
must !holl* assume this situation !ith its 'eculia coefficient of ad"esit*& e"en though it #e insu''ota#le$ He must
assume the situation !ith the 'oud consciousness of #eing the autho of it& fo the "e* !ost disad"antages o the !ost
theats !hich can endange m* 'eson ha"e meaning onl* in and though m* 'o.ect+ and it is on the gound of the
engagement !hich I am that the* a''ea$ It is theefoe senseless to think of com'laining since nothing foeign has
decided !hat !e feel& !hat !e li"e& o !hat !e ae$
EI am shifting to the 'esonal 'onoun hee since Sate is desci#ing the fo3itself in concete 'esonal tems athe than
as a meta'h*sical entit*$ Stictl* s'eaking& of couse& this is his 'osition thoughout& and the %ench 1il1 is indiffeentl*
1#e1 o 1it$1 T$
%uthemoe this a#solute es'onsi#ilit* is not esignation+ it is sim'l* the logical e(uiement of the conse(uences of ou
feedom$ )hat ha''ens to me ha''ens though me& and I can neithe affect m*self !ith it no e"olt against it no esign
m*self to it$ Moeo"e e"e*thing !hich ha''ens to me is mine$ -* this !e must undestand fist of all that I am al!a*s
e(ual to !hat ha''ens to me (ua man& fo !hat ha''ens to a man though othe men and though himself can #e onl*
human$ The most tei#le situations of !a& the !ost totues do not ceate a non3human state of things+ thee is no non3
human situation$ It is onl* though fea& flight& and ecouse to magical t*'es of conduct that I shall decide on the non3
human& #ut this decision is human& and I shall ca* the entie es'onsi#ilit* fo it$ -ut in addition the situation is mine
#ecause it is the image of m* fee choice of m*self& and e"e*thing !hich it 'esents to me is mine in that this e'esents
me and s*m#oli:es me$ Is it not I !ho decide the coefficient of ad"esit* in things and e"en thei un'edicta#ilit* #*
deciding m*self5
Thus thee ae no accidents in a life+ a communit* e"ent !hich suddenl* #usts foth and in"ol"es me in it does not come
fom the outside$ If I am mo#ili:ed in a !a& this !a is m* !a+ it is in m* image and I dese"e it$ I dese"e it fist
#ecause I could al!a*s get out of it #* suicide o #* desetion+ these ultimate 'ossi#les ae those !hich must al!a*s #e
'esent fo us !hen thee is a (uestion of en"isaging a situation$ %o lack of getting out of it& I ha"e chosen it$ This can #e
due to inetia& to co!adice in the face of 'u#lic o'inion& o #ecause I 'efe cetain othe "alues to the "alue of the efusal
to .oin in the !a Fthe good o'inion of m* elati"es& the hono of m* famil*& etc$G$ An*!a* *ou look at it& it is a matte of a
choice$ This choice !ill #e e'eated late on again and again !ithout a #eak until the end of the !a$ Theefoe !e must
agee !ith the statement #* 9$ Comains& 1In !a thee ae no innocent "ictims$1E If theefoe I ha"e 'efeed !a to death
o to dishono& e"e*thing takes 'lace as if I #oe the entie es'onsi#ilit* fo this !a$ Of couse othes ha"e declaed it&
and one might #e tem'ted 'eha's to conside me as a sim'le accom'lice$ -ut this notion of com'licit* has onl* a
.uidical sense& and it does not hold hee$ %o it de'ended on me that fo me and #* ine this !a should not exist& and I
ha"e decided that it does exist$ Thee !as no com'ulsion hee& fo the com'ulsion could ha"e got no hold on a feedom$ I
did not ha"e an* excuse+ fo as !e ha"e said e'eatedl* in this #ook& the 'eculia chaacte of human3ealit* is that it is
!ithout excuse$ Theefoe it emains fo me onl* to la* claim to this !a$
E 9$ Comains6 Les hommes de #onne "olont8+ 1@8lude J ;edun$1
-ut in addition the !a is mine #ecause #* the sole fact that it aises in a situation !hich I cause to #e and that I can
disco"e it thee onl* #* engaging m*self fo o against it& I can no longe distinguish at 'esent the choice !hich I make
of m*self fom the choice !hich I make of the !a$ To li"e this !a is to choose m*self though it and to choose it though
m* choice of m*self$ Thee can #e no (uestion of consideing it as 1fou *eas of "acation1 o as a 1e'ie"e&1 as a 1ecess&1
the essential 'at of m* es'onsi#ilities #eing else!hee in m* maied& famil*& o 'ofessional life$ In this !a !hich I
ha"e chosen I choose m*self fom da* to da*& and I make it mine #* making m*self$ If it is going to #e fou em't* *eas&
then it is I !ho #ea the es'onsi#ilit* fo this$
%inall*& as !e 'ointed out ealie& each 'eson is an a#solute choice of self fom the stand'oint of a !old of kno!ledges
and of techni(ues !hich this choice #oth assumes and illumines+ each 'eson is an a#solute u'suge at an a#solute& date
and is 'efectl* unthinka#le at anothe date$ It is theefoe a !aste of time to ask !hat I should ha"e #een if this !a had
not #oken out& fo I ha"e chosen m*self as one of the 'ossi#le meanings of the e'och !hich im'ece'ti#l* led to !a$ I am
not distinct fom this same e'och+ I could not #e tans'oted to anothe e'och !ithout contadiction$ Thus I am this !a
!hich esticts and limits and makes com'ehensi#le the 'eiod !hich 'eceded it$ In this sense !e ma* define moe
'ecisel* the es'onsi#ilit* of the fo3itself if to the ealie (uoted statement& 1Thee ae no innocent "ictims&1 !e add the
!ods& 1)e ha"e the !a !e dese"e$1 Thus& totall* fee& undistinguisha#le fom the 'eiod fo !hich I ha"e chosen to #e
the meaning& as 'ofoundl* es'onsi#le fo the !a as if I had m*self declaed it& una#le to li"e !ithout integating it in
m* situation& engaging m*self in it !holl* and stam'ing it !ith m* seal& I must #e !ithout emose o egets as I am
!ithout excuse+ fo fom the instant of m* u'suge into #eing& I ca* the !eight of the !old #* m*self alone !ithout
an*thing o an* 'eson #eing a#le to lighten it$
4et this es'onsi#ilit* is of a "e* 'aticula t*'e$ Someone !ill sa*& 1I did not ask to #e #on$1 This is a nai"e !a* of
tho!ing geate em'hasis on ou facticit*$ I am es'onsi#le fo e"e*thing& in fact& exce't fo m* "e* es'onsi#ilit*& fo I
am not the foundation of m* #eing$ Theefoe e"e*thing takes 'lace as if I !ee com'elled to #e es'onsi#le$ I am
a#andoned in the !old& not in the sense that I might emain a#andoned and 'assi"e in a hostile uni"ese like a #oad
floating on the !ate& #ut athe in the sense that I find m*self suddenl* alone and !ithout hel'& engaged in a !old fo
!hich I #ea the !hole es'onsi#ilit* !ithout #eing a#le& !hate"e I do& to tea m*self a!a* fom this es'onsi#ilit* fo an
instant$ %o I am es'onsi#le fo m* "e* desie of fleeing es'onsi#ilities$ To make m*self 'assi"e in the !old& to efuse
to act u'on things and u'on Othes is still to choose m*self& and suicide is one mode among othes of #eing3in3the3!old$
