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AKD20503
AUTOFLIGHT SYSTEM
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THEORY OF FLIGHT
(Fixed Wing)
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Content:
Forces on the aircraft
Stability dihedral, sweptback, keel effect and weight distribution
Control Axis
Primary control surfaces operation and effect on the aircraft
Secondary controls surfaces
Functions of tabs- Trim, balance and servo.
Forces during turns. Coordinated turns, slip and skid in a turn.
High speed buffet and stall conditions
Auto-pilot control axis and wing levellers
Versine generation and application
Turbulence penetration and the effect an autopilot
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Upon completion of this subject, students should be able to:
Explain the forces acting on the aircraft.
Explain and relate the stability and it effect on dihedral,
sweptback, keel effect and weight distribution on aircraft.
Explain aircraft control axis and it primary and secondary control
surfaces operation and identify it effect.
Explain the functions of trim, balance and servo tabs.
Compare the forces acting on aircraft during turn.
Define high speed buffet and stall conditions
Define autoflight control axis and single axis wing levellers
Define versine generation and application.
Define turbulence penetration and the effect an autopilot
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Introduction
Automatic Flight Control Systems (AFCS) relieve the human pilot
and other members of the flight crew of the tedious duty of keeping the
aircraft on course for periods of many hours.
The Autoflight system automatically controls:
Airplane heading, Track, Speed, Altitude, Attitude, Navigation
paths and Go-around.
Early Autoflight System just control the aircraft in a single-axis. It
usually operates the ailerons only and is often referred to as a wing
leveler.
Today in the invent of digital computer and advance system which can
control all aircraft phase of flight is introduced. This system is called
'Flight Management System'
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Forces on the aircraft

There are 4 force acting on aircraft that is Lift, Weight (Gravity),
Thrust and Drag.
Lift
Oppose the downward force of weight, produced by the dynamic
effect of air acting on airfoil. Act perpendicular to the flight path
through the Center of Lift (CL). Most of the lift created by the
airfoil can be attributed to Bernoulli's Principle. The amount of lift
is in a direct relationship with the speed of the airplane. As it
increases speed, the amount of lift acting upon it increases. Lift
can also be manipulated by increasing or decreasing the angle of
attack but, if the angle of attack is increased to much the aircraft
will stall.
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Weight
The combine load of the aircraft. It pulled the aircraft down due to
gravity. Oppose lift and act downward through aircraft Center of
Gravity (CG)
Drag
Oppose trust and act rearward parallel to the relative wind.
Caused by the wing, fuselage and other protruding objects.
There are two kinds of drag, inducing drag and parasite drag.
Inducing drag is caused by the development of lift while Parasite
drag is the result of all of the un-aerodynamic features of the
airplane.
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- Trust
Oppose drag. It is a forward force produced by the powerplant
/propeller or rotor.

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STABILITY
Basic concepts of stability
The flight paths and attitudes in which an airplane can fly are limited
only by the aerodynamic characteristics of the airplane, its
propulsive system, and its structural strength.
These limitations indicate the maximum performance in term of
controllability and maneuverability of the airplane.
It must be safely controllable to the limits without exceeding the
pilots strength or requiring exceptional flying ability.
If an airplane is to fly straight and level along any flight path
condition, the forces acting on it must be in static equilibrium.
The reaction of any body when its equilibrium is disturbed is referred
to as stability.
There are two types of stability. Static and Dynamic.
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Static
The following definitions apply:
EquilibriumAll opposing forces acting on the airplane are balanced;
(i.e., steady, unaccelerated flight conditions).
Static StabilityThe initial tendency that the airplane displays after its
equilibrium is disturbed.
Positive Static StabilityThe initial tendency of the airplane to return to
the original state of equilibrium after being disturbed. (move-return)
Negative Static StabilityThe initial tendency of the airplane to
continue away from the original state of equilibrium after being
disturbed. (move-continue)
Neutral Static StabilityThe initial tendency of the airplane to remain in
a new condition after its equilibrium has been disturbed. (move-stop)

