Basic Sentence Structure

Simple Sentences

At the most basic level, English sentences have one independent clause, the main clause. It
consists of a subject and a verb. It can also contain an object or a complement, depending on the
verb. These are called simple sentences.

Main Clause
Subject Verb Object
Bad deeds escalate.
Anger begets anger.

Subject Verb Complement
She seems young for her age.


Phrases

We can expand a simple sentence in several ways. One way is to add a phrase that clarifies or
modifies the meaning of the main clause. A phrase is not a complete sentence.

Phrase Main Clause
Without rules for controlling anger, it can slip into emotional anarchy.
In many societies,... the first step is to do nothing.

Compound Sentences

Another type of sentence joins two independent clauses together with one of the following
coordinating conjunctions: and, but, or, so, for, yet, and nor. This forms a compound sentence.

Punctuation: A comma is placed at the end of the first clause before the coordinating
conjunction.

Independent Clause Coordinating
Conjunction
Independent Clause
They extend sympathy and a
willing ear to the enraged spouse
for a while,
but eventually they expect the person
to shape up and get on with it.

The victim may grouse and mutter
about the loss of sympathy,
but actually the friends and relatives
are doing what any decent tribe
would do...

Complex Sentences

Complex sentences consist of two clauses connected by a subordinating word. The clause that
begins with the subordinating word cannot stand alone as a simple sentence. This clause is,
therefore, called a dependent or subordinate clause.

Punctuation: When the sentence begins with the dependent clause, the dependent clause is
followed by a comma to set it apart from the main clause.

Adverb Clause
Independent Clause Subordinator Dependent Clause
Good manners melt resentment because they maintain respect between the
two disagreeing parties.


Complex sentences express either a time or
a logical relationship between the ideas in
the two clauses.


Time Relationship: When Anglo-
Americans are angry, they tend to proceed
in stages from small steps to larger ones.

Logical Relationship: At the time of the
Samurai knights, these rules [about anger]
had considerable survival value because a
Samurai could legally execute anyone who
he thought was not respectful enough.


Compound-Complex Sentences

Compound-complex sentences combine complex and compound sentences. They consist of at
least three clauses. Two clauses are independent, joined by a coordinating conjunction. One or
more clauses are dependent, joined by a time or logical subordinator.

Punctuation: Because these are usually long sentences, there are two considerations when
punctuating them. 1) A comma is placed at the end of the first clause before the coordinating
conjunction. 2) When the complex part of the sentence begins with a dependent clause, a comma
is placed at the end of this clause and before the independent clause.

Subordinator +
Dependent
Clause
Independent
Clause
Coor-
dinating
Conj.
Subordinator +
Dependent
Clause
Independent
Clause
If they try to
change nature,
she will swiftly
destroy them,
but if they relax and
accept the
bounty of nature,
they will be
taken care of.


Independent
Clause
Coor-
dinating
Conj.
Independent
Clause
Subordinator +
Dependent Clause
Layoffs win points
for corporate
CEOs with Wall
Street
and boost the value of
executive stock
options,
although recent
experience shows
that cutting staff
typically has fallen
dramatically short
of expectations.


Expressing Logical Relationships Through Coordination,
Subordination, and Transition Words

Writing that flows consists of a combination of both short and long sentences. While short
sentences allow writers to emphasize information, long sentences allow writers to convey
complex logical relationships between ideas. Writers produce long sentences by combining
clauses together using either coordination or subordination. Writers can also show logical
relationships between sentences by placing a transition word or expression between them.

Coordination
When sentences are combined through coordination, two independent clauses are joined
together using a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so). This type of
sentence combining creates a compound sentence. When writers choose to combine two
clauses with a coordinating conjunction, they may be signaling one of the following
things: 1) each clause is equally important; or 2) each clause is new information for the
reader.


Independent Clause Coor-
dinating
Conj.
Independent Clause
Productivity and profits
continued to climb over
the past twenty years,
but the take-home pay of
the average worker has
gone down in real
terms.
Madison Avenues goal
is to manipulate rather
than education,
so the media
merchandisers promote
the crudest impression
of ethnics held by the
public.
Psychotherapy, of
course, takes place
and psychotherapists must
have a thorough
within a culture knowledge of the
cultures rules about
anger.
Todays workers have
begun to think that it
will be their turn to
retire next.
Yet over the past few years
many governments have
had to rethink.


Subordination
When sentences are combined through subordination, an independent clause is joined to a
dependent clause that begins with a subordinating word such as although, after, because,
even though, despite, while. This type of sentence combining creates a complex sentence.
When writers choose to combine two clauses with a subordinating word, it is because
there is some sort of logical relationship between the two and the writer wants to clearly
signal that relationship.