4et I find an a#solute es'onsi#ilit* fo the fact that m* facticit* Fhee the fact of m* #ithG is diectl* ina''ehensi#le and
e"en inconcei"a#le& fo this fact of m* #ith ne"e a''eas as a #ute fact #ut al!a*s acoss a 'o.ecti"e econstuction of
m* fo3itself$ I am ashamed of #eing #on o I am astonished at it o I e.oice o"e it& o in attem'ting to get id of m* life I
affim that I li"e and I assume this life as #ad$ Thus in a cetain sense I choose #eing #on$ This choice itself is integall*
affected !ith facticit* since I am not a#le not to choose& #ut this facticit* in tun !ill a''ea onl* in so fa as I su'ass it
to!ad m* ends$ Thus facticit* is e"e*!hee #ut ina''ehensi#le+ I ne"e encounte an*thing exce't m* es'onsi#ilit*$
That is !h* I can not ask& 1)h* !as I #on51 o cuse the da* of m* #ith o declae that I did not ask to #e #on& fo these
"aious attitudes to!ad m* #ith33i$e$& to!ad the fact that I eali:e a 'esence in the !old33ae a#solutel* nothing else
#ut !a*s of assuming this #ith in full es'onsi#ilit* and of making it mine$ Hee again I encounte onl* m*self and m*
'o.ects so that finall* m* a#andonment33i$e$& m* facticit*33consists sim'l* in the fact that I am condemned to #e !holl*
es'onsi#le fo m*self$ I am the #eing !hich is in such a !a* that in its #eing its #eing is in (uestion$ And this 1is1 of m*
#eing is as 'esent and ina''ehensi#le$
Unde these conditions since e"e* e"ent in the !old can #e e"ealed to me onl* as an o''otunit* Fan o''otunit* made
use of& lacked& neglected& etc$G& o #ette *et since e"e*thing !hich ha''ens to us can #e consideed as a chance Fi$e$& can
a''ea to us onl* as a !a* of eali:ing this #eing !hich is in (uestion in ou #eingG and since othes as tanscendences3
tanscended ae themsel"es onl* o''otunities and chances& the es'onsi#ilit* of the fo3itself extends to the entie !old as
a 'eo'led3!old$ It is 'ecisel* thus that the fo3itself a''ehends itself in anguish+ that is& as a #eing !hich is neithe the
foundation of its o!n #eing no of the Othe0s #eing no of the in3itselfs !hich fom the !old& #ut a #eing !hich is
com'elled to decide the meaning of #eing33!ithin it and e"e*!hee outside of it$ The one !ho eali:es in anguish his
condition as #eing tho!n into a es'onsi#ilit* !hich extends to his "e* a#andonment has no longe eithe emose o
eget o excuse+ he is no longe an*thing #ut a feedom !hich 'efectl* e"eals itself and !hose #eing esides in this "e*
e"elation$ -ut as !e 'ointed out at the #eginning of this !ok& most of the time !e flee anguish in #ad faith
THE DESICE TO -E /OD
The most discening ethicists ha"e sho!n ho! a desie eaches #e*ond itself$ @ascal #elie"ed that he could disco"e in
hunting& fo exam'le& o tennis& o in a hunded othe occu'ations& the need of #eing di"eted$ He e"ealed that in an
acti"it* !hich !ould #e a#sud if educed to itself& thee !as a meaning !hich tanscended it+ that is& an indication !hich
efeed to the ealit* of man in geneal and to his condition$ Similal* Stendhal in s'ite of his attachment to ideologists&
and @oust in s'ite of his intellectualistic and anal*tical tendencies& ha"e sho!n that lo"e and .ealous* can not #e educed
to the stict desie of 'ossessing a 'aticula !oman& #ut that these emotions aim at la*ing hold of the !old in its entiet*
though the !oman$ This is the meaning of Stendhal0s c*stalli:ation& and it is 'ecisel* fo this eason that Lo"e as
Stendhal desci#es it a''eas as a mode of #eing in the !old$ Lo"e is a fundamental elation of the fo3itself to the !old
and to itself FselfnessG though a 'aticula !oman+ the !oman e'esents onl* a conducting #od* !hich is 'laced in the
cicuit$ These anal*ses ma* #e inexact o onl* 'atiall* tue+ ne"etheless the* make us sus'ect a method othe than 'ue
anal*tical desci'tion$ In the same !a* ,atholic no"elists immediatel* see in canal lo"e its su'assing to!ad /od33in
Don 9uan& 1the etenall* unsatisfied&1 in sin& 1the 'lace em't* of /od$1 Thee is no (uestion hee of finding again an
a#stact #ehind the concete+ the im'ulse to!ad /od is no less concete than the im'ulse to!ad a 'aticula !oman$ On
the conta*& it is a matte of edisco"eing unde the 'atial and incom'lete as'ects of the su#.ect the "eita#le
conceteness !hich can #e onl* the totalit* of his im'ulse to!ad #eing& his oiginal elation to himself& to the !old& and
to the Othe& in the unit* of intenal elations and of a fundamental 'o.ect$ This im'ulse can #e onl* 'uel* indi"idual and
uni(ue$ %a fom estanging us fom the 'eson& as -ouget0s anal*sis& fo exam'le& does in constituting the indi"idual #*
means of a summation of geneal maxims& this im'ulse !ill not lead us to find in the need of !iting33and of !iting
'aticula #ooks33the need of acti"it* in geneal$ On the conta*& e.ecting e(uall* the theo* of mallea#le cla* and that of
the #undle of di"es& !e !ill disco"e the indi"idual 'eson in the initial 'o.ect !hich constitutes him$ It is fo this eason
that the ieduci#ilit* of the esult attained !ill #e e"ealed as self3e"ident& not #ecause it is the 'ooest and the most
a#stact #ut #ecause it is the ichest$ The intuition hee !ill #e accom'anied #* an indi"idual fullness$
THE DESICE TO -E /OD Fcont$G
The -est )a* to concei"e of the fundamental 'o.ect of human ealit* is to sa* that man is the #eing !hose 'o.ect is to #e
/od$ )hate"e ma* #e the m*ths and ites of the eligion consideed& /od is fist 1sensi#le to the heat1 of man as the one
!ho identifies and defines him in his ultimate and fundamental 'o.ect$ If man 'ossesses a 'e3ontological com'ehension
of the #eing of /od& it is not the geat !ondes of natue no the 'o!e of societ* !hich ha"e confeed it u'on him$ /od&
"alue and su'eme end of tanscendence& e'esents the 'emanent limit in tems of !hich man makes kno!n to himself
!hat he is$ To #e man means to each to!ad #eing /od$ O if *ou 'efe& man fundamentall* is the desie to #e /od$
It ma* #e asked& if man on coming into the !old is #one to!ad /od as to!ad his limit& if he can choose onl* to #e /od&
!hat #ecomes of feedom5 %o feedom is nothing othe than a choice !hich ceates fo itself its o!n 'ossi#ilities& #ut it
a''eas hee that the initial 'o.ect of #eing /od& !hich 1defines1 man& comes close to #eing the same as a human
1natue1 o an 1essence$1 The ans!e is that !hile the meaning of the desie is ultimatel* the 'o.ect of #eing /od& the
desie is ne"e constituted #* this meaning+ on the conta*& it al!a*s e'esents a 'aticula disco"e* of its ends$ These
ends in fact ae 'usued in tems of a 'aticula em'iical situation& and it is this "e* 'usuit !hich constitutes the
suoundings as a situation$ The desie of #eing is al!a*s eali:ed as the desie of a mode of #eing$ And this desie of a