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Static stability
It is defined as the initial tendency that the airplane displays after being
disturbed from its equilibrium condition.
Stability of an airplane in flight is slightly more complex because the
airplane is free to move in any direction and must be controllable in
pitch, roll, and yaw.
When designing the airplane, engineers must compromise between
stability, maneuverability, and controllability.
The problem is compounded because of the airplanes three-axis of
movement.
Too much stability is detrimental to maneuverability, and similarly, not
enough stability is detrimental to controllability.
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Type of static stability
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Dynamic stability
Dynamic stability refer to aircraft response over time after its
equilibrium is disturbed.
Three type of dynamic stability are:-
Positive Dynamic Stability Over time, the motion of the displace
object decreases in amplitude and return to the original state of
equilibrium. (displace-slowly stop)
Negative Dynamic Stability Over time, the motion of the displace
object increases. (displace-increase)
Neutral Dynamic Stability Once displaced, the displace object
neither decrease or increase in amplitude. (displace-maintain)
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A Positive Dynamic Stability
B Neutral Dynamic Stability
C Negative Dynamic Stability
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Amber - Positive Dynamic Stability
Green - Neutral Dynamic Stability
Red - Negative Dynamic Stability
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Longitudinal stability (pitching)
Longitudinal stability about the lateral axis is considered to be the
most affected by certain variables in various flight conditions of an
airplane.
Longitudinal stability makes an airplane stable about its lateral axis.
It cause the pitching of the airplanes nose up and down in flight.
A longitudinally unstable airplane has a tendency to dive or climb
progressively into a very steep dive or climb, or even a stall.
Static longitudinal stability or instability in an airplane is dependent
upon three factors:
1. Location of the wing with respect to the center of gravity.
2. Location of the horizontal tail surfaces with respect to the
center of gravity.
3. The area or size of the tail surfaces.
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Most aircraft are designed so that the wings CL is to the rear of the
CG.
This makes the aircraft nose heavy and requires that there be a
slight downward force on the horizontal stabilizer in order to balance
the aircraft and keep the nose from continually pitching downward.
Compensation for this nose heaviness is provided by setting the
horizontal stabilizer at a slight negative AOA. The downward force
thus produced holds the tail down, counterbalancing the heavy
nose.

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Lateral stability (rolling)
Stability about the airplanes longitudinal axis, which extends from
nose to tail, is called lateral stability.
This stabilize the lateral or rolling effect when one wing gets lower
than the wing on the opposite side of the airplane.
Four main design factors that make an airplane stable laterally are:-
dihedral
keel effect
Sweepback
weight distribution.

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Dihedral
The wings is build with an angle of one to three degrees above
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis.
The wings on either side of the aircraft join the fuselage to form a
slight V or angle called dihedral.
The amount of dihedral is measured by the angle made by each
wing above a line parallel to the lateral axis.

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Sweepback
Sweptback wing is one in which the leading edge slopes backward.
If an aircraft with sweepback to slip or drop a wing due to
disturbance, the low wing presents its leading edge at an angle that
is perpendicular to the relative airflow.
As a result, the low wing acquires more lift, rises, and the aircraft is
restored to its original flight attitude.
Sweepback also contributes to directional stability. When turbulence
or rudder application causes the aircraft to yaw to one side, the right
wing presents a longer leading edge perpendicular to the relative
airflow.
The airspeed of the right wing increases and it acquires more drag
than the left wing. The additional drag on the right wing pulls it back,
turning the aircraft back to its original path.
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Keel Effect and Weight Distribution
Aircraft always has the tendency to turn the longitudinal axis of the
aircraft into the relative wind and exerts a steadying influence on the
aircraft laterally about the longitudinal axis.
If one wing of the aircraft dips, the fuselage weight acts like a
pendulum returning the airplane to its original attitude.
Laterally stable aircraft are constructed so that the greater portion of
the keel area is above and behind the CG.
So if the aircraft slips to one side, the combination of the aircrafts
weight and the pressure of the airflow against the upper portion of
the keel area (both acting about the CG) tends to roll the aircraft
back to wings-level flight.
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Vertical stability (yawing)
Stability about the airplanes vertical axis (the sideways moment) is
called yawing or directional stability.
It is easily achieved by designing the airplane area of vertical fin and
the sides of the fuselage aft of the center of gravity.
It can be seen that if exactly the same amount of surface were exposed
to the wind in front of the pivot point as behind it, the forces fore and aft
would be in balance and little or no directional movement would result.
Similarly in an airplane, the designer must ensure positive directional
stability by making the side surface greater aft than ahead of the center
of gravity.
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Aircraft acts on three separate axis, namely lateral axis, longitudinal
axis and vertical axis
The three axis would enable the aircraft to be controlled when
airborne and all three axis acts from the C of G and perpendicular to
each other.
The rotating motions and the corresponding axis are:-
Roll (wing down or up)- Longitudinal axis (wing tip to wingtip)
Pitch (Nose up or Down)- Lateral axis (Nose to Tail)
Yaw (Nose left or right)- Vertical axis (C of G up)

