Power Electronics for Renewable Energy Systems:

Wind Turbine and Photovoltaic Systems

U. M. Choi, and K. B. Lee
Division of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Ajou University
Suwon, Korea
dolmeng7@naver.com, kyl@ajou.ac.kr
F. Blaabjerg
Department of Energy Technology
Aalborg University
Aalborg, Denmark
fbl@et.aau.dk


Abstract The use of renewable energy sources are increased
because of the depletion of natural resources and the increasing
pollution level from energy production. The wind energy and the
solar energy are most widely used among the renewable energy
sources. Power electronics is needed in almost all kinds of
renewable energy system. It controls the renewable source and
interfaces with the load effectively, which can be grid-connection
or working in stand-alone mode. In this paper, overview of wind
and photovoltaic energy systems are introduced. Next, the power
electronic circuits behind the most common wind and
photovoltaic configurations are discussed. Finally, their controls
and important requirements for grid connection are explained.
Keywords- power electronics, renewable energy system, wind
turbine, photovoltaic
I. INTRODUCTION
In the last decade, renewable energy systems have
experienced the largest growths in percentage with more than
30% per year, similar to the growth of coal and lignite energy
systems, because of the exhaustion of natural resources and the
increasing pollution levels caused by the use of fossil fuels and
nuclear energy [1]. The ever-increasing demand for energy can
lead to problems for power distributors, such as grid instability
and outages [2]. The importance of producing more energy and
the interest in clean technologies has provoked increased
development of renewable energy systems. One driving force
in Europe was initiated in March 2007, when EU Heads of
State adopted a binding target of 20 % of energy generated by
renewable sources by 2020. Similarly, a plan for 20 %
renewable energy sources by 2025 has been adopted in the US
[1].
Among renewable energy sources, wind energy and solar
energy have recently become the most interesting. There is a
widespread use of wind turbine systems in power distribution
networks as well as increasing numbers of wind power stations
connected to the transmission networks. Denmark, for
example, has a high wind energy power capacity penetration
over 30 % in major areas of the country, and today 28 % of all
electrical energy consumption in the country is covered by
wind energy. The aim is to achieve a 100 % non-fossil-based
power generation system by 2050 [3].
According to the GWEC (Global World Energy Council)
[4], the cumulative worldwide installed wind power by the end
of 2011 was 237.7GW. In 2011, the wind power grew by about
6% compared to 2010, and the 40.6 GW wind power brought
on line. The China (26.2 %), USA (19.7%), and Germany
(12.2%) comprise the large proportion of world cumulative
wind power capacity.
The world wide cumulative and annual installed
photovoltaic power in 2011, according to the EPIA, was 69.68
GW and 29.7 GW, respectively [4]. It can produce 85 TWh of
electricity every year and this energy volume is sufficient to
cover the annual power supply needs of over 20 million
households. In terms of cumulative installed capacity, Europe
still leads the way with more than 51 GW installed as of 2011.
Next are Japan (5 GW) and the USA (4.4 GW), and then China
(3.1 GW) is followed. Europe has increased its cumulative
capacity base by 50% compared to 2010 with almost 22 GW of
grid-connected PV installations until 2011. The Italy (9.3 GW)
and Germany (7.5 GW) comprise the large proportion about
60% of global market. The overall PV penetration is quite low
but the EPIA estimate it could be as high as 12 % in 2020.
Another important aspect is that the cost of PV panels dropped
during 2008 by around 40 % to levels under 1/W [1], [5].
The increasing use of renewable energy systems requires
new strategies for the operation and management of the
electricity grid in order to maintain or to improve power-supply
reliability and quality. Additionally, regulation of the grid leads
to new management structures in which trading of energy and
power is becoming increasingly important. Power electronics,
the technology to convert electric power efficiently from one
stage to another, is essential for distributed renewable energy
systems to achieve high efficiency and performance. The
power electronics field has grown during the last decades for
two main reasons. Firstly, the development of fast
semiconductor switches that are capable of switching quickly
and handling high power. Secondly, the production of micro-
controllers that can implement advanced and complex control
algorithms. These factors have led to the development of cost-
effective and grid-friendly power converters [6].
This paper discusses wind turbine and photovoltaic (PV)
systems representative of these renewable energy systems.
In section II, the overview of wind turbine system and grid
converter structure adopted in wind turbine system are
discussed. The structures are classified into reduced power, full
power, and multiple-cell full power.
Further, control strategy of wind turbine systems and the fault-
ride-through requirement are explained.
In section III, the overview of wind turbine system and
design of PV converters are discussed. Then control methods
of PV systems and several standards for anti-islanding are
expressed.
II. WIND TURBINE SYSTEMS
Wind turbine systems consist of two parts: a mechanical
part and an electrical part, as shown in Fig. 1. The mechanical
power system extracts the kinetic energy from the wind and
makes it available to a rotating shaft, while the electrical power
system transforms the electrical energy so that it is suitable for
the electrical grid. The mechanical energy is converted to
electrical energy by an electric generator connected between
the mechanical system and the electrical system [1]. There are
three stages used to optimize extraction of the wind energy.
The first stage is the mechanical stage, where the pitch of the
blade, yaw of the turbine shaft and speed of the motor shaft are
regulated. The second stage, electromechanical, can have
variable components such as pole pairs and rotor resistors, an
external excitation and/or a power converter that adapts the
speed or the torque of the motor shaft and waveforms of the
generator voltages/currents. The electrical stage is the third one,
where the waveforms of the grid currents are adapted. Power
electronic converters may be present in the second and/or third
stage [2].
A. Structures of wind power system
1) Reduced power converter structure [2], [7], [8]
Fig. 2 (a) shows a wind turbine system where the generator
is an induction generator with a wounded rotor. An extra
resistance controlled by power electronics is added in the rotor,
which gives a speed range of 2% to 4%. The power converter
for the rotor resistance control is for low voltage but high
currents. At the same time, an extra control freedom is obtained
at higher wind speeds in order to maintain a fixed output
power. This solution needs a soft-starter and a reactive power
compensator. The other reduced power structure is that of a
doubly-fed induction generator with a wounded rotor (DFIG),
as shown in Fig. 2 (b). In this case, slip rings are needed to
connect the converter with the rotor and control its currents. A
gear-box is still needed and speed regulation via the rotor is
used to optimize power extraction from the wind.