mode of #eing ex'esses itself in tun as the meaning of the m*iads of concete desies !hich constitute the !e# of ou
conscious life$ Thus !e find ousel"es #efoe "e* com'lex s*m#olic stuctues !hich ha"e at least thee stoies$ In
em'iical desie I can discen a s*m#oli:ation of a fundamental concete desie !hich is the 'eson himself and !hich
e'esents the mode in !hich he has decided that #eing !ould #e in (uestion in his #eing$ This fundamental desie in tun
ex'esses concetel* in the !old !ithin the 'aticula situation en"elo'ing the indi"idual& an a#stact meaningful
stuctue !hich is the desie of #eing in geneal+ it must #e consideed as human ealit* in the 'eson& and it #ings a#out
his communit* !ith othes& thus making it 'ossi#le to state that thee is a tuth concening man and not onl* concening
indi"iduals !ho cannot #e com'aed$ A#solute conceteness& com'letion& existence as a totalit* #elong then to the fee and
fundamental desie !hich is the uni(ue 'eson$ Em'iical desie is onl* a s*m#oli:ation of this+ it efes to this and
dei"es its meaning fom it !hile emaining 'atial and educi#le& fo the em'iical desie can not #e concei"ed in
isolation$ On the othe hand& the desie of #eing in its a#stact 'uit* is the tuth of the concete fundamental desie& #ut it
does not exist #* "itue of ealit*$ Thus the fundamental 'o.ect& the 'eson& the fee eali:ation of human tuth is
e"e*!hee in all desies Fsa"e fo those exce'tions teated in the 'eceding cha'te& concening& fo exam'le&
1indiffeents1G$ It is ne"e a''ehended exce't though desies3as !e can a''ehend s'ace onl* though #odies !hich
sha'e it fo us& though s'ace is a s'ecific ealit* and not a conce't$ O& if *ou like& it is like the o#.ect of Hussel& !hich
e"eals itself onl* #* A#schattungen& and !hich ne"etheless does not allo! itself to #e a#so#ed #* an* one A#schattung$
)e can undestand afte these emaks that the a#stact& ontological 1desie to #e1 is una#le to e'esent the fundamental&
human stuctue of the indi"idual+ it cannot #e an o#stacle to his feedom$ %eedom in fact& as !e ha"e sho!n in the
'eceding cha'te& is stictl* identified !ith nihilation$ The onl* #eing !hich can #e called fee is the #eing !hich
nihilates its #eing$ Moeo"e !e kno! that nihilation is lack of #eing and can not #e othe!ise$ %eedom is 'ecisel* the
#eing !hich makes itself a lack of #eing$ -ut since desie& as !e ha"e esta#lished& is identical !ith lack of #eing& feedom
can aise onl* as #eing !hich makes itself a desie of #eing+ that is& as the 'o.ect3fo3itself of #eing in3itself3foitself$ Hee
!e ha"e ai"ed at an a#stact stuctue !hich can #* no means #e consideed as the natue o essence of feedom$
%eedom is existence& and in it existence 'ecedes essence$ The u'suge of feedom is immediate and concete and is not to
#e distinguished fom its choice+ that is& fom the 'eson himself$ -ut the stuctue unde consideation can #e called the
tuth of feedom+ that is& it is the human meaning of feedom$
It should #e 'ossi#le to esta#lish the human tuth of the 'eson& as !e ha"e attem'ted to do #* an ontological
'henomenolog*$ The catalogue of em'iical desies ought to #e made the o#.ect of a''o'iate 's*chological
in"estigAtions& o#se"ation and induction and& as needed& ex'eience can se"e to da! u' this list$ The* !ill indicate to
the 'hiloso'he the com'ehensi#le elations !hich unite to each othe "aious desies and "aious 'attens of #eha"ios&
and !ill #ing to light cetain concete connections #et!een the su#.ect of ex'eience and 1situations1 ex'eientiall*
defined F!hich at #ottom oiginate onl* fom limitations a''lied in the name of 'ositi"it* to the fundamental situation of
the su#.ect in the !oldG$ -ut in esta#lishing and classif*ing fundamental desies of indi"idual 'esons neithe of these
methods is a''o'iate$ Actuall* thee can #e no (uestion of detemining a 'ioi and ontologicall* !hat a''eas in all the
un'edicta#ilit* of a fee act$ This is !h* !e shall limit ousel"es hee to indicating "e* summail* the 'ossi#ilities of
such a (uest and its 'es'ecti"es$ The "e* fact that !e can su#.ect an* man !hatsoe"e to such an in"estigation33that is
!hat #elongs to human ealit* in geneal$ O& if *ou 'efe& this is !hat can #e esta#lished #* an ontolog*$ -ut the in(ui*
itself and its esults ae on 'inci'le !holl* outside the 'ossi#ilities of an ontolog*$
EXISTENTIALIST @S4,HOANAL4SIS
The 'inci'le of this 's*choanal*sis is that man is a totalit* and not a collection$ ,onse(uentl* he ex'esses himself as a
!hole in e"en his most insignificant and his most su'eficial #eha"io$ In othe !ods thee is not a taste& a manneism& o
a human act !hich is not e"ealing$
The goal of 's*choanal*sis is to deci'he the em'iical #eha"io 'attens of man+ that is to #ing out in the o'en the
e"elations !hich each one of them contains and to fix them conce'tuall*$
Its 'oint of de'atue is ex'eience+ its 'illa of su''ot is the fundamental& 'e3ontological com'ehension !hich man has
of the human 'eson$ Although the ma.oit* of 'eo'le can !ell ignoe the indications contained in a gestue& a !od& a
sign and can look !ith scon on the e"elation !hich the* ca*& each human indi"idual ne"etheless 'ossesses a 'ioi the
meaning of the e"elato* "alue of these manifestations and is ca'a#le of deci'heing them& at least if he is aided and
guided #* a hel'ing hand$ Hee as else!hee& tuth is not encounteed #* chance+ it does not #elong to a domain !hee one
must seek it !ithout e"e ha"ing an* 'esentiment of its location& as one can go to look fo the souce of the Nile o of the
Nige$ It #elongs a 'ioi to human com'ehension and the essential task is an hemeneutic+ that is& a deci'heing& a
detemination& and a conce'tuali:ation$
Its method is com'aati"e$ Since each exam'le of human conduct s*m#oli:es in its o!n manne the fundamental choice
!hich must #e #ought to light& and since at the same time each one disguises this choice unde its occasional chaacte
and its histoical o''otunit*& onl* the com'aison of these acts of conduct can effect the emegence of the uni(ue
e"elation !hich the* all ex'ess in a diffeent !a*$ The fist outline of this method has #een funished fo us #* the
's*choanal*sis of %eud and his disci'les$ %o this eason it !ill #e 'ofita#le hee to indicate moe s'ecificall* the 'oints
!hee existential 's*choanal*sis !ill #e ins'ied #* 's*choanal*sis 'o'e and those !hee it !ill adicall* diffe fom it$
-oth kinds of 's*choanal*sis conside all o#.ecti"el* disceni#le manifestations of 1's*chic life1 as s*m#ols maintaining