Control Axis

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If we consider an imaginary center-line or "longitudinal axis" from
the front to the rear of the aircraft, then a left to right twist or rotation,
with one wing up and the other down is referred to as the ROLL.
If we consider an imaginary line from one wing tip to the other or
"lateral axis" then as the nose of the aircraft moves up or down on
this axis, this rotation is referred to as the PITCH.
As the aircraft rotates to the left or the right around a vertical axis",
this rotation is called the YAW.
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The Primary control surfaces on the aircraft are:
The two AILERONS on the two wings
The two ELEVATORS
The one RUDDER on the Tail
Primary control surfaces
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The two Ailerons on the wings,
if set in opposite directions, one up and the other down, control
the Roll which then affects the Heading of the aircraft.
The two Elevators control the Pitch of the Aircraft and thus have an
effect on controlling the altitude.
The Ailerons also control the Pitch of the aircraft when they are set in
the same direction and the ailerons thus control the changing of the
altitude as well.
When keeping a constant altitude, adjusting the pitch also has an
effect on the aircraft Speed.
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The Rudder on the tail affects the Yaw which also has an effect on the
Heading.
On larger aircraft, there are many more control surfaces, typically:
An Outboard Aileron and an Inboard Aileron
An Outboard Elevator and an Inboard Elevator
Upper and Lower sections of the Rudder as well as others.
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MD11 Control Surface
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Pushing the control column forward lowers the trailing edge of the
stabilator and pitches the airplane nose down.
Because stabilators pivot around a central hinge point, they are
extremely sensitive to control inputs and aerodynamic loads, so
Antiservo tabs are incorporated on the trailing edge to decrease
sensitivity and increase the force required to move the stabilator
prevent pilot from over controlling.
Stabilator
Stabilator is essentially a one-
piece horizontal stabilizer that
pivots from a central hinge point.
Pulling back the control column
raises the stabilators trailing edge
and pitches the airplanes nose up.
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Some aircraft pivot the stabilator about its rear spar. Movement is
accomplished by use of a jackscrew mounted on the leading edge
of the stabilator.

