Fisheries Research 84 (2007) 308313

A preliminary investigation of the use of subcutaneous tagging in Caribbean

reef squid Sepioteuthis sepioidea (Cephalopoda: Loliginidae)
S.E. Replinger, J.B. Wood

Bermuda Institute of Ocean Sciences, St. Georges GE 01, Bermuda

Received 18 July 2006; received in revised form 2 November 2006; accepted 9 November 2006
Abstract
This paper describes a new method developed to directly measure size and temperature specic growth rates of individual wild squid. Our tag
and recapture method is complimentary to previously employed statolith aging methods but provides ner scale detail. The Caribbean reef squid,
Sepioteuthis sepioidea, is an ideal model organism for eld work on squid life-history as they live in shallow coastal areas and are accessible.
These squid were tagged and monitored for tag retention and growth rates over a period of 56 days in the laboratory and 27 days in the eld. A total
of 103 squid were tagged, 10 in the laboratory and 93 in the eld. Visible Implant Elastomer (VIE) tags and Visible Implant Alphanumeric (VI
Alpha) tags were used during this experiment. None of the VI Alpha tags were retained in laboratory animals, but VIE tags remained visible for
the duration of the laboratory study and were used in all eld studies. The 10 recaptured squid weighed from 19.1 to 122.9 g with an average and
standard deviation recapture weight of 56.9 35.5 g, compared to their original weights of 48.0 30.5 g. In the eld, these squid had instantaneous
growth rates of 1.193.10 with an average growth rate of 1.93 0.71 at temperatures ranging from 19.5 to 23.7

C.
2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Squid; Tag; Growth; Sepioteuthis; VIE; Cephalopoda
1. Introduction
Fisheries around the world are shifting focus to species of
lower trophic levels, such as squid, as sh from the higher
trophic levels become less abundant (Caddy and Rodhouse,
1998; Paulyet al., 1998; Piatkowski et al., 2001; JerebandRoper,
2005). Squid are popular food items in many areas of the world
(Sugiuama et al., 1989; Okuzumi and Fujii, 2000; Rocha and
Vega, 2003), and humans currently harvest over 2.5 million tons
of cephalopods (including squid, octopus, and cuttlesh) each
year (World Fisheries, 2003; Jereb and Roper, 2005). As a result
of the increasing pressure on squid sheries worldwide, a better
understanding of their life histories and growth rates is important
to properly manage the shery (Jackson et al., 2000). To date, a
ne scale method that allows individual squid to be tracked so
that their size specic growth rates in the wild can be obtained
over short time periods has not been developed. Squid popu-
lations are highly variable with recruitment being responsive to
environmental change. This variability and their short semelpar-

Corresponding author. Tel.: +441 297 1880x260.

E-mail address: jamesbwood2000@yahoo.com (J.B. Wood).
ious life cycles make rational sheries management a challenge
(Rodhouse, 2001).
Statolith aging methods have provided invaluable informa-
tion regarding the life-history strategies of squid. However, there
are limitations withthis technique: (1) statoliths give onlyanesti-
mate of the age of a squid, although these estimates have been
validated for many species such as Loligo plei (Jackson and
Forsythe, 2002), Loligo vulgaris (Arkhipkin, 1995) and Sepi-
oteuthis lessoniana (Jackson, 1990); (2) the initial hatchling
weight of squid is often estimated when using statoliths to deter-
mine growth rates and this estimate may have a large impact on
squid growth models (Pecl et al., 2004) and (3) statolith work is
usually done after several seasons of growth. The range of tem-
peratures experienced is likely to vary considerably between
seasons, which can be problematic since squid are extremely
responsive to changes in temperature. While it is possible to
consider the impact of temperature on the age and/or size spe-
cic growth rates of squid using statolith studies (Arkhipkin and
Laptikhovsky, 1994; Ikeda et al., 2003), it can be difcult with
wild squid (e.g., Forsythe, 1993; Jackson et al., 1997; Forsythe
et al., 2001; Jackson and Moltschaniwskyj, 2002).
While statolith analysis provides an average growth rate for
a population of squid over a lifetime, tagging studies allow
0165-7836/$ see front matter 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.shres.2006.11.028
S.E. Replinger, J.B. Wood / Fisheries Research 84 (2007) 308313 309
growth rates of individual squid to be studied over shorter
time periods. This will allow for a better understanding of
how other factors such as temperature (Forsythe, 1993; Jackson
et al., 1997; Forsythe et al., 2001; Wood and ODor, 2000;
Jackson and Moltschaniwskyj, 2002), food rations (Jackson and
Moltschaniwskyj, 2001), and age (Forsythe, 1993; Forsythe et
al., 2001; Pecl et al., 2004) can affect the growth rates of squid.
Although there has been a considerable amount of cephalo-
pod growth data fromcaptive rearing studies, sheries scientists
remain reluctant to use this laboratory generated data. Captive
squid do not grow in a manner identical to wild squid, so culture
studies may not accurately reect wild populations (Pecl and
Moltschaniwskyj, 1999). An alternative method to determine
growth rates of wild squid populations is to periodically capture
schools of squid in the same area. However, this has proven to
be an unsuccessful technique due to the migration of microco-
horts of squid through time and space (ODor, 1998). The squid
captured in the same area were not representative of the squid
that had been previously caught at a particular location.
We developed a method to tag individual Caribbean reef
squid, Sepioteuthis sepioidea, in order to better understand the
size specic growth of wild squid. Tagging and recapturing
individual squid in the wild allows growth rates to be directly
measured over shorter time periods, which is important because
even a small increase in temperature, such as a change of 1