s*m#olic elations to the fundamental& total stuctues !hich constitute the indi"idual 'eson$ -oth conside that thee ae
no 'ima* gi"ens such as heedita* dis'ositions& chaacte& etc$ Existential 's*choanal*sis ecogni:es nothing #efoe the
oiginal u'suge of human feedom+ em'iical 's*choanal*sis holds that the oiginal affecti"it* of the indi"idual is "igin
!ax #efoe its histo*$ The li#ido is nothing #esides its concete fixations& sa"e fo a 'emanent 'ossi#ilit* of fixing
an*thing !hatsoe"e u'on an*thing !hatsoe"e$ -oth conside the human #eing as a 'e'etual& seaching& histoi:ation$
Cathe than unco"eing static& constant gi"ens the* disco"e the meaning& oientation& and ad"entues of this histo*$ Due
to this fact #oth conside man in the !old and do not imagine that one can (uestion the #eing of a man !ithout taking
into account all his situation$ @s*chological in"estigations aim at econstituting the life of the su#.ect fom #ith to the
moment of the cue+ the* utili:e all the o#.ecti"e documentation !hich the* can find+ lettes& !itnesses& intimate diaies&
1social1 infomation of e"e* kind$ )hat the* aim at estoing is less a 'ue 's*chic e"ent than a t!ofold stuctue6 the
cucial e"ent of infanc* and the 's*chic c*stalli:ation aound this e"ent$ Hee again !e ha"e to do !ith a situation$ Each
1histoical1 fact fom this 'oint of "ie! !ill #e consideed at once as a facto of the 's*chic e"olution and as a s*m#ol of
that e"olution$ %o it is nothing in itself$ It o'eates onl* accoding to the !a* in !hich it is taken and this "e* manne of
taking it ex'esses s*m#olicall* the intenal dis'osition of the indi"idual$
Em'iical 's*choanal*sis and existential 's*choanal*sis #oth seach !ithin an existing situation fo a fundamental
attitude !hich can not #e ex'essed #* sim'le& logical definitions #ecause it is 'io to all logic& and !hich e(uies
econstuction accoding to the la!s of s'ecific s*ntheses$ Em'iical 's*choanal*sis seeks to detemine the com'lex& the
"e* name of !hich indicates the 'ol*"alence of all the meanings !hich ae efeed #ack to it$ Existential 's*choanal*sis
seeks to detemine the oiginal choice$ This oiginal choice o'eating in the face of the !old and #eing a choice of
'osition in the !old is total like the com'lex+ it is 'io to logic like the com'lex$ It is this !hich decides the attitude of
the 'eson !hen confonted !ith logic and 'inci'les+ theefoe thee can #e no 'ossi#ilit* of (uestioning it in
confomance to logic$ It #ings togethe in a 'elogical s*nthesis the totalit* of the existent& and as such it is the cente of
efeence fo an infinit* of 'ol*"alent meanings$
-oth ou 's*choanal*ses efuse to admit that the su#.ect is in a 'i"ileged 'osition to 'oceed in these in(uiies concening
himself$ The* e(uall* insist on a stictl* o#.ecti"e method& using as documenta* e"idence the data of eflection as !ell as
the testimon* of othes$ Of couse the su#.ect can undetake a 's*choanal*tic in"estigation of himself$ -ut in this case he
must enounce at the outset all #enefit stemming fom his 'eculia 'osition and must (uestion himself exactl* as if he !ee
someone else$ Em'iical 's*choanal*sis in fact is #ased on the h*'othesis of the existence of an unconscious 's*che& !hich
on 'inci'le esca'es the intuition of the su#.ect$ Existential 's*choanal*sis e.ects the h*'othesis of the unconscious+ it
makes the 's*chic act coextensi"e !ith consciousness$ -ut if the fundamental 'o.ect is full* ex'eienced #* the su#.ect
and hence !holl* conscious& that cetainl* does not mean that it must #* the same token #e kno!n #* him+ (uite the
conta*$ The eade !ill 'eha's ecall the cae !e took in the Intoduction to distinguish #et!een consciousness and
kno!ledge$ To #e sue& as !e ha"e seen ealie& eflection can #e consideed as a (uasikno!ledge$ -ut !hat it gas's at
each moment is not the 'ue 'o.ect of the fo3itself as it is s*m#olicall* ex'essed33often in se"eal !a*s at once33#* the
concete #eha"io !hich it a''ehends$ It gas's the concete #eha"io itself+ that is& the s'ecific dated desie in all its
chaacteistic net!ok$ It gas's at once s*m#ol and s*m#oli:ation$ This a''ehension& to #e sue& is entiel* constituted #*
a 'e3ontological com'ehension of the fundamental 'o.ect+ #ette *et& in so fa as eflection is almost a non3thetic
consciousness of itself as eflection& it is this same 'o.ect& as !ell as the non3eflecti"e consciousness$ -ut it does not
follo! that it commands the instuments and techni(ues necessa* to isolate the choice s*m#oli:ed& to fix it #* conce'ts&
and to #ing it foth into the full light of da*$ It is 'enetated #* a geat light !ithout #eing a#le to ex'ess !hat this light
is illuminating$ )e ae not dealing !ith an unsol"ed iddle as the %eudians #elie"e+ all is thee& luminous+ eflection is in
full 'ossession of it& a''ehends all$ -ut this 1m*ste* in #oad da*light1 is due to the fact that this 'ossession is de'i"ed
of the means !hich !ould odinail* 'emit anal*sis and conce'tuali:ation$ It gas's e"e*thing& all at once& !ithout
shading& !ithout elief& !ithout connections of gandeu33not that these shades& these "alues& these eliefs exist some!hee
and ae hidden fom it& #ut athe #ecause the* must #e esta#lished #* anothe human attitude and #ecause the* can exist
onl* #* means of and fo kno!ledge$ Ceflection& una#le to se"e as the #asis fo existential 's*choanal*sis& !ill then
sim'l* funish us !ith the #ute mateials to!ad !hich the 's*choanal*st must take an o#.ecti"e attitude$ Thus onl* !ill
he #e a#le to kno! !hat he alead* undestands$ The esult is that com'lexes u'ooted fom the de'ths of the unconscious&
like 'o.ects e"ealed #* existential 's*choanal*sis& !ill #e a''ehended fom the 'oint of "ie! of the Othe$ ,onse(uentl*
the o#.ect thus #ought into the light !ill #e aticulated accoding to the stuctues of the tanscended3tanscendence+ that
is& its #eing !ill #e the #eing3fo3othes e"en if the 's*choanal*st and the su#.ect of the 's*choanal*sis ae actuall* the
same 'eson$ Thus the 'o.ect !hich is #ought to light #* eithe kind of 's*choanal*sis can #e onl* the totalit* of the
indi"idual human #eing& the ieduci#le element of the tanscendence !ith the stuctue of #eing3fo3othes$ )hat al!a*s
esca'es these methods of in"estigation is the 'o.ect as it is fo itself& the com'lex in its o!n #eing$ This 'o.ect3fo3itself
can #e ex'eienced onl* as a li"ing 'ossession+ thee is an incom'ati#ilit* #et!een existence3fo3itself and o#.ecti"e
existence$ -ut the o#.ect of the t!o 's*choanal*ses has in it nonetheless the ealit* of a #eing+ the su#.ect0s kno!ledge of it
can in addition conti#ute to claif* eflection& and that eflection can then #ecome a 'ossession !hich !ill #e a (uasi3