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Elevon - It an aircraft control surfaces that combine the functions of
the elevator (pitch control) and the aileron (roll control).
Frequently used on tailless or aircraft without horizontal stabilizer.
Elevons are installed on each side of the aircraft at the trailing edge
of the wing.
When moved in the same direction (up or down) they will cause
a pitching force (nose up or nose down).
When moved differentially, (one up, one down) they will cause a
rolling force to be applied.
Elevon
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Ruddervator - are an aircraft control surfaces that combine the
functions of rudder (yaw control) and elevator (pitch control).
Normally used on a V tailed aircraft.
Ruddervator are installed on each side of the aircraft V trailing edge
tail
When moved in the same direction (up or down) they will cause
a pitching force (nose up or nose down).
When moved differentially, (one up, one down) they will cause a
yawing force to be applied
Ruddervator
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Secondary controls
The secondary flight control device is used in addition to the 3
primary control device.
They are:
Trimming devices Trim Tab which is fitted to the trailing edge of
one of primary control. It is controlled separately.
Control force reducing device - Ballance or Antiservo Tab which is
fitted to the trailing edge of one of primary control. It is move
automatically or indirectly.
Lift control device May consist of Flaps, Slats, Spoilers and
Speed Brake.
Flap Used to increase lift at slow speed during take-off and landing
or increase drag for steep rates of descent.
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Slat Used to increase lift at high angle of attack and has a stabilizing
effect of airflow over the wing
Spoiler Wing mounted device which spoiling lift. They are operated
mechanically before landing to dump lift. Ground Spoiler are operated
after landing only.
Speed Brake are wing or fuselage mounted device. It act as an
aerodynamic brakes. Used to increase rates of descent or enable
steeper dives or improve maneuverability of high speed aircraft.
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Speed brake
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Trim Tabs
Trim tab are attached to the trailing edge
of the elevator.
Most trim tabs are manually operated by a
small, vertically mounted control wheel or
trim crank may be found in some aircraft.
The flight deck control includes a trim tab
position indicator. Placing the trim control
in the full nose-down position moves the
trim tab to its full up position. With the trim
tab up and into the airstreams, the airflow
over the horizontal tail surface tends to
force the trailing edge of the elevator
down. This causes the tail of the airplane
to move up, and the nose to move down
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Balance Tabs
The control forces may be excessively high in some aircraft, and, in
order to decrease them, the manufacturer may use balance tabs.
They look like trim tabs and are hinged in approximately the same
places as trim tabs.
The difference between the two is that the balancing tab is coupled
to the control surface rod so that when the primary control surface
is moved in any direction, the tab automatically moves in the
opposite direction.
The airflow striking the tab counterbalances some of the air
pressure against the primary control surface, and enables the pilot
to move more easily and hold the control surface in position.
If the linkage between the balance tab and the fixed surface is
adjustable from the flight deck, the tab acts as a combination trim
and balance tab that can be adjusted to any desired deflection.
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Antiservo Tabs
Antiservo tabs work in the same manner as
balance tabs except, instead of moving in the
opposite direction, they move in the same
direction as the trailing edge of the stabilator.
In addition to decreasing the sensitivity of the
stabilator, an antiservo tab also functions as a
trim device to relieve control pressure and
maintain the stabilator in the desired position.
The fixed end of the linkage is on the opposite
side of the surface from the horn on the tab;
when the trailing edge of the stabilator moves
up, the linkage forces the trailing edge of the
tab up and vise versa.
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Ground Adjustable Tabs
Many small aircraft have a non movable
metal trim tab on the rudder.
This tab is bent in one direction or the
other while on the ground to apply a
trim force to the rudder.
The correct displacement is determined
by trial and error.
Usually, small adjustments are
necessary until the aircraft no longer
skids left or right during normal cruising
flight.
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Forces in turns
If the forces acting on the airplane actually could be seen, two forces
(lift and weight) would be apparent, and if the airplane were in a
bank it would be apparent that lift did not act directly opposite to the
weight, it now acts in the direction of the bank.
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The fact that when the airplane banks, lift acts inward toward the center of the
turn, as well as upward. Thus an airplane requires a sideward force to make it
turn.
In a normal turn, this force is supplied by banking the airplane so that lift is
exerted inward as well as upward.
The force of lift during a turn is separated into two components at right angles
to each other.
Component, which acts vertically and opposite to the weight (gravity), is
called the vertical component of lift.
Component, which acts horizontally toward the center of the turn, is called
the horizontal component of lift, or centripetal force. The horizontal
component of lift is the force that pulls the airplane from a straight flight
path to make it turn.
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Centrifugal force is the equal and opposite reaction of the
airplane to the change in direction and acts equal and opposite to
the horizontal component of lift.
This explains why, in a correctly executed turn, the force that turns
the airplane is not supplied by the rudder.
An airplane is not steered like a boat or an automobile; in order for it
to turn, it must be banked. If the airplane is not banked, there is no
force available that will cause it to deviate from a straight flight path.
Good directional control is based on the fact that the airplane will
attempt to turn whenever it is banked.
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Merely banking the airplane into a turn produces no change in the
total amount of lift developed.
Since the vertical component of lift decreases as the bank angle
increases, the angle of attack must be progressively increased to
produce sufficient vertical lift to support the airplanes weight.
At a given airspeed, the rate at which an airplane turns depends
upon the magnitude of the horizontal component of lift. To provide a
vertical component of lift sufficient to hold altitude in a level turn, an
increase in the angle of attack is required.
To compensate for added lift, which would result if the airspeed
were increased during a turn, the angle of attack must be
decreased, or the angle of bank increased, if a constant altitude
were to be maintained.