If the generator is running super-synchronously, electrical
power is delivered through both the rotor and stator. If the
generator is running sub-synchronously, electrical power is
only delivered into the rotor from the grid. A speed variation of
30 % around the synchronous speed may be obtained by the
use of a power converter rated 30% of nominal power.

Fig. 3. Full power converter structures: (a) induction generator with
gear-box (b) multipole synchronous generator.


Fig. 2. Reduced power converter structures for wind turbines (a) rotor-
resistance converter (b) doubly-fed induction generator.


Fig. 1. Basic power conversion principle in a wind power system.



2) Full power converter structure [2], [7], [8]
These wind turbines have a full power converter between
the generator and grid, which gives extra losses in the power
conversion but also added technical performance. Fig. 3 shows
the turbine structure with full power converters. The converter
may perform reactive power compensation and maintains a
smooth grid connection over the entire speed range.
Fig. 3(a) shows a full-scale power structure with gear-box.
The generator can be asynchronous, electrically excited
synchronous (WRSG), or a permanent magnet excited
(PMSG). If a multi-pole generator is used, such as a multiple
wound rotor synchronous generator or permanent-magnet
synchronous generator, the gear-box can be eliminated, as
shown in Fig. 3(b) [13]. The trend for large scale wind turbines
are full scale power conversion.
3) Multiple-cell full power structure [9]-[11]
To increase the overall power of the system, several power
converters are used in parallel or in cascade. Using multiple-
cell full power structure, the capacity of each switching device
can be reduced and these provide redundancy because if one of
power converter is failure, the system can still provide a part of
the power. Furthermore, the commutation of different
converters could be synchronized to reduce output harmonics
using interleaved modulation.
Fig. 4(a) shows the multiple-cell structure with full power
converter connected in parallel and interleaved on the grid side.
Fig. 4(b) shows the n-leg diode bridge producing a high DC
voltage shared among converters connected in parallel and
interleaved on the grid side.
B. Wind turbine system control [1], [2], [11]
The goal of Wind Turbine System (WTS) control is to
maximize the power production. The electrical and mechanical
systems are characterized by different control goals but interact
in view of the main aim that the control of power injected into
the grid. The mechanical system is controlled to limit the
power, capture the maximum energy, limit the speed and
reduce the acoustical noise. The electrical system control is
responsible for the interconnection with grid and
active/reactive power control, and the overload protection.
Fig. 5 shows the general scheme of wind turbine control.
The pitch control is used to limit the aerodynamic power
generated by the rotor above rated wind speeds. The generator
side converter is controlled to extract the maximum power
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Fig. 5. General scheme of wind turbine control.