kno!ing$
At this 'oint the similait* #et!een the t!o kinds of 's*choanal*sis ceases$ The* diffe fundamentall* in that em'iical
's*choanal*sis has decided u'on its o!n ieduci#le instead of allo!ing this to make itself kno!n in a self3e"ident
intuition$ The li#ido o the !ill to 'o!e in actualit* constitutes a 's*cho3#iological esidue !hich is not clea in itself and
!hich does not a''ea to us as #eing #efoehand the ieduci#le limit of the in"estigation$ %inall* it is ex'eience !hich
esta#lishes that the foundation of com'lexes is this li#ido o this !ill to 'o!e+ and these esults of em'iical in(ui* ae
'efectl* contingent& the* ae not con"incing$ Nothing 'e"ents ou concei"ing a 'ioi of a 1human ealit*1 !hich !ould
not #e ex'essed #* the !ill to 'o!e& fo !hich the li#ido !ould not constitute the oiginal& undiffeentiated 'o.ect$
On the othe hand& the choice to !hich existential 's*choanal*sis !ill lead us& 'ecisel* #ecause it is a choice& accounts fo
its oiginal contingenc*& fo the contingenc* of the choice is the e"ese side of its feedom$ %uthemoe& inasmuch as it is
esta#lished on the lack of #eing& concei"ed as a fundamental chaacteistic of #eing& it ecei"es its legitimac* as a choice&
and !e kno! that !e do not ha"e to 'ush futhe$ Each esult then !ill #e at once full* contingent and legitimatel*
ieduci#le$ Moeo"e it !ill al!a*s emain 'aticula+ that is& !e !ill not achie"e as the ultimate goal of ou in"estigation
and the foundation of all #eha"io an a#stact& geneal tem& li#ido fo exam'le& !hich !ould #e diffeentiated and made
concete fist in com'lexes and then in detailed acts of conduct& due to the action of extenal facts and the histo* of the
su#.ect$ On the conta*& it !ill #e a choice !hich emains uni(ue and !hich is fom the stat a#solute conceteness$
Details of #eha"io can ex'ess o 'aticulai:e this choice& #ut the* can not make it moe concete than is alead* kno!n
in a self3e"ident intuition$ The li#ido o the !ill to 'o!e is in us$ That is #ecause the choice is nothing othe than the
#eing of each human ealit*+ this amounts to sa*ing that a 'aticula 'atial #eha"io is o ex'esses the oiginal choice of
this human ealit* since fo human ealit* thee is no diffeence #et!een existing and choosing fo itself$ %om this fact !e
undestand that existential 's*choanal*sis does not ha"e to 'oceed fom the fundamental 1com'lex&1 !hich is exactl* the
choice of #eing& to an a#staction like the li#ido !hich !ould ex'lain it$ The com'lex is the ultimate choice& it is the
choice of #eing and makes itself such$ -inging it into the light !ill e"eal it each time as e"identl* ieduci#le$ It follo!s
necessail* that the li#ido and the !ill to 'o!e !ill a''ea to existential 's*choanal*sis neithe as geneal chaacteistics
common to all mankind no as ieduci#les$ At most it !ill #e 'ossi#le afte the in"estigation to esta#lish that the* ex'ess
#* "itue of 'aticula ensem#les in cetain su#.ects a fundamental choice !hich can not #e educed to eithe one of them$
)e ha"e seen in fact that desie and sexualit* in geneal ex'ess an oiginal effot of the fo3itself to eco"e its #eing
!hich has #ecome estanged though contact !ith the Othe$ The !ill to 'o!e also oiginall* su''oses #eing3fo3othes&
the com'ehension of the Othe& and the choice of !inning its o!n sal"ation #* means of the Othe$ The foundation of this
attitude must #e an oiginal choice !hich !ould make us undestand the adical identification of #eing3in3itself3fo3itself
!ith #eing3fo3othes$
The fact that the ultimate tem of this existential in(ui* must #e a choice& distinguishes e"en #ette the 's*choanal*sis fo
!hich !e ha"e outlined the method and 'inci'al featues$ It thee#* a#andons the su''osition that the en"ionment acts
mechanicall* on the su#.ect unde consideation$ The en"ionment can act on the su#.ect onl* to the exact extent that he
com'ehends it+ that is& tansfoms it into a situation$ Hence no o#.ecti"e desci'tion of this en"ionment could #e of an*
use to us$ %om the stat the en"ionment concei"ed as a situation efes to the fo3itself !hich is choosing& .ust as the fo3
itself efes to the en"ionment #* the "e* fact that the fo3itself is in the !old$ -* enouncing all mechanical causation&
!e enounce at the same time all geneal inte'etation of the s*m#oli:ation confonted$ Ou goal could not #e to esta#lish
em'iical la!s of succession& no could !e constitute a uni"esal s*m#olism$ Cathe the 's*choanal*st !ill ha"e to
edisco"e at each ste' a s*m#ol functioning in the 'aticula case !hich he is consideing$ If each #eing is a totalit*& it is
not concei"a#le that thee can exist elementa* s*m#olic elationshi's Fe$g$& the faeces K gold& o a 'incushion K the
#eastG !hich 'ese"e a constant meaning in all cases+ that is& !hich emain unalteed !hen the* 'ass fom one
meaningful ensem#le to anothe ensem#le$ %uthemoe the 's*choanal*st !ill ne"e lose sight of the fact that the choice
is li"ing and conse(uentl* can #e e"oked #* the su#.ect !ho is #eing studied$ )e ha"e sho!n in the 'eceding cha'te the
im'otance of the instant& !hich e'esents a#u't changes in oientation and the assuming of a ne! 'osition in the face of
an unaltea#le 'ast$ %om this moment on& !e must al!a*s #e ead* to conside that s*m#ols change meaning and to
a#andon the s*m#ol used hitheto$ Thus existential 's*choanal*sis !ill ha"e to #e com'letel* flexi#le and ada't itself to
the slightest o#se"a#le changes in the su#.ect$ Ou concen hee is to undestand !hat is indi"idual and often e"en
instantaneous$ The method !hich has se"ed fo one su#.ect !ill not necessail* #e suita#le to use fo anothe su#.ect o
fo the same su#.ect at a late 'eiod$
@ecisel* #ecause the goal of the in(ui* must #e to disco"e a choice and not a state& the in"estigato must ecall on e"e*
occasion that his o#.ect is not a datum #uied in the dakness of the unconscious #ut a fee& conscious detemination33
!hich is not e"en esident in consciousness& #ut !hich is one !ith this consciousness itself$ Em'iical 's*choanal*sis& to
the extent that its method is #ette than its 'inci'les& is often in sight of an existential disco"e*& #ut it al!a*s sto's 'at
!a*$ )hen it thus a''oaches the fundamental choice& the esistance of the su#.ect colla'ses suddenl* and he ecogni:es
the image of himself !hich is 'esented to him as if he !ee seeing himself in a mio$ This in"olunta* testimon* of the
su#.ect is 'ecious fo the 's*choanal*st+ he sees thee the sign that he has eached his goal+ he can 'ass on fom the
in"estigation 'o'e to the cue$ -ut nothing in his 'inci'les o in his initial 'ostulates 'emits him to undestand o to