Meaning Subordinating
Word
Dependent Clause Independent Clause
concession While they are not necessarily
avid churchgoers,
most centenarians seem
to have some sort of
religious life.
concession Despite trying periodically for
an hour,
Norma the elephant was
never able to swing.
time (the
action in
clause 1
occurs at
the same
time as
clause 2)
As each buffalo skidded to
a halt,
it let out a loud bellow.


Transition Words and Expressions
Transition words and expressions show a logical relationship between ideas within parts
of a sentence or between sentences. When writers choose to combine two clauses or
sentences with a transition word or expression, they want to make sure the reader
understands the logical relationship between the ideas expressed in the two sentences or
clauses.

Logical
Connection
Sentence 1 Transition
Word or
Expression
Independent Clause
contrast At the outset, he
recognizes, as did many
southern moderates, that
the Yankees are better
equipped than we.
However, once Butler witnesses the
heartbreak of impending
defeat, the former cynic, in
a noble and honorable
gesture, heroically enlists
in the Confederate army.
result/effect Scheming southern women
have long been a popular
focus of fiction (Lillian
Hellmans The Little
Foxes, for example).
Thus Scarlett OHaras famed
conniving and fierce
independence are often
seen as just another
instance of literary fantasy.
addition (of
similar
information)
Marketing executives are
less interested in your
personal information than
what you buy.
Moreover, there are laws and
regulations designed to
make sure it stays that way.


Meanings and Functions of Conjunctions, Subordinators and Transition
Words

Although conjunctions, subordinators and transition words are each used to combine clauses and
sentences differently, they often share the same or similar meanings.


Signaling Contrasting Relationships

Contrast words indicate that the information in one clause or sentence is in contrast with the
information in another. There are several types of contrast that can be signaled with transition
words, conjunctions and subordinators: 1) a contrast; that is, the information in one clause is
opposite or different from the information in another clause; 2) a concession; that is, the
information in one clause is true, but the information in the second clause must be
acknowledged. When writers use these sentences, they want to convince a reader that the logical
relationships are accurate. They use them to convince a reader that their thinking is accurate.

Contrast

Subordinator Conjunction Transition Words
whereas
while

but

in contrast
by comparison
conversely
on the other hand
however
A maximal duty or
obligation, he says, is one
whose fulfillment would be
praiseworthy but not
absolutely mandatory,
whereas a minimal duty is
one that must be met or the
corporation would lose its
moral right to exist.


The Electronic
Communications Privacy
Act (ECPA) of 1986
establishes clear guidelines
for monitoring E-mail
messages sent over public
systems such as MCI Mail
or CompuServe. But no
such regulations govern the
monitoring of internal E-
mail messages sent on a
company-owned system.
Depressingly the WHO
also found that the speed
at which information is
processed [by older
workers] usually slows
down substantially in
older individuals. On the
other hand, while older
managers take more time
to reach decisions, they ...
appear to be as competent
as younger managers in
overall decision-making.


Concession or Counterargument

Subordinator Conjunction Transition Words
even though
although
while
despite the fact that

but
yet
however
nevertheless
nonetheless


While having some kind of
E-mail guideline is better
than having none, a poorly
written policy can create
new problems.
Todays workers have
begun to think that it will
be their turn to retire next.
Yet, over the past few
years many governments
have had to rethink.

Some companies may be
afraid to address the issue
[of e-mail privacy] for fear
of employee backlash,
observes Bill Moroney.
But by doing nothing, he
adds, companies open
themselves to employee
dissatisfaction and to
possible litigation.
Although Selznick
consulted with the NAACP
(National Association for
the Advancement of
Colored People), he
nevertheless concentrated
on his white audience, not
the black protesters, and
the film reflects his
attitude.




Signaling the Addition of Information

Conjunctions, subordinators or transition words signal several kinds of added information: 1)
more information, either a new idea or one similar to the previous idea; 2) surprising or
emphasized information; 3) examples or clarifying information.

Adding New or Similar Information

Subordinator Conjunction Transition Words
New Information
in addition to the fact that



Similar Information
like
in the same way as
much as
and





or

New Information
in addition
also
moreover
furthermore

Similar Information
similarly
likewise
in the same way

Like most women of her
time, Scarlett found herself
forced by economic
necessity into a male
domain.