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If the angle of bank were held constant and the angle of attack decreased,
the rate of turn would decrease. Therefore, in order to maintain a constant
rate of turn as the airspeed is increased, the angle of attack must remain
constant and the angle of bank increased.
It must be remembered that an increase in airspeed results in an increase of
the turn radius and that centrifugal force is directly proportional to the radius
of the turn.
In a correctly executed turn, the horizontal component of lift must be exactly
equal and opposite to the centrifugal force. Therefore, as the airspeed is
increased in a constant rate level turn, the radius of the turn increases.
This increase in the radius of turn causes an increase in the centrifugal force,
which must be balanced by an increase in the horizontal component of lift,
which can only be increased by increasing the angle of bank.
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In a slipping turn, the airplane is not turning at the rate appropriate to
the bank being used, the airplane is banked too much for the rate of
turn, so the horizontal lift component is greater than the centrifugal
force.
Equilibrium between the horizontal lift component and centrifugal
force is reestablished either by decreasing the bank, increasing the
rate of turn, or a combination of the two changes.

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A skidding turn results from an excess of centrifugal force over the
horizontal lift component, pulling the airplane toward the outside of
the turn. The rate of turn is too great for the angle of bank. Correction
of a skidding turn thus involves a reduction in the rate of turn, an
increase in bank, or a combination of the two changes.
To maintain a given rate of turn, the angle of bank must be varied
with the airspeed or a loss of altitude will occur unless the angle of
attack is increased sufficiently to compensate for the loss of vertical
lift.
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High Speed Buffet and Stall Condition
In subsonic aerodynamics, the theory of lift is based upon the
forces generated on a body and a moving gas (air) in which it is
immersed.
Subsonic aerodynamic theory also assumes the effects of viscosity
are negligible, and classifies air as an ideal fluid, conforming to the
principles of ideal-fluid aerodynamics such as Bernoullis principle.
In reality, air is compressible and viscous. While the effects of
these properties are negligible at low speeds, compressibility
effects in particular become increasingly important as speed
increases.
Compressibility is of paramount importance at speeds approaching
the speed of sound. In these speed ranges, compressibility causes
a change in the density of the air around an aircraft.

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During flight, a wing produces lift by accelerating the airflow over the
upper surface. This accelerated air can, and does, reach sonic
speeds even though the aircraft itself may be flying subsonic.
At some extreme AOAs, in some aircraft, the speed of the air over
the top surface of the wing may be double the aircrafts speed.
It is therefore entirely possible to have both supersonic and subsonic
airflow on an aircraft at the same time.
When flow velocities reach sonic speeds at some location on an
aircraft (area of maximum camber on the wing), further acceleration
results in the onset of compressibility effects such as shock wave
formation, drag increase, buffeting, stability, and control difficulties.
Subsonic flow principles are invalid at all speeds above this point.
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The speed of an aircraft in which airflow over any part of the aircraft
first reaches Mach 1.0 is termed critical Mach number or Mach
Crit.
Critical Mach number is the boundary between subsonic and
transonic flight and is largely dependent on the wing and airfoil
design.
SubsonicMach numbers below
0.75
TransonicMach numbers from
0.75 to 1.20
SupersonicMach numbers from
1.20 to 5.00
HypersonicMach numbers above
5.00
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Critical Mach number is an important point in transonic flight.
When shock waves form on the aircraft, airflow separation followed
by buffet and aircraft control difficulties can occur.
Shock waves, buffet, and airflow separation take place above critical
Mach number.
A jet aircraft typically is most efficient when cruising at or near its
critical Mach number.
At speeds 510 percent above the critical Mach number,
compressibility effects begin.
Drag begins to rise sharply then buffet, trim and stability changes,
and a decrease in control surface effectiveness. This is the point of
drag divergence.