utili:e this testimon*$ )hee could he get an* such ight5 If the com'lex is eall* unconscious33that is& if thee is a #aie
se'aating the sign fom the thing signified33ho! could the su#.ect ecogni:e it5 Does the unconscious com'lex ecogni:e
itself5 -ut ha"en0t !e #een told that it lacks undestanding5 And if of necessit* !e ganted to it the facult* of
undestanding the signs& !ould this not #e to make of it #* the same token a conscious unconscious5 )hat is
undestanding if not to #e conscious of !hat is undestood5 Shall !e sa* on the othe hand that it is the su#.ect as
conscious !ho ecogni:es the image 'esented5 -ut ho! could he com'ae it !ith his tue state since that is out of each
and since he has ne"e had an* kno!ledge of it5 At most he !ill #e a#le to .udge that the 's*choanal*tic ex'lanation of his
case is a 'o#a#le h*'othesis& !hich dei"es its 'o#a#ilit* fom the num#e of #eha"io 'attens !hich it ex'lains$ His
elation to this inte'etation is that of a thid 'at*& that of the 's*choanal*st himself+ he has no 'i"ileged 'osition$ And
if he #elie"es in the 'o#a#ilit* of the 's*choanal*tic h*'othesis& is this sim'le #elief& !hich li"es in the limits of his
consciousness& a#le to effect the #eakdo!n of the #aies !hich dam u' the unconscious tendencies5 The 's*choanal*st
dou#tless has some o#scue 'ictue of an a#u't coincidence of conscious and unconscious$ -ut he has emo"ed all
methods of concei"ing of this coincidence in an* 'ositi"e sense$
Still& the enlightenment of the su#.ect is a fact$ Thee is an intuition hee !hich is accom'anied #* e"idence$ The su#.ect
guided #* the 's*choanal*st does moe and #ette than to gi"e his ageement to an h*'othesis+ he touches it& he sees !hat
it is$ This is tul* undestanda#le onl* if the su#.ect has ne"e ceased #eing conscious of his dee' tendencies+ #ette *et&
onl* if these di"es ae not distinguished fom his conscious self$ In this case as !e ha"e seen& the taditional
's*choanal*tic inte'etation does not cause him to attain consciousness of !hat he is+ it causes him to attain kno!ledge of
!hat he is$ It is existential 's*choanal*sis then !hich claims the final intuition of the su#.ect as decisi"e$
This com'aison allo!s us to undestand #ette !hat an existential 's*choanal*sis must #e if it is entitled to exist$ It is a
method destined to #ing to light& in a stictl* o#.ecti"e fom& the su#.ecti"e choice #* !hich each li"ing 'eson makes
himself a 'eson+ that is& makes kno!n to himself !hat he is$ Since !hat the method seeks is a choice of #eing at the same
time as a #eing& it must educe 'aticula #eha"io 'attens to fundamental elations33not of sexualit* o of the !ill to
'o!e& #ut of #eing33!hich ae ex'essed in this #eha"io$ It is then guided fom the stat to!ad a com'ehension of
#eing and must not assign itself an* othe goal than to disco"e #eing and the mode of #eing of the #eing confonting this
#eing$ It is fo#idden to sto' #efoe attaining this goal$ It !ill utili:e the com'ehension of #eing !hich chaactei:es the
in"estigato inasmuch as he is himself a human ealit*+ and as it seeks to detach #eing fom its s*m#olic ex'essions& it
!ill ha"e to edisco"e each time on the #asis of a com'aati"e stud* of acts aid attitudes& a s*m#ol destined to deci'he
them$ Its citeion of success !ill #e the num#e of facts !hich its h*'othesis 'emits it to ex'lain and to unif* as !ell as
the self3e"ident intuition of the ieduci#ilit* of the end attained$ To this citeion !ill #e added in all cases !hee it is
'ossi#le& the decisi"e testimon* of the su#.ect$ The esults thus achie"ed33that is& the ultimate ends of the indi"idual33can
then #ecome the o#.ect of a classification& and it is #* the com'aison of these esults that !e !ill #e a#le to esta#lish
geneal consideations a#out human ealit* as an em'iical choice of its o!n ends$ The #eha"io studied #* this
's*choanal*sis !ill include not onl* deams& failues& o#sessions& and neuoses& #ut also and es'eciall* the thoughts of
!aking life& successfull* ad.usted acts& st*le& etc$ This 's*choanal*sis has not *et found its %eud$ At most !e can find the
foeshado!ing of it in cetain 'aticulal* successful #ioga'hies$ )e ho'e to #e a#le to attem't else!hee t!o exam'les
in elation to %lau#et and Dostoe"sk*$ -ut it mattes little to us !hethe it no! exists+ the im'otant thing is that it is
'ossi#le$
THE HOLE
In itself the hole is the s*m#ol of a mode of #eing !hich existential 's*choanal*sis must elucidate$
)e can not make such a detailed stud* hee$ One can see at once& ho!e"e& that the hole is oiginall* 'esented as a
nothingness 1to #e filled1 !ith m* o!n flesh+ the child can not estain himself fom 'utting his finge o his !hole am
into the hole$ It 'esents itself to me as the em't* image of m*self$ I ha"e onl* to ca!l into it in ode to make m*self
exist in the !old !hich a!aits me$ The ideal of the hole is then an exca"ation !hich can #e caefull* moulded a#out m*
flesh in such a manne that #* s(uee:ing m*self into it and fitting m*self tightl* inside it& I shall conti#ute to making a
fullness of #eing exist in the !old$ Thus to 'lug u' a hole means oiginall* to make a sacifice of m* #od* in ode that
the 'lenitude of #eing ma* exist+ that is& to su#.ect the 'assion of the %o3itself so as to sha'e& to 'efect& and to 'ese"e
the totalit* of the In3itself$E
E )e should note as !ell the im'otance of the o''osite tendenc*& to 'oke though holes& !hich in itself demands an
existential anal*sis$
Hee at its oigin !e gas' one of the most fundamental tendencies of human ealit*33the tendenc* to fill$ )e shall meet
!ith this tendenc* again in the adolescent and in the adult$ A good 'at of ou life is 'assed in 'lugging u' holes& in filling
em't* 'laces& in eali:ing and s*m#olicall* esta#lishing a 'lenitude$ The child ecogni:es as the esults of his fist
ex'eiences that he himself has holes$ )hen he 'uts his finges in his mouth& he ties to !all u' the holes in his face+ he
ex'ects that his finge !ill mege !ith his li's and the oof of his mouth and #lock u' the #uccal oifice as one fills the
cack in a !all !ith cement+ he seeks again the densit*& the unifom and s'heical 'lenitude of @amenidean #eing+ if he
sucks his thum#& it is 'ecisel* in ode to dissol"e it& to tansfom it into a stick* 'aste !hich !ill seal the hole of his
mouth$ This tendenc* is cetainl* one of the most fundamental among those !hich se"e as the #asis fo the act of eating+
nouishment is the 1cement1 !hich !ill seal the mouth+ to eat is among othe things to #e filled u'$