Fig. 4. Multi-cell full power structure (a) connected in parallel and interleaved on the grid side. (b) n-leg diode bridge producing a high DC voltage shared
among converters connected in parallel and interleaved on the grid side.


from the wind. The control of grid-side converter is keeping the
DC-link voltage fixed. Both converters use the internal current
and voltage loops. The state variables of the LCL filter are
controlled for system stability. The grid fault ride through and
the support is needed for grid voltage restoration. The inertial
emulation is a control function aiming at emulates the relation
between active power and frequency. Power smoothing is
accomplished by supplying a compensation power from an
energy storage system. The energy storage can be connected to
the alternating current grid or to the DC-link of the variable-
speed WTS.
C. Fault ride-through requirement for wind turbine systems.
Wind energy plays an important role in the worlds energy
market. As the wind energy capacity connected to the grid
increase, their dynamic behaviors and performances are critical
to the stability and quality of grid. To enable a large-scaled
application of wind energy without compromising the power
system stability, the WTs should be connected continually and
contribute to the grid in case of grid fault. The WTs should
supply active/reactive power for grid frequency and voltage
recovery, immediately after the grid fault occurs. Therefore,
several grid-connection codes are introduced for WTs
especially in places such as Denmark, Spain, UK, US and
Germany. Among these requirement, fault ride-through (FRT)
is regarded as the main challenge to the WTs.
E. ON-Netz in Germany has the hardest FRT requirements.
Fig. 6(a) shows the FRT requirement of E. ON-Netz.
According to Fig. 6, the generator must be operated
continuously for 150 ms at zero grid voltage. In dotted area, if
the facility is facing stability issues, short time interruptions
with resynchronization are allowed for a maximum 2sec. In the
light grey area, later than 2 sec, short disconnection with
resynchronization can be allowed after agreement with the
transmission system operators. For faults longer than 1.5 sec,
stepwise interruptions are allowed. After the fault clearance,


active power in-feed must increase with a rate of 10% of the
rated power per second. For all generators that do not
disconnect from the grid during the fault, the active power
must be continued immediately after fault clearance and
increased to the original value with a gradient of at least 20%
of rated power per second. The generator should not produce
any active power and all of the output should be reactive power
when the grid voltage is less than the 50% of rated value as
shown in Fig 6(b). From less than 90% to less than the 50% of
rated grid voltage, increase the reactive current at a rate of 2%
per a percentage of grid voltage reduction as shown in Fig.
6(b). More than 90% of grid voltage is considered to the
normal condition [12], [13].
III. PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS
While the worlds energy demand is steadily increasing, PV
power supply to the utility grid is gaining more and more
visibility. With reductions in system costs, such as for PV
modules, inverters, cables, fittings and man power, the PV
technology has the potential to become one of the main
renewable energy sources for future electricity supply [7].
Fig. 7 shows the typical structure of a PV system. The
generated dc voltage is boosted by the dc-dc converter and the
current is converted to a suitable ac current by the dc-ac
inverter.
A. PV cell
The PV cell is an all-electrical device that produces
electrical power when connected to a suitable load and exposed
to sunlight. Fig. 8 shows a simplified PV cell model. Without
any moving parts inside the module, wear-and-tear is very low
and module lifetimes of more than 25 years can easily be
reached. However, aging may reduce their power generation
capability to 7580 % of the nominal value. A typical PV
module is made up of around 36 or 72 cells connected in series,
encapsulated in a structure made of, for example, aluminum
and Tedlar [7]. The curves of PV-cell current-voltage and
power-voltage characteristics are changed by cell temperature
and incident solar radiation.