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V
MO
/M
MO
is defined as the maximum operating limit speed.
V
MO
is in knots calibrated airspeed (KCAS), while M
MO
is in Mach
number.
V
MO
operations at lower altitudes and deals with structural loads and
flutter
M
MO
operations at higher altitudes and is usually more concerned with
compressibility effects and flutter.

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V
MO
/M
MO
must not be exceeded to prevents:-
Structural problems due to dynamic
pressure or flutter.
Degradation in aircraft control response
due to compressibility effects (e.g., Mach
Tuck or aileron reversal).
Separated airflow due to shock waves
resulting in loss of lift or vibration and
buffet.
Any of these phenomena could prevent the
pilot from being able to adequately control
the aircraft

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Stalls
An aircraft will stall when a rapid decrease in lift caused by the
separation of airflow from the wings surface brought on by
exceeding the critical AOA.
People often believe an airfoil stops producing lift when it stalls,
actually it cannot generate adequate lift to sustain level flight. If it
did, the aircraft would fall to the Earth
Since the CL increases with an increase in AOA, at some point the
CL peaks and then begins to drop off.
This peak is called the CL-MAX. The amount of lift the wing
produces drops dramatically after exceeding the CL-MAX or
Critical AOA, but it does not completely stop producing lift.
One symptom of an approaching stall is slow and sloppy controls.

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In most straight-wing aircraft, the wing is designed to stall the wing
root first.
The wing root reaches its critical AOA first making the stall progress
outward toward the wingtip thus maintain aileron effectiveness at the
wingtips enable controllability of the aircraft.
Methods used are:-
Twisted the wing to a higher AOA at the wing root (wing washout)
Installing stall strips on the first 2025 percent of the wings
leading edge.
Most aircraft are designed for the nose of the aircraft to drop during a
stall, reducing the AOA and unstalling the wing.
The nose-down tendency is due to the CL being aft of the CG. The
CG range is very important when it comes to stall recovery
characteristics.

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Subject Code: AKD20503

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Stalling speed of a particular aircraft is not a fixed value for all flight
situations.
Aircraft always stalls at the same AOA regardless of airspeed,
weight, load factor, or density altitude.
Each aircraft has a particular AOA where the airflow separates from
the upper surface of the wing and the stall occurs.
This critical AOA varies from 16 to 20 depending on the aircrafts
design.
Each aircraft has only one specific AOA where the stall occurs.
Three flight situations in which the critical AOA can be exceeded:-
Low speed - Stall Speed (Bellow)
High speed - Mach Critical (Exceed)
Turning - Horizontal Component and Centrifugal Force

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Subject Code: AKD20503

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Page No: 68
What is the purpose of the modification above?
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Subject Code: AKD20503

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Page No: 69
Autoflight control axis
Autopilots types can be described as:
Single-axis - usually operates the ailerons only and is often
referred to as a wing leveler
Two-axis - ailerons and elevator only
Three-axis - all the three control surfaces that is aileron, elevator
and rudder
Rudder controls aircraft rotation about or around the vertical or yaw
axis.
Elevators control aircraft rotation about the lateral or pitch axis.
Ailerons control aircraft rotation about the longitudinal or roll axis.
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Subject Code: AKD20503

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Page No: 70
Basic Autoflight System
Early Autoflight System only relief the pilot of controlling the aircraft
by holding the aircraft straight and level.
It all depend on how many aircraft control axis it control and how
large the aircraft is.
Now day majority of commercial aircraft is fitted with 3 axis autopilot
system or for a more advance system it is fitted with Flight
Management System.
The Flight Management System can controlled the aircraft from
takeoff until it land with some provision of fuel saving.
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Subject Code: AKD20503

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Page No: 71
Terminology Used in Autoflight System
Authority - Is the limit placed on the demanded control signal to
prevent excessive attitude changes.
Couple - Raw data input to the autoflight system for a particular flight
path.
Engaged - Is a switch which turn on the autoflight system or its
system.
Capture - Is the interception of radio navigation beam by the
autoflight system
Gain - is the pre adjustment of level of feedback and output
processes by autoflight computer.
Washout - Is the process of removing error signal from a servo loop.

