Chapter 20

MAGMATIC CONTRIBUTIONS TO
LOW.SULFIDATION EPITHERMAL DEPOSITS
Stuart F. Si mmons
Geothermal Institute, The University of Auckland,
Private Bag 92019, Auckland, I,{ew Zealand
INrRonucrron
Low-sul fi dati on epi thermal deposi ts form at
<300' C
and depths
<2
km wi thi n meteori c-water-
domi nated hydrothermal systems that are
geneti cal l y l i nked to magmati sm at convergent
pl ate boundari es. Despi te thi s strong associ ati on
wi th i ntrusi ons causi ng convecti on, the occurrence
of magmati c fl ui ds i n the l ow-sul fi dati on
epi thermal envi ronment i s di ffi cul t to detect
because of scant di agnosti c evi dence. There are
three reasons for thi s:
1. Magmat i c si gnat ur es may be masked by
water-rock interaction along the flowpath
separating a magma from a suprajacent low-
sul fi dati on envi ronment.
2. Magmati c contri buti ons l i kel y wax and wane
wi th ti me, occurri ng i n some cases i n sharp
pul ses. Consequentl y, thei r preservati on may
be conceal ed wi thi n compl ex i nter-mi neral
bandi ng and/or i ntra-mi neral zonati on, at
centi meter to mi crometer scal e.
3. Wani ng hydrothermal acti vi ty may di l ute or
erase magmati c si gnatures.
Despi te these geol ogi c processes, the resul ts
of a few detai l ed studi es of l ow-sul fi dati on
epi thermal deposi ts i ndi cate that magmati c
contri buti ons do exi st and are possi bl y i mportant
to ore formati on. The sal i ni ty, and gas and
i sotope composi ti ons of fl ui ds i n acti ve
geothermal systems of l ow-sul fi dati on character
subst ant i at e t hi s poi nt of vi ew.
In thi s paper, I revi ew the evi dence for
magmati c contri buti ons i n the formati on of si x
worl d-cl ass Iow-sul fi dati on epi thermal deposi ts.
drawi ng on the fl ui d-i ncl usi on and i sotopi c studi es
publ i shed over the l ast twenty years. Al ong wi th
bei ng wel l -studi ed, the geol ogi c setti ngs and
metal contents of the deposi ts are di verse,
spanni ng the spectrum of l ow-sul fi dati on deposi t
types. The focus i s on bi g deposi ts because,
assumi ng that a cause and effect rel ati onshi p
exi sts, the potenti al for fi ndi ng evi dence of
magmati c contri buti ons and thei r possi bl e l i nk to
ore genesi s i s greatest here. Accordi ngl y, the
wel l -studi ed but smal l epi thermal deposi ts, such
as Creede. USA. are not di scussed. The
framework for interpreting the data from these
deposi ts, however, i s based on studi es of acti ve
geothermal systems, where the hei rarchy of
physi cal and chemi cal processes that affect
thermal fl ui ds can be di rectl y assessed i n a
modern geol ogi c context. Therefore, I fi rst revi ew
the evi dence of magmati c contri buti ons i n acti ve
geothermal systems, referri ng speci fi cal l y to data
from the Taupo Vol cani c Zone. In di scussi ng
l ow-sul fi dati on systems, I wi l l emphasi ze the
i mportance of ti me scal es i n whi ch both l ong- and
short-term magmati c contri buti ons are i ndi cated
and wi l l di scuss thei r rel evance to ore-formati on.
MAGMATIC Con
poNENTS
IN ACTIVE
GnorrrnRIrAL SYSTEMS
Epi thermal deposi ts form i n the shal l ow parts
of hydrothermal systems where temperature,
pressure, and chemi cal gradi ents favor effi ci ent
preci pi t at i on of met al s t hrough boi l i ng or mi xi ng,
from a deepl y deri ved fl ui d (e.g, Heal d et al .