It is onl* fom this stand'oint that !e can 'ass on to sexualit*$ The o#scenit* of the feminine sex is that of e"e*thing
!hich 1ga'es o'en$1 It is an a''eal to #eing as all holes ae$ In heself !oman a''eals to a stange flesh !hich is to
tansfom he into a fullness of #eing #* 'enetation and dissolution$ ,on"esel* !oman senses he condition as an a''eal
'ecisel* #ecause she is 1in the fom of a hole$1 This is the tue oigin of Adle0s com'lex$ -e*ond an* dou#t he sex is a
mouth and a "oacious mouth !hich de"ous the 'enis33a fact !hich can easil* lead to the idea of castation$ The amoous
act is the castation of the man+ #ut this is a#o"e all #ecause sex is a hole$ )e ha"e to do hee !ith a 'e3sexual
conti#ution !hich !ill #ecome one of the com'onents of sexualit* as an em'iical& com'lex& human attitude #ut !hich fa
fom dei"ing its oigin fom the sexed #eing has nothing in common !ith #asic sexualit*& the natue of !hich !e ha"e
ex'lained in @at III$ Ne"etheless the ex'eience !ith the hole& !hen the infant sees the ealit*& includes the ontological
'esentiment of sexual ex'eience in geneal+ it is !ith his flesh that the child sto's u' the hole and the hole& #efoe all
sexual s'ecification& is an o#scene ex'ectation& an a''eal to the flesh$
)e can see the im'otance !hich the elucidation of these immediate and concete existential categoies !ill assume fo
existential 's*choanal*sis$ In this !a* !e can a''ehend the "e* geneal 'o.ects of human ealit*$ -ut !hat chiefl*
inteests the 's*choanal*st is to detemine the fee 'o.ect of the uni(ue 'eson in tems of the indi"idual elation !hich
unites him to these "aious s*m#ols of #eing$ I can lo"e slim* contacts& ha"e a hoo of holes& etc$ That does not mean
that fo me the slim*& the geas*& a hole& etc$ ha"e lost thei geneal ontological meaning& #ut on the conta* that #ecause
of this meaning& I detemine m*self in this o that manne in elation to them$ If the slim* is indeed the s*m#ol of a #eing
in !hich the fo3itself is s!allo!ed u' #* the in3itself& !hat kind of a 'eson am I if in encounteing othes& I lo"e the
slim*5 To !hat fundamental 'o.ect of m*self am I efeed if I !ant to ex'lain this lo"e of an am#iguous& sucking in3
itself5 In this !a* tastes do not emain ieduci#le gi"ens+ if one kno!s ho! to (uestion them& the* e"eal to us the
fundamental 'o.ects of the 'eson$ Do!n to e"en ou alimenta* 'efeences the* all ha"e a meaning$ )e can account fo
this fact if !e !ill eflect that each taste is 'esented& not as an a#sud datum !hich !e must excuse #ut as an e"ident
"alue$ If I like the taste of galic& it seems iational to me that othe 'eo'le can not like it$
To eat is to a''o'iate #* destuction+ it is at the same time to #e filled u' !ith a cetain #eing$ And this #eing is gi"en as
a s*nthesis of tem'eatue& densit*& and fla"o 'o'e$ In a !od this s*nthesis signifies a cetain #eing+ and !hen !e eat&
!e do not limit ousel"es to kno!ing cetain (ualities of this #eing though taste+ #* tasting them !e a''o'iate them$
Taste is assimilation+ #* the "e* act of #iting the tooth e"eals the densit* of a #od* !hich it is tansfoming into gastic
contents$ Thus the s*nthetic intuition of food is in itself an assimilati"e destuction$ It e"eals to me the #eing !hich I am
going to make m* flesh$ Hencefoth& !hat I acce't o !hat I e.ect !ith disgust is the "e* #eing of that existent& o if *ou
'efe& the totalit* of the food 'o'oses to me a cetain mode of #eing of the #eing !hich I acce't o efuse$ This totalit* is
ogani:ed as a fom in !hich less intense (ualities of densit* and of tem'eatue ae effaced #ehind the fla"o 'o'e
!hich ex'esses them$ The suga*& fo exam'le& ex'esses the slim* !hen !e eat a s'oonful of hone* o molasses& .ust as
an anal*tical function ex'esses a geometic cu"e$ This means that all (ualities !hich ae not stictl* s'eaking fla"o #ut
!hich ae massed& melted& #uied in the fla"o& e'esent the matte of the fla"o$ FThe 'iece of chocolate !hich at fist
offes a esistance to m* tooth& soon a#u'tl* gi"es !a* and cum#les+ its esistance fist& then its cum#ling is chocolate$G
In addition the* ae united to cetain tem'oal chaacteistics of fla"o+ that is& to its mode of tem'oal i:ation$ ,etain
tastes gi"e themsel"es all at once& some ae like dela*ed3action fuses& some elease themsel"es #* degees& cetain ones
d!indle slo!l* until the* disa''ea& and still othes "anish at the "e* moment one thinks to 'ossess them$ These (ualities
ae ogani:ed along !ith densit* and tem'eatue+ in addition on anothe le"el the* ex'ess the "isual as'ect of the food$ If
I eat a 'ink cake& the taste of it is 'ink+ the light suga* 'efume& the oiliness of the #utte ceam ae the 'ink$ Thus I eat
the 'ink as I see the suga*$ )e conclude that fla"o& due to this fact& has a com'lex achitectue and diffeentiated matte+
it is this stuctued matte33!hich e'esents fo us a 'aticula t*'e of #eing33that !e can assimilate o e.ect !ith nausea&
accoding to ou oiginal 'o.ect$ It is not a matte of indiffeence !hethe !e like o*stes o clams& snails o shim'& if
onl* !e kno! ho! to una"el the existential significance of these foods$
/eneall* s'eaking thee is no ieduci#le taste o inclination$ The* all e'esent a cetain a''o'iati"e choice of #eing$ It
is u' to existential 's*choanal*sis to com'ae and classif* them$ Ontolog* a#andons us hee+ it has meel* ena#led us to
detemine the ultimate ends of human ealit*& its fundamental 'ossi#ilities& and the "alue !hich haunts it$ Each human
ealit* is at the same time a diect 'o.ect to metamo'hose its o!n %o3itself into an In3itself3%o3itself and a 'o.ect of the
a''o'iation of the !old as a totalit* of #eing3in3itself& in the fom of a fundamental (ualit*$ E"e* human ealit* is a
'assion in that it 'o.ects losing itself so as to found #eing and #* the same stoke to constitute the In3itself !hich esca'es
contingenc* #* #eing its o!n foundation& the Ens causa sui& !hich eligions call /od$ Thus the 'assion of man is the
e"ese of that of ,hist& fo man loses himself as man in ode that /od ma* #e #on$ -ut the idea of /od is contadicto*
and !e lose ousel"es in "ain$ Man is a useless 'assion$
ETHI,AL IM@LI,ATIONS
Ontolog* itself can not fomulate ethical 'ece'ts$ It is concened solel* !ith !hat is& and !e can not 'ossi#l* dei"e
im'eati"es fom ontolog*0s indicati"es$ It does& ho!e"e& allo! us to catch a glim'se of !hat sot of ethics !ill assume its
es'onsi#ilities !hen confonted !ith a human ealit* in situation$ Ontolog* has e"ealed to us& in fact& the oigin and the
natue of "alue+ !e ha"e seen that "alue is the lack in elation to !hich the fo3itself detemines its #eing as a lack$ -* the