C,
will greatly impact the growth rates of fast growing ectotherms
such as hatchling and juvenile squid (Fulton, 1904; Rodhouse
and Hateld, 1990; Forsythe, 1993, 2004). The ability to follow
individuals in the wild and study howgrowth rates change during
seasonal water temperature variations will enhance our under-
standing of this principle. Additionally, variability in hatchling
size (Steer et al., 2003; Pecl et al., 2004) and size specic sur-
vivorship (Steer et al., 2003) could overestimate squid growth
rates as current models often assume an average hatchling size
and ignore the effect of hatchling size on survivorship. Directly
measuring growth in individual squid provides data that is not
subject to assumptions of hatchling size and survivorship.
In this study, we tested both VIE tags and VI Alpha tags, both
of which are small and inserted subcutaneously which leaves
nothing hanging outside of the cephalopods body, and reduces
the chance of infection. Boththe VIEandVI Alpha tags uoresce
under a blue LEDlight, improving tag visibility even through the
pigmented skin of the squid. These tags have not previously been
used with cephalopods, but past studies with external tags have
shown that the behavior of squid post-tagging appears normal
(Sauer et al., 2000). However, external tags commonly damage
the delicate skin of squid, resulting in wounds that do not heal
(Sauer et al., 2000). Therefore, in this study we chose internal
tags in an attempt to reduce the physical effects of the tags on
the squid.
The VIE tags consist of a liquid elastomer that is inserted
subcutaneously and hardens to form a colored marking. Mul-
tiple lines of different colors placed in different locations can
be used to identify individuals (Fig. 1). These tags have been
successfully used on over 40 families of sh (e.g., FitzGerald et
al., 2004), 5 families of crustaceans (e.g., Sellars et al., 2004), as
well as amphibians and reptiles (NMT, 2006). The second type
Fig. 1. Double-tagging of squid using VIE tags. The ventral side of the squid
is shown (a) in the diagram with lines indicating the locations of the VIE tags.
Tagging of the squid (b) required the squid to be out of the water for a short time
while the tag was inserted.
of tag tested in this study were the VI Alpha tags, which are
small pieces of plastic with a unique three-digit alphanumeric
code that are also inserted under the skin of the animal. While
a pattern of lines must be used to identify individuals with the
VIE tags, VI Alpha tags can provide a more denitive identi-
cation of individuals. Six families of amphibians, 3 families of
crustaceans, 24 families of sh and 1 reptilian family have been
tagged with VI Alpha tags (NMT, 2006).
S. sepioidea were chosen for this experiment because they
live in shallow coastal waters (Boycott, 1965) and therefore are
accessible. Individual adult squid often remain in the same loca-
tion on successive days, which enhances the ability to recapture
individuals, and thus monitor growth rates and tag retention
(Moynihan and Rodaniche, 1982; Mather and Wood personal
observations). The ability to successfully raise and keep S. sepi-
oidea in captivity (La Roe, 1971) is also important because it
suggests that this species may be relatively hardy and better able
to survive the stresses associated with tagging. Keeping squid
in captivity was important for this study because it allowed us
to develop a tagging method in the laboratory as well as obtain
an estimate of wet weight error data.
2. Materials and methods
We investigated the tag retention rate for Visible Implant
Elastomer (VIE) tags and Visible Implant Alphanumeric (VI
Alpha) tags to measure the growth of individual Caribbean reef
squid S. sepioidea in the laboratory and in the eld. The tags
were provided by Northwest Marine Technology, Shaw Island,
Washington, USA.
2.1. Growth rates
Growth rates were calculated for the periods between each
weighing using the instantaneous growth rate equation (Forsythe
and Van Heukelem, 1987):
G =
ln W
2
ln W
1
T
2
T
1
100
where W
1
and W
2
are the wet weights at time 1 and 2 and
(T
2
T
1
) is the time interval in days.
Before weighing, the squid were held head down to drain
excess water out of the mantle cavity before placing it on a
310 S.E. Replinger, J.B. Wood / Fisheries Research 84 (2007) 308313
balance withanerror of 0.1 gor less. This source of error inherent
in the weighing process was quantied by weighing four squid
four to six times each in the laboratory to calculate the amount
of variation caused by water. It was determined that the wet
weight error for squid was 1.4% of their body weight. In order
to minimize the inuence of this wet weight weighing error on
calculated growth rates, we only used recapture data with an
interval of 7 days or more between each weighing.
2.2. Maintaining squid in captivity
S. sepioidea were captured fromWhalebone Bay (32