Fig. 8. Simplified PV cell model.



Fig. 7. Typical structure of PV systems.



Fig. 6. Fault Ride Through requirement given by E. ON-Netz. (a) FRT
requirement (b) Requirements of reactive power provision.



Since the power produced by the cell influences other
parameters, Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) is
required to maximize energy capture to the highest possible
efficiency over a wide range, due to morning-noon-evening
and winter-summer variations [14]. Fig. 9 shows the
characteristics of a PV cell.
B. Design of PV converter [15]-[17]
During the last decade, there have been significant
advances in PV inverter technologies. Inverter prices have
decreased around 50% and efficiency and reliability have
increased considerably. To decrease the cost and increase the
efficiency of PV system, many inverter designs have been
developed.
1) Centralized inverter
Fig. 10(a) shows a centralized inverter layout interfacing a
large number of PV modules with the grid Here, the PV
modules are divided into series connections called strings. The
strings are arranged in parallel and connected to one common
central inverter, in order to reach high power. This centralized
inverter has significant disadvantages, such as a need for high-
voltage DC cables between PV panels and inverter, power
losses due to common MPPT, power losses due to module
mismatch, losses in the string diodes, and the fact that the
reliability of the whole system depends on one inverter [17].
2) String inverter
The string inverter, shown in Fig. 10(b), is a reduced
version of the centralized inverter where single strings of PV
modules are connected to separate inverters that are paralleled
and connected to the grid. If the string voltage is high enough,
voltage boosting is not necessary and the efficiency can be
improved. Fewer PV panels can also be used, but a DC-DC
converter or a line frequency transformer is then needed to
boost the voltage. The advantages of the string inverter
compared with the centralized inverter are as follows: no losses
in the string diodes, separate MPPTs for each string, better
yield due to separate MPPTs, and lower price due to the ease of
mass production.
3) Module inverter
As shown in Fig. 10(c), the AC module is made up of a
single solar panel connected to the grid by its own inverter. The
advantage of this configuration is that mismatch losses are
significantly reduced and it is possible to maximize the power
production of each separate MPPT. This results in better
optimization of power extraction than in the case of the string
inverter. Furthermore, the modular structure simplifies the
modification of the whole system because of its plug-and-play
nature. However, it has a low efficiency due to the high-voltage
amplification, low power conversion and the price per watt is
still higher compared with the previous inverters [16].
4) Multi-string inverter
The multi-string inverter, illustrated in Fig. 10 (d), is a
further development on the string inverter. Here, several strings
are interfaced with their own dc-dc converter to dc-ac inverter
[8], [9]. It combines the advantages of both string and module
inverters by having many dc-dc converters with separate
MPPTs that feed energy to a common dc-ac inverter [18], [19].
The multi-string concept is a flexible solution, having a high
overall efficiency of power extraction because it is possible to
control each PV string individually.


Fig. 9. Characteristics of PV cells (a) V-I curve (b) V-P curve.



Fig. 10. Structure of different PV systems (a) centralized inverter (b) string inverter (c) module inverter (d) multi-string inverter.

C. Topologies of converters for Photovoltaic system
The transformerless PV (photovoltaic) converters are
widely used in grid-connected renewable energy systems
because of its advantages. They can reduce the costs, size, and
weight. First of all, they can increase the total efficiency of PV
system. Many topologies have been proposed during the last
few years. Among them, in this chapter, the H-bridge, H5-
bridge, HERIC, Neutral-Point clamped (NPC), and Conergy
NPC are introduced [1], [15], [18].
1) H-bridge converter
Fig. 11 (a) shows the H-bridge converter topology. Most
single-phase H-bridge converters use unipolar modulation. The
output voltage is positive when the switches S
1
and S
4
are
turned on. Adversely, output voltage is negative when the S
2

and S
3
are turned on. The zero output voltage states are
possible when the switches S
1
and S
3
are turned on or S
2
and S
3