"e* fact that the fo3itself exists& as !e ha"e seen& "alue aises to haunt its #eing3fo3itself$ It follo!s that the "aious tasks
of the fo3itself can #e made the o#.ect of an existential 's*choanal*sis& fo the* all aim at 'oducing the missing s*nthesis
of consciousness and #eing in the fom of "alue o self3cause$ Thus existential 's*choanal*sis is moal desci'tion& fo it
eleases to us the ethical meaning of "aious human 'o.ects$ It indicates to us the necessit* of a#andoning the 's*cholog*
of inteest along !ith an* utilitaian inte'etation of human conduct33#* e"ealing to us the ideal meaning of all human
attitudes$ These meanings ae #e*ond egoism and altuism& #e*ond also an* #eha"io !hich is called disinteested$ Man
makes himself man in ode to #e /od& and selfness consideed fom this 'oint of "ie! can a''ea to #e an egoism+ #ut
'ecisel* #ecause thee is no common measue #et!een human ealit* and the self3cause !hich it !ants to #e& one could
.ust as !ell sa* that man loses himself in ode that the self3cause ma* exist$ )e !ill conside then that all human
existence is a 'assion& the famous self3inteest #eing onl* one !a* feel* chosen among othes to eali:e this 'assion$
-ut the 'inci'al esult of existential 's*choanal*sis must #e to make us e'udiate the s'iit of seiousness$ The s'iit of
seiousness has t!o chaacteistics6 it consides "alues as tanscendent gi"ens inde'endent of human su#.ecti"it*& and it
tansfes the (ualit* of 1desia#le1 fom the ontological stuctue of things to thei sim'le mateial constitution$ %o the
s'iit of seiousness& fo exam'le& #ead is desia#le #ecause it is necessa* to li"e Fa "alue !itten in an intelligi#le
hea"enG and #ecause #ead is nouishing$ The esult of the seious attitude& !hich as !e kno! ules the !old& is to cause
the s*m#olic "alues of things to #e dunk in #* thei em'iical idios*ncas* as ink #* a #lotte+ it 'uts fo!ad the o'acit*
of the desied o#.ect and 'osits it in itself as a desia#le ieduci#le$ Thus !e ae alead* on the moal 'lane #ut
concuentl* on that of #ad faith& fo it is an ethics !hich is ashamed of itself and does not dae s'eak its name$ It has
o#scued all its goals in ode to fee itself fom anguish$ Man 'usues #eing #lindl* #* hiding fom himself the fee
'o.ect !hich is this 'usuit$ He makes himself such that he is !aited fo #* all the tasks 'laced along his !a*$ O#.ects ae
mute demands& and he is nothing in himself #ut the 'assi"e o#edience to these demands$
Existential 's*choanal*sis is going to e"eal to man the eal goal of his 'usuit& !hich is #eing as a s*nthetic fusion of the
in3itself !ith the fo3itself+ existential 's*choanal*sis is going to ac(uaint man !ith his 'assion$ In tuth thee ae man*
men !ho ha"e 'acticed this 's*choanal*sis on themsel"es and !ho ha"e not !aited to lean its 'inci'les in ode to
make use of them as a means of deli"eance and sal"ation$ Man* men& in fact& kno! that the goal of thei 'usuit is #eing+
and to the extent that the* 'ossess this kno!ledge& the* efain fom a''o'iating things fo thei o!n sake and t* to
eali:e the s*m#olic a''o'iation of thei #eing3in3itself$ -ut to the extent that this attem't still shaes in the s'iit of
seiousness and that these men can still #elie"e that thei mission of effecting the existence of the in3itself3fo3itself is
!itten in things& the* ae condemned to des'ai+ fo the* disco"e at the same time that all human acti"ities ae
e(ui"alent Ffo the* all tend to sacifice man in ode that the self3cause ma* aiseG and that all ae on 'inci'le doomed to
failue$ Thus it amounts to the same thing !hethe one gets dunk alone o is a leade of nations$ If one of these acti"ities
takes 'ecedence o"e the othe& this !ill not #e #ecause of its eal goal #ut #ecause of the degee of consciousness !hich it
'ossesses of its ideal goal+ and in this case it !ill #e the (uietism of the solita* dunkad !hich !ill take 'ecedence o"e
the "ain agitation of the leade of nations$
-ut ontolog* and existential 's*choanal*sis Fo the s'ontaneous and em'iical a''lication !hich men ha"e al!a*s made
of these disci'linesG must e"eal to the moal agent that he is the #eing #* !hom "alues exist$ It is then that his feedom
!ill #ecome conscious of itself and !ill e"eal itself in anguish as the uni(ue souce of "alue and the nothingness #* !hich
the !old exists$ As soon as feedom disco"es the (uest fo #eing and the a''o'iation of the in3itself as its o!n
'ossi#les& it !ill a''ehend #* and in anguish that the* ae 'ossi#les onl* on the gound of the 'ossi#ilit* of othe
'ossi#les$ -ut hitheto although 'ossi#les could #e chosen and e.ected ad li#itum& the theme !hich made the unit* of all
choices of 'ossi#les !as the "alue o the ideal 'esence of the ens causa sui$ )hat !ill #ecome of feedom if it tuns its
#ack u'on this "alue5 )ill feedom ca* this "alue along !ith it !hate"e it does and e"en in its "e* tuning #ack u'on
this "alue5 )ill feedom ca* this "alue along !ith it !hate"e it does and e"en in its "e* tuning #ack u'on the in3
itself3fo3itself5 )ill feedom #e ea''ehended fom #ehind #* the "alue !hich it !ishes to contem'late5 O !ill feedom
#* the "e* fact that it a''ehends itself as a feedom in elation to itself& #e a#le to 'ut an end to the eign of this "alue5 In
'aticula is it 'ossi#le fo feedom to take itself fo a "alue as the souce of all "alue& o must it necessail* #e defined in
elation to a tanscendent "alue !hich haunts it5 And in case it could !ill itself as its o!n 'ossi#le and its detemining
"alue& !hat !ould this mean5 A feedom !hich !ills itself feedom is in fact a #eing3!hich3is3not!hat3it3is and !hich3is3
!hat3it3is3not& and !hich chooses as the ideal of #eing& #eing3!hat3it3isnot and not3#eing3!hat3it3is$
This feedom chooses then not to eco"e itself #ut to flee itself& not to coincide !ith itself #ut to #e al!a*s at a distance
fom itself$ )hat ae !e to undestand #* this #eing !hich !ills to hold itself in a!e& to #e at a distance fom itself5 Is it a
(uestion of #ad faith o of anothe fundamental attitude5 And can one li"e this ne! as'ect of #eing5 In 'aticula !ill
feedom #* taking itself fo an end esca'e all situation5 O on the conta*& !ill it emain situated5 O !ill it situate itself
so much the moe 'ecisel* and the moe indi"iduall* as it 'o.ects itself futhe in anguish as a conditioned feedom and
acce'ts moe full* its es'onsi#ilit* as an existent #* !hom the !old comes into #eing$ All these (uestions& !hich efe us
to a 'ue and not an accesso* eflection& can find thei e'l* onl* on the ethical 'lane$ )e shall de"ote to them a futue
!ok$