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Subject Code: AKD20503

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Page No: 72
Basic autoflight system consist of 4 major element:-
Sensing element - senses aircraft attitude.
Command element - input by the pilot to the system.
Computing element - processes input from pilot and sensor and
provide a controlled output to servomotor (ac/dc) or Hydraulic
servo valve.
Output element - can be servomotor (ac/dc) or Hydraulic servo
valve which moved the aircraft control surfaces.

Basic Autoflight System
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Subject Code: AKD20503

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Page No: 73

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Subject Code: AKD20503

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Single Axis Wing Leveler
It a simple autopilot system which maintain the aircraft wing level.
System component may consist of:-
Turn Coordinator - Provide roll information to the autoflight
controller/computer
Autoflight Controller/Computer - Act as a controller to engage the
autoflight and computer which process the input from the turn
coordinator to provide an output to the servomotor.
Roll Servomotor - Received input from the computer to move the aileron.
Some wing leveler will used Rate Gyro as the sensor.
When Autopilot Engage/Disengage(AP) Button is pushed, it will engages
the autopilot basic roll (ROL) mode which functions as a wing leveler if all
logic conditions are met.
When pressed again, will disengage the autopilot.
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Subject Code: AKD20503

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Page No: 75

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Subject Code: AKD20503

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Page No: 76
Versine Generation
Versine is a trigonometric function equal to one (for unity) minus the
cosine (1 - cosine) of the angle under consideration.
If an aircraft bank at a same air speed it will loss some of it vertical
lift. Engineers name this loss by its trigonometric function Versine.
So whenever the aircraft banks, there will be an additional nose up
signal to the pitch channel (versine) to make up for lost lift resulting
from that particular bank angle.
This lost of lift is referred to as Nose up Compensation or Versine.
When an aircraft is straight and level the resolver cosine winding will
have a maximum output.
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Subject Code: AKD20503

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Page No: 77

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When an aircraft bank to left with the same forward speed the lift will be lost
because it is not capable of balancing the weight of the aircraft. If not
compensated, it will begin to sink.
The vector triangle above the right wing of the aircraft illustrates, with the
dashed line, the amount of vertical lift that has been lost.
The hypotenuse of the triangle represents the lift applied 90 to the wings.
The vertical side of the triangle represents the vertical component of lift.
The angle on the bottom is the bank angle of 30.
So engineer called this loss of vertical lift as versine.
This loss lift is a function of bank angle. It is unity minus the cosine, or
versine.
It a value represents the amount of lift which needs to be added in some
manner so that the aircraft will not lose altitude.
The compensation is made by pitching the aircraft nose up to increase the
angle of attack, and therefore the lift on the wings.
So autoflight system provide an additional nose up signal to the pitch
channel (versine) to make up for lost lift resulting from that particular bank
angle
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Subject Code: AKD20503

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Page No: 79
Turbulent penetration
Flight in turbulent air conditions can impose varying degrees of
load on the structure of an aircraft, and although designed to
withstand such loads, it is necessary for the pilot to adjust power
and speed, and to operate the flight control system in a manner
compatible with the flight conditions.
If an aircraft penetrates turbulent air conditions while under autopilot,
the control system will sense the turbulence as disturbances to
aircraft attitude, but in applying corrective control it is possible for
additional structural loads to be imposed
The reason for this is that the rate of control system response tends
to get out of phase with the rate at which disturbances occur, with
the result that control response tends to become stiffer in
turbulent conditions, therefore, it its normal to disengage the
automatic flight control system
In some systems, however, turbulence penetration may be selected
as a mode of operation such that the gain of both pitch and roll
channels is reduced thereby softening flight control system
response to turbulence

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Subject Code: AKD20503

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Page No: 80
Figure above show an aircraft autoflight control panel which cater for a
turbulence penetration.
This TURB mode can only be selected when being in either the HDG or the
go-around mode.
The selection of TURB reduces the AP/FD reaction speed and the bank
angle limit to 12 % and will disengaged if VOR/LOC and/or BACK COURSE
modes selected.
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Subject Code: AKD20503

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Page No: 81
END