21.872

64

42.781

), St. George Island, Bermuda using a seine net and

were acclimated to captivity over a period of approximately 6
weeks in the lab at the Bermuda Institute of Ocean Sciences
(BIOS). Squid were kept in a long, shallow, rectangular cement
tank approximately 525 cm long and 100 cm wide with a water
depth of about 40 cm. The tank was enriched with natural rocks
and cement bricks. A fresh supply of seawater was continually
fed into the approximately 2100 L tank at a rate of 1.5 L per
minute, and the water was circulated with airstones. Screening
was placed over the tank to prevent mortality caused by squid
jumping out of the tank. The tank was setup in a quiet lab to
avoid disturbances. The lights in the room were slowly turned
off in the evening and were turned on again in the mornings
over a period of several minutes to simulate a natural sunrise.
Temperature was recorded daily.
Approximately four times a day, squid were fed a diet of
frozen silversides (Family Clupeidae and Engraulidae, mostly
Anchoa choerostoma and Jenkinsia lamprotaenia) which were
thawed before feeding. These sh were caught locally using a
beach seine net or were bought from a local sherman. Also,
live silversides, small reef squirrelsh (Holocentrus coruscus)
and small french grunts (Haemulon falvolineatum) were occa-
sionally captured and fed live to the squid.
2.3. Squid tagging in captivity
The initial tagging treatment was done with Visible Implant
Elastomer (VIE) Tags following NMTs instructions. Dive
gloves were worn when handling the squid since they can bite the
handler. In addition, a mesh holding tank was set up at one end
of the squid tank to separate the tagged from the untagged indi-
viduals. Ten captive squid were tagged and their mantle length
and weight were recorded. The squid were double-tagged based
on a pre-designated pattern of horizontal, diagonal, and verti-
cal lines (Fig. 1). Double tagging was done to aid in studying
the tag retention rate and so that the squid could be more accu-
rately identied. All tagging was done on the ventral side of
the mantle since this is generally the least pigmented part of the
squid. As a backup for the tags, the dorsal side of the squid were
photographed with a digital camera so that individuals could be
identied using their unique dot patterns (Byrne et al., 2002).
Finally, squid were placed in a sh tank with water that had been
previously tarred and were weighed using an electronic balance.
After being weighed, squid were gently released into the hold-
ing tank. This procedure, which took about 3 minutes per squid,
was repeated for each individual. During this process, the time
that the squid spend out of the water was minimized. In all sub-
sequent rounds, each squid was examined through the bottom
of a clear glass sh bowl to determine its identity.
Visible Implant Alphanumeric (VI Alpha) tags were also
tested. The ventral side of the ns, close to the area where the
body and n of the squid meet was determined to be a more
acceptable location for the tags than the ventral side of the
mantle. As these tags were not being retained, we tried NWT
suggestion of adding a small amount of veterinary glue (Vet
Bond) in the insertion hole to help prevent the tag from coming
out.
Approximately every 10 days, the tags (VIE and VI Alpha)
were examined and the squids weight and mantle lengths were
recorded. A blue LED light and amber-lter glasses were used
when necessary to illuminate the tags. This continued for the
duration of the 56 days that the squid were monitored during this
study. Growth rates and average temperatures were calculated
for each period.
2.4. Squid tagging in the eld
Following the success of laboratory tagging of squid using
VIE tags, a eld tagging trial commenced at various loca-
tions on St. Georges Island in Bermuda. These locations were
Whalebone Bay, 32