We see what the dog
intends. And the dog, too,
gets a clear glimpse into
our minds and knows what
we want.
Productivity and profits
continued to climb over the
past 20 years, but the take-
home pay of the average
worker has gone down in
real terms. Some
economists suggest,
moreover, that the
permanent strategies of
layoffs, even in good
times, may actually hurt
the longterm growth of the
U.S. economy.

Some companies may be
afraid to address the issue
[of e-mail privacy] for fear
of employee backlash,
observes Bill Moroney.
But by doing nothing, he
adds, companies open
themselves to employee
dissatisfaction and to
possible litigation. In
addition, until a larger
number of companies do
establish policies, the issue
will remain murky and ripe
for legislation.



Adding Surprising or Emphasized Information

Subordinator Conjunction Transition Words
even though
although
while
despite the fact that

and even moreover
furthermore
in fact
actually

In fact, many companies
that have engaged in
layoffs have discovered
that their productivity was
worse off afterward, even
though they continued
more rounds of
downsizing.
Combination antibiotics
are still marketed in most
developing countries,
however, and even
command high prices.
All of the negative effects
of downsizing them hurt a
company over the long run
because they undermine
the whole notion of
employee empowerment
and the crucial process of
idea sharing. In fact, many
companies that have
engaged in layoffs have
discovered that their
productivity was worse off
afterward, even though
they continued more
rounds of downsizing.


Adding Examples or Clarifying Information

Subordinator Conjunction Transition Words
[none]

[none] Examples
for example
for instance
in particular
to illustrate

Clarification
namely
specifically
that is
in other words


This in turn means that conscious awareness is
more likely when the activity is novel and
challenging; striking and unexpected events are
more likely to produce conscious awareness. For
example, J anes (1976) observed nesting ravens
make an enterprising use of rocks..


The marketing of pharmaceuticals in the third
world illustrates a dilemma faced by all
transnational corporations; namely, deciding
which standards of ethics to follow.


Signaling Cause-Effect or Reason-Result Relationships

These conjunctions, transition words and subordinators indicate that the cause or reason, effect
or result is stated in a second clause. There are two basic meanings of these words: 1) cause or
reason and 2) effect or result.

Showing Cause or Reason

Subordinator Conjunction Transition
Words
because
since
as
due to the fact that

for [none]


In the early 1970s, the FDA refused
to approve Depo-Provera because
tests conducted since 1965 showed
that it can cause extended and even
permanent infertility and possible
breast tumors and cervical cancer.

A drug for a tropical disease might
never have been submitted for
approval, since there is no market for
it in the country where it is
manufactured.
Some economists suggest,
moreover, that the permanent
strategy of layoffs, even in good
times, may actually hurt the long-
term growth of the U.S.
economy. For that strategy
accentuates the income gap
between the executive class and
the working class in America,
and some studies indicate that
this strategy cannot stimulate
growth.





Showing Effect or Result

Subordinator Conjunction Transition Words
because
so that
so +adj. or adv. +that
such +noun phrase +that

so therefore
as a result
thus
for this reason
consequently

The constant pressure of
job cutbacks keeps wage
levels down so that the
historical link between
rising productivity and
rising wages in American
manufacturing has been
broken.

In fact, downsizing has
become so pervasive that
more than 85% of the
Fortune 500 companies
have lopped off sizable
numbers of employees in
the past five years.

Madison Avenues goal is
to manipulate rather than
education, so the media
merchandisers promote the
crudest impression of
ethnics held by the public.
This drug does not treat the
underlying causes of
diarrhea, but merely
relieves the symptoms.
Consequently, the World
Health Organization
(WHO) has declared
Lomotil to be of no value
in the treatment of
diarrhea.


When a leopard or other
large carnivore approaches,
the monkeys climb into
trees. But leopards are
good climbers, so the
monkeys can escape them
only by climbing out onto
the smallest branches,
which are too weak to
support a leopard. When
the monkeys see a martial
eagle, they move into thick
vegetation close to a tree
trunk or at ground level.
Thus the tactics that help
them escape from a leopard
make them highly
vulnerable to a martial
eagle, and vice versa.


Concessives: Using Coordination, Subordination, and Transition Words
to Persuade Readers

Conjunctions, subordinators and transition words do not only signal logical relationships
between ideas in clauses and sentences. They also are used to persuade readers.

Signaling Contrasting Relationships

Writers not only use contrast words like but, while, and although to indicate the logical
relationships between sentences, they use them to persuade readers. Writers do this by putting
two sentences or two clauses together. One sentence or clause expresses the writers opinion or
idea; the second expresses something that the audience thinks, knows, or believes to be true.

While having some kind of E-mail guideline is better than having none, a poorly written
policy can create new problems.