are turned. The unipolar modulation has various advantages.
The ripple current is significantly reduced. Further, it yields
lower filtering requirements and lower core losses because the
output voltage has the three-levels. However, if this topology
and modulation are applied, common mode voltage V
PE
has
switching frequency components and it yields high leakage
current and EMI.
2) H5-bridge converter
The H5-bridge topology is derived from H-bridge by SMA.
It is made up of standard H-bridge topology with an additional
fifth switch S
5
in the positive bus of DC-link as shown in Fig.
11 (b). The switch S
5
is turned off when the zero voltage state.
Using this topology, the efficiency can be increased up to 98%
because the reactive power exchange between the filter L and
DC-link capacitor is prevented during the zero switching state.
Additionally, this topology isolates the PV module form the
grid during the zero switching state. Because of this, the
common mode voltage V
PE
has only grid frequency
components and no switching frequency components. It leads a
very low leakage current and EMI. However, the H5 requires
additional switch.
3) HERIC converter
Fig. 11 (c) shows the HERIC (highly efficiency and reliable
inverter concept) converter topology. It also derived from H-
bridge topology by adding a bypass leg in the AC side using
bidirectional switch or two IGBTs. The AC bypass provides
the same function as the fifth switch in case of the H5-bridge
topology. During the positive period of grid voltage, switch S
6

is turned on and it is used during the freewheeling period of S
1

and S
4
. Adversely, during the negative period of grid voltage,
switch S
5
is turned on and it is used during the freewheeling
period of S
2
and S
3
. Using this topology, the efficiency can be
increased up to 97% and leads a very low leakage current and
EMI. However, two switches are required.
4) NPC converter
The NPC converter topology consists of four IGBTs, two
clamped diodes and two capacitors as shown in Fig. 11 (d).
This topology has the three voltage states. The output voltage is
V
PV
/2 when the switch S
1
and S
2
are turned on, on the other
hands, when the switches S
3
and S
4
are turned on, the output
voltage state is V
PV
/2. If the output current is positive, the
output voltage is zero when the switch S
2
is turned on. If the
output current is negative, the output voltage is zero when the
switch S
3
is turned on. The NPC has very similar performance
in comparison with H5 and HERIC. Using this topology, the
efficiency can be increased up to 98%. The V
PE
is constant and
it is equal to V
PV
/2 without switching frequency components.
It leads a very low leakage current and EMI. Additionally, it is
possible to reduce the voltage capacity to V
PV
/2. However, this
topology requires additional two diodes and two IGBT. Further,
the neutral point voltage unbalancing can be occurred.




Fig. 10. Topologies of converters for Photovoltaic system (a) H-bridge (b) H5-bridge (c) HERIC (d) NPC (e) Conergy NPC.

5) Conergy NPC converter
Fig. 11(e) shows the Conergy NPC converter topology
where the bidirectional switch is connected between the
neutral-point and its output and a full-bridge is used instead of
a half-bridge. The main concept of the Conergy NPC inverter
is that zero voltage can be produced by the clamping the output
to neutral-point of the DC-link using switch S
2
or S
3
depending
on the current direction. The Conergy NPC converter topology
has slightly higher efficiency in comparison with NPC. The
conduction loss of Conergy NPC is lower than the NPC
because the current is conducted through a single switch. The
other performances are similar with NPC converter. However,
the voltage capacity of switch S
1
and S
4
are double as compared
with switches used in NPC converter.
D. Photovoltaic system control [1], [19], [20]
The PV inverter converts the DC power produced by the
solar modules to grid synchronized AC power. Fig. 12 shows
the generic control structure for PV inverter with a boost stage.
On the PV array side, a Maximum Power Point Tracker
(MPPT) control is implemented in order to collect the
maximum available power at every operating point because the
characteristic of the PV modules are influenced by the solar
radiation and the temperature as mentioned earlier. The MPPT
can be performed through DC voltage, AC current or AC
voltage control [7]. Through the current control, photovoltaic
systems harmonic rejection is achieved to satisfy the THD
requirement imposed by standards. Furthermore, the systems
can be stable in case of large grid impedance variations by the
current control. In order to synchronize the injected grid
current with the grid voltage to achieve unity power factor, the
Phase Locked Loop (PLL) control is performed. The Anti-
Islanding (AI) protection control is fulfilled to stop the power
production of the photovoltaic systems in the case of abnormal
conditions. Grid monitoring is also needed for synchronization
and fast voltage/frequency detection for passive AI.
E. Anti-Islanding requirement for PV systems
Islanding for grid-connected PV systems takes place when
the PV inverter is not disconnected for a very short time after
the grid is tripped. The grid disconnection can occur as a result
of a local equipment failure detected by ground fault protection
or an intentional disconnection of the line for servicing.