21.872

N, 64

42.781

W (n =3 groups of
squid), Ferry Reach Bridge, 32

21.727

N, 64

42.923

W (n =1),
Achilles Bay, 32

23.430

N 64

40.528

W (n =4), and Concrete

Beach, 32

20.178

N, 64

41.820

W (n =5). Three squid were

also tagged near the Bermuda airport on St. Davids Island just
off the causeway, 32

21.872

N, 64

42.781

W. Overall, a total
of 93 squid were tagged in the eld between 21 October 2004
and 17 November 2004, 10 of which were recaptured with a
long enough time interval that we could use the data to calculate
growth rates. We required a 7-day interval between captures in
order to minimize the effect of wet weight error in our growth
rates. During this period, we made 19 attempts to tag squid in
the eld. Of those 19 attempts we successfully tagged one or
more squid on 14 occasions.
Squid were caught using a beach seine net. Two people held
the seine net at each end so that the leading edge rested on the
bottom while the other oated at the surface. Small rocks were
placed inside the net to weigh down the mesh. Additional helpers
gently guided the squid over the net, at which point the edges
were quickly lifted out of the water to trap the squid. After being
caught, squid were kept on location in a oating mesh holding
tank that was approximately 130 cm long by 80 cm wide with a
water depth of 30 cm. The sides of the tank oated about 50 cm
above the water to prevent the squid from jumping out. The
holding tank was divided into two parts, which enabled us to
separate the squid that we had already tagged.
A portable battery-powered scale allowed processing of the
squid to be done on location in order to minimize transportation
and thus stress on the squid. Care was taken to reduce the time
that squid spent out of water, as this was the greatest cause of
stress during the tagging process and the most likely cause of
mortalities in laboratory work. When the squid were tagged,
S.E. Replinger, J.B. Wood / Fisheries Research 84 (2007) 308313 311
one individual held the squid ventral side up while a second
individual tagged the squid.
Each squid was individually photographed, weighed, had its
mantle length measured, and was tagged using VIE tags. Pre-
determined tagging patterns similar to those used for the captive
squid were used in the eld (Fig. 1). All squid were then returned
to the holding tank until they could all be released together
approximately 15 min after tagging ended. Since three of the
four mortalities of captive squid occurred within 15 min after
they were tagged, this waiting period allowed us to monitor
tagging mortality in the eld.
3. Results
Visible Implant Elastomer (VIE) tags were successfully used
to directly measure size specic growth rates in individual squid
both in the laboratory and in the eld.
3.1. Squid tagging in captivity
In captivity, both VIEtags and Visible Implant Alphanumeric
(VI Alpha) tags were tested for ease of use and retention. The
VIE tags on ventral side of the mantle and on the ns of the
captive squid were retained for the duration of the 56 days of the
study and continued to be usable for identifying the squid. With
increasing user experience, the tags became easier to insert and
the mortally rate decreased.
The VI Alpha tags were not retained in any of the rst two
trials with captive squid (n =7, n =5). As these initial attempts
to insert these tags on the ventral side of the mantle resulted in
the deaths of two squid, subsequent attempts to use these tags
were done on the ns. In the nal set of laboratory trials, six
squid were tagged, and veterinary glue (Vet Bond) was used to
prevent the tags from coming out of the insertion holes. Two
additional mortalities can be attributed to this attempt to use the
VI Alpha tags, one immediately following tagging and the other
after several days has passed. When squid were examined 5 days
later, only one of the VI Alpha tags was retained.
3.2. Squid tagging in the eld
Overall, a total of 93 squid were tagged in the eld using
VIE tags in unique patterns (Fig. 1) so that all squid could be
individually identied. The squid ranged in size from 1.8 g with
a mantle length of 19 mm to 149.4 g with a mantle length of
123 mm. The average weight of the squid was 40.2 g and the
average mantle length was 67 mm. No mortalities were observed
prior to re-release in the eld.
We recaptured 10 of the 93 squid tagged in the eld between
21 October and 20 November 2004 (Table 1). While one squid
was found over a nautical mile from where it was originally
tagged, the other nine squid that were recaptured were caught
at the location they were tagged. On three separate occasions
groups of similarly sized squid were found in the same part of
Achilles Bay, but none of the squid that were captured had been
previously tagged.
3.3. Growth rates
In captivity, the average growth rate for the squid was 1.66%
body weight per day, with a minimum of 1.4 and a maxi-
mum of 5.3. The average temperatures for the growth periods
ranged from 27.1