Acknowledging or stating a perspective that is different from the writers makes the writer seem
more reasonable and believable. This quality is very persuasive in academic writing. Here are
some typical examples of concessive sentences.

Contrasting
Word
Concessive Meaning

but
Many historians mention bad weather in passing when describing the
events of these centuries, but few acknowledge the possibility that
the deterioration in climate played a key role in the deterioration of
civilization.

Meaning: The writer connects the two sentences with but. The first sentence acknowledges
information or a point of view that differs from the writers; the sentence after but gives the
writers idea or opinion.

Function: These types of sentences occur frequently in academic writing. A writer uses them in
order not to appear one-sided and to acknowledge that other information or points of view
exist about a topic; the writer then indicates that s/he has different information or a different
opinion about the topic.


Contrasting
Word
Concessive Meaning

Although the Norse were the people who seem to have taken fullest
advantage of the opportunities provided by the period of medieval
although warming known as the little optimum, it would be wrong to leave you
with the impression that the benefits by-passed the rest of Europe
entirely.

Meaning: The writer connects the two clauses with although. The first sentence acknowledges a
piece of background information that readers probably know and the second sentence makes the
writers point: that other countries besides Norway benefited historically from the warming
period.

Function: Writers use sentences that begin with although to recognize readers background
knowledge. Although clauses allow writers to meet readers where they are and then give them
new information.


Contrasting
Word
Concessive Meaning

however
This act contained a little-publicized provision asking health care
providers to build a national database of patients medical records.
Americans have much to gain from such a database. There are no
federal laws, however, ensuring that medical records will be limited
to professional hands like these.

The Kennedy-Kassebaum Act gave Congress until late 1999 to
devise a plan for ensuring medical confidentiality. Present dangers,
however, demand action that is more prompt.

Meaning: The writer connects the two sentences with however. The first sentence presents one
perspective or opinion on a topic. The sentence containing however presents an opposing or
different perspective. And this is what the writer wishes to emphasize.

Function: Writers use however to connect sentences that present advantages and disadvantages
or two opposing perspectives on some topic. The first sentence usually contains the perspective
that the writer does not agree with. The sentence after the however contains the perspective the
writer will emphasize, and the one that the writer probably agrees with.

Steps to Edit Transition Words and Subordination and Coordination

TRANSITION WORDS

STEP 1 - Underline all transition words that
you have used.

STEP 2 - If there is a transition word in
every sentence, perhaps you have used too








many. You might try deleting transition
words when the logical relationship
between sentences is clear WITHOUT it.

STEP 3 - Make sure that the transition word
signals the logical relationship between
sentences that you intended. Think about
the logical connection between the two
sentences and change the transition word if
necessary.

STEP 4 -Look for sentences whose logical
relationship is complex and important for
the reader to understand. Try adding a
transition word here and see if it makes the
relationship between the two ideas clearer.

SUBORDINATION AND COORDINATION

STEP 1 - Put brackets [ ] around all
sentences or clauses that begin with a
subordinating word such as although,
while, because. Does the subordinating
word signal the appropriate logical
relationship between the two clauses? If
not, find a better subordinator.

STEP 2 - Make sure that sentences that
contain a subordinator have BOTH a
dependent clause (one that begins with a
subordinating word) and a main clause
(that does not begin with a subordinating
word or a coordinating word such as but).

STEP 3 - Underline all sentences that
contain two independent clauses connected
with a coordinating word like and, but, or
yet. Does the coordinating word signal the
appropriate logical relationship between the
two clauses? Would another word be
better? Would a subordinator convey the
meaning better?

STEP 4 - Put // between the sentences in one
or two of your paragraphs. If you notice
that many sentences are short, try




There is a scene where the American player
is riding a train with his interpreter, and he
is smoking in the train. Despite the fact
that there are many people around him, no
one complains to him to stop smoking.
Indeed, the films makers researched
J apanese society well because pretending
not to see and care is typical behavior of
the J apanese. (Kawamoto, 1997)






[Although there are some movies that
portray J apanese culture], most of them are
not contemporary. (Kawamoto, 1997)




[Although the movie is a comedy],
DEPENDENT CLAUSE
the portrayal of the main character in Mr.
Baseball, an American baseball player who
tries to integrate himself into the J apanese
culture, is serious. (Kawamoto, 1997)
INDEPENDENT CLAUSE

There is a scene in the film where the
American player enters into a J apanese-
style bath before he washes his body, and
he starts washing his body with soap once
he enters the bath, just as it is done in
America. (Kawamoto, 1997)





combining them using subordination or
coordination.