In the above situations, if the PV inverter is not disconnected to
the grid following problems can occur. For the first, it can
cause a safety-accident of line workers who misapprehended
the situation as blackout. Second, when the grid connection is
restored, it provokes the damage to the connected equipments
due to out-of-phase between grid and PV systems. In order to
avoid these serious problems, Anti-Islanding (AI) requirements
have been issued in standards.
1) Anti-Islanding defined by IEEE Std. 1547.1 [21], [22]
In IEEE 1547.1, the test setup for anti-islanding
requirements is described as shown in Fig. 13, where the EUT
represents the Equipment Under Test. The RLC load is
connected in parallel between the PV inverter and the grid. The
LC load should be adjusted to resonate at the rated grid
frequency f
grid
, and to have a quality factor Q
f
=1. The values of
RLC load can be calculated as
2 2
2
, ,
2 2
f
grid f grid
PQ
V V
R L C
P f PQ f V
= = =
(1)
The RLC load shown in Fig. 13 should be set so that the
grid current which flows through S
3
should be lower than 2%
of the rated value on the steady-state condition. In this
condition, the disconnection should be detected within 2 sec
after S
3
is opened.
2) Anti-Islanding defined by VDE 0126-1-1 [23]
There are two anti-islanding methods in the VDE 0126-1-1.
a) Impedance measurement
Fig. 14 shows the test circuit for anti-islanding
requirements in VDE 0126-1-1. The procedure is based on
local balancing of active and reactive power using variable
RLC load. The switch S is opened in order to increase the grid


Fig. 13. The test setup for anti-islanding requirements in IEEE 1547.1.


Fig.12. Generic control structure for PV inverter with boost stage.


impedance by 1 . The inverter should be disconnected within
5 sec. The test should be repeated for different values of R
2
and
L
2
in the range of 1 .
b) Disconnection detection with RLC resonant load
The test circuit is same with the Fig. 13. the RLC load
should be set that the quality factor Q
f
> 2 using (1). In
balanced power condition, the inverter should be disconnected
within 5 sec after S
3
is opened for the 25%, 50% and 100% of
rated power.
3) Anti-Islanding defined by IEC 62116 [24]
The test circuit is same as in the IEEE 1547.1 test shown in
Fig, 13 and the power should be balanced before the island
detection test. The test is tested at three levels of output power
but conditions to confirm the island detection is similar to
IEEE 1547.1 test. The test is performed divided into three cases
according to the power level: case A (100~105%), case B
(50~66%), and case C (25~33%). For case A, the inverter is
tested in step of 5% both real and reactive power in an interval
of 10 % from the inverters operating output power. The case
B and C are evaluated by reactive power deviation from -5 to
5% at a step of 1% of inverter output power. The maximum
trip time is 2 sec. it is same as in IEEE 1547.1 standards.
IV. CONCLUSION
This paper has discussed wind turbine and photovoltaic
(PV) systems which are representative of these renewable
energy systems. First, the overview of wind turbine systems
and grid converter structure adopted in wind turbine system are
discussed. The structures are classified into reduced power, full
power, and multiple-cell full power. Further, control strategy
of wind turbine systems and the fault-ride-through requirement
are explained. Next, the overview of wind turbine system and
design of PV converters are discussed. Then control methods
of PV systems and several standards for anti-islanding are
expressed which are important for safety.
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Fig. 14. The test circuit for anti-islanding requirements in VDE 0126-1-1 in
PV systems [1].