C down to 22.9

C over the duration of the

experiment. In the eld, the growth rates for the 10 recaptured
squid ranged from 1.2 to 3.1, with an average growth rate of 1.9
(Table 1). The water temperatures for the squid tagged in the
wild ranged from 25.3 to 19.5

C.
4. Discussion
Growth rate data generated by the tag and recapture method
developed in this study compliments that of statolith and captive
culture work. While our current knowledge of squid growth rates
in the eld has been greatly enhanced by the use of statolith aging
methods, tagging studies help to address the unknowns that are
inherent in the statolith method of studying squid growth: mainly
the instantaneous growth rates of squid at specic sizes, and the
impact of small temperature changes on these growth rates.
Small changes in temperatures have been shown to have
a large effect on the exponential growth phase of hatchling
squid (Forsythe, 1993; Jackson et al., 1997; Forsythe et al.,
2001; Wood and ODor, 2000; Jackson and Moltschaniwskyj,
2002). Most statolith eld work is over relatively long time
intervals where temperature is likely to be extremely variable.
Researchers are starting to attack this problem of unknown tem-
peratures over long time periods by investigating the correlation
Table 1
Summary of data for the 10 squid tagged and recaptured in the eld
Squid number Location tagged Location recaptured Start weight (g) End weight (g) Average temperature (

C) Instantaneous growth rate

24 Whalebone Whalebone 22.2 29.1 22.8 2.71
26 Whalebone BIOS 19.7 22.2 1.99
51 BIOS BIOS 102.4 122.9 21.4 1.66
52 BIOS BIOS 50.7 69.2 21.4 2.83
53 BIOS BIOS 14.9 19.1 21.8 3.10
54 BIOS BIOS 50.8 59.3 21.4 1.41
56 BIOS BIOS 42.1 48.7 23.0 1.82
57 BIOS BIOS 37.2 40.9 23.0 1.19
57 BIOS BIOS 40.9 46.6 21.4 1.19
60 BIOS BIOS 99.5 111.4 23.0 1.41
312 S.E. Replinger, J.B. Wood / Fisheries Research 84 (2007) 308313
between temperature and strontiumto calciumratios is statoliths
(Ikeda et al., 2003). When using tag and recapture methods, the
temperature can be directly measured at the location where the
squid are captured. The shorter time intervals in tagging studies,
on the order of weeks, provides less temperature variation than
the longer time intervals of months or seasons that are typically
used in statolith work.
A combination of both statolith and tag and recapture meth-
ods would provide both age and size specic growth rates.
Statolith work gives an overall estimate of the instantaneous
growth rate of squid for a long time period, while the tag and
recapture method provides the instantaneous growth rate for a
much shorter time period. Knowing both of these growth rates
would allow scientists to: (1) calculate both size and age spe-
cic growth rates during the tagging interval and (2) use these
known growth rates to calculate and better understand the rapid
growth rate for paralarval and juvenile squid data that has been
notoriously difcult to obtain in the eld.
There are two main limitations that can hinder the use of
tagging studies. The rst is the need to recapture the same squid
in order to obtain data. Oceanic and continental shelf squid can
migrate great distances, moving rapidly through time and space,
thus squid caught in the same area are not representative of the
same population from month to month (ODor, 1998). Ikeda et
al. (2003) tagged 10,354 squid (Todarodes pacicus), and even
with help of Japanese shermen, was only able to recapture
0.88%. When it is necessary to initially tag such large numbers
of squid to ensure some recaptures, it would be very difcult to
process and weigh each squid so that growth could be directly
measured.
While we have shown that coastal squid such as S. sepi-
oidea can be successfully studied with our tag and recapture
method, we believe that many of them, especially the paralar-
val and smaller juveniles also move through time and space
on a smaller scale. At Achilles Bay, schools of similarly sized
squid were caught in the same location of the bay on three sep-
arate occasions without obtaining a single recapture. Although
we looked extensively, we did not nd additional schools within
1 kmof the area or locate any of the squid that we had previously
tagged.
The second limitation of our tagging process is squid mor-
talities that occur due to excessive time spent out of the water.
Although S. sepioidea is a relatively hardy species for a squid,
increased handler experience with the tags and tagging process
was necessary to obtain low mortality rates. While tagging Sep-
tioteuthis sepioidea, the most common cause of death appeared
not to be fromthe tags themselves, but rather fromstresses asso-
ciated with the out of water handling time needed to insert the
tags and especially the time needed to weigh the squid.
Inthe past, tagandrecapture researchhas beenaimedat inves-
tigating the migration of squid, and recaptures were obtained
through the reporting of tags by shermen (Ikeda et al., 2003).
However, this past research has evaluated the effects of tags on
squid behavior. One study found that after being tagged, Chokka
squid (Loligo vulgaris reynaudii) were able to swim normally,
and males were observed engaging in normal courtship behav-
iors (Sauer et al., 2000), despite the use of external, highly visible
tags. Scientists interested in real time tracking cephalopods
and direct continuous environmental sampling should consider
larger acoustic/archival tags (Jackson et al., 2005) or pop-up
tags (Block et al., 2002). Currently, the smallest coded trans-
mitters available are the Vemco V7-1L which measures 7 mm
by 17.5 mm and weighs only 1.4 g (Vemco, 2006). However,
these tags are not yet small enough for growth work on juvenile
cephalopods because they are similar in size to the smaller squid
we tagged in this study (1.8 g with 19 mm mantle length).
Of all physical tags available, we believe that Visible Implant
Elastomer (VIE) tags and other similar tags are the least likely
to affect the behavior and growth of cephalopods. These tags,
made of medical grade elastomer, are small, internal andexible,
and therefore, they do not cause drag, infection, or irritation of
contracting muscles (Roberts et al., 1973a,b,c). After the success
of squid tagging using VIE tags, the corresponding author has
also started preliminary use of these tags on other species of
cephalopods such as Octopus vulgaris and Octopus macropus.
The growth rates of individual reef squid can be directly mea-
sured in the eld using VIE tags. Reef squid are ideal model
squid as they are relatively hardy (for squid), can be kept in cap-
tivity to validate the method, and are found near shore. Future
studies using this method will be able to investigate the effects
of biotic and abiotic factors such as temperature and size on
squid growth rates. In combination with statolith methods, this
method can be used to examine the temporal variation in age
specic growth rates as well as provide ner scale resolution for
better understanding the multi-phase growth of squid species.
As we continue to sh down the food chain and rely more
on short live opportunist species such as squid (Pauly, 1998;
Rodhouse, 2001), understanding the life-history of squid and
other cehalopods will become increasingly important.
Acknowledgements
We thank Northwest Marine Technology (Shaw Island,
Washington, USA) for providing us with the tagging materi-
als for this study. Additionally, we thank the National Science
Foundation (NSF) for supporting the Research Experience for
Undergraduates (REU) program at the Bermuda Biological Sta-
tion for Research which supported the primary author during
this study.
We also appreciate all the help we received in our efforts to
catch and tag squid from many volunteers at the BBSR. Helpers
included NSF-REU students Walt Carlson, Victoria Conti, Erin
Culpepper, Jason Helyer, Kristen Henderson, Ashley Maloney,
and Paul Pawelzik; as well as Amanda Pilch, Ariane Graf,
Jeff Zola, Justin Anderson, Nancee Kumpfmiller, and Kevin
Kumpfmiller. We also thank John Forsythe, Alison King, Kim
Zeeh, and our two anonymous reviewers for comments on drafts
of this manuscript.
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