1987; Whi t e & Hedenqui st 1990). St udi es of
acti ve geothermal systems (e.g., Gi ggenbach
1981, 1987, 1988; Henl ey & El l i s 1983;
Hedenqui st 1986) i ndi cate that the composi ti on of
thi s deep fl ui d i s shaped by i ts ci rcul ati on hi story:
455
S.F. Simmons
l ) i ncorporat i on of magmat i c vol at i l es i nt o l arge
i nputs of meteori c waters at deep l evel s; 2)
water-rock i nteracti on at i ntermedi ate l evel s; and
3) boi l i ng (st earn and gas l oss) and mi xi ng
(t ypi cal l y di l ut i on) at shal l ow l evel s (Fi g. l ). The
aqueous and gaseous components that preci pi tate
as mi neral s wi thi n epi thermal deposi ts, or that are
trapped as i ncl usi ons i n mi neral s, can therefore be
i nf l uenced by one, or a combi nat i on of t hree
rnaj or sets of processes. By consi deri ng onl y those
component s whi ch are non-react i ve or
conservati ve to the gas and l i qui d phases, the
maski ng effects of shal l ow and i ntermedi ate
processes can be deterrni ned.
Tabl e I l i sts the components from whi ch
magmati c si gnatures i n epi thermal envi ronments
can be i nterpreted, based on studi es of vol cani c
gases, geothermal fl ui ds, and hydrothermal
mi neral s. These si gnat ures i nvol ve a rat i o of
component s (N2-Ar-He) or i sot opes (hel i um,
oxygen, hydrogen). Onl y f or chl ori de (or sal i ni t y)
can a magmati c si gnature be i nferred from i ts
concent rat i on al one. The most di agnost i c
si gnatures are i ndi cated by hel i um i sotopes and
N2-Ar-He, bot h of whi ch occur i n smal l t o t race
amount s, t hough anal ysi s of t hese component s i n
epi t hermal mi neral s has not been wi del y appl i ed.
In contrast, i nterpretati on of the more abundant
and commonl y determi ned chl ori de (reported as
eq. wt. % NaCl from i ce mel ti ng temperatures of
f l ui d i ncl usi ons), and oxygen and hydrogen
i sot opes, provi de permi ssi ve evi dence t hrough
constructi on of i nternal l y consi stent arguments
t hat est abl i sh basel i ne andl or end-member com-
posi ti ons to i nterpret data trends. These concepts
are el aborated bel ow by consi deri ng these
components and thei r magmati c si gnatures i n
geothermal fl ui ds from the Taupo Vol cani c Zone.
Geothermul Systems in the Taupo Volcanic Zone
(TVZ)
The
' l YZ
contai ns about twenty equi spaced
geothermal systems associ ated wi th cal c-al kal i ne
magmat i sm (Fi g. 2). About hal f of t hese syst ems
have been dri l l ed t o dept hs of 500 t o 2800 m; t he
deep fl ui ds di scharged from these wel l s have been
anal yzed for rnaj or aqueous and gaseous
component s, pl us hel i um-i sot opes, 6180 and 6D
456
Fi gure l . Schemati c di agram showi ng the
envi ronment for l ow-sul fi dati on epi thermal mi neral i -
zation within a magma-related hydrothermal system
wi th l ow topographi c rel i ef (after Henl ey & El l i s
1983; Hedenqui st 1986).
(Tabl e 2; Hedenqui st 1986; Gi ggenbach 1995).
These data were corrected for effects due to steam
l oss and di l uti on and therefore represent the
composi t i on of t he deep I i qui d pri or t o boi l i ng.
Host rocks compri se a sequence of
Quaternary
vol cani cs of predomi nantl y rhyol i ti c composi ti on
that unconformabl y overl i e weakl y rnetamor-
phosed graywacke basement of Mesozoi c age
(Col e 1990); t he rel at i vel y uni f orm composi t i on
of the strati graphy here hel ps i n assessi ng the
contri buti ons of rock-l eachabl e consti uents to
geothermal waters. Di rect evi dence of i ntrusi ons
i s rare (Browne et al . 1992), but thei r exi stence i s
inferred from the high heat flow associated with
geothermal acti vi ty, and the di stri buti on and
occurrence of vol cani c events. Fl ui d sampl es from
acti ve andesi ti c vol canoes at Whi te Isl and and
Ngaruhoe, at the north and south ends of the TVZ,
respecti vel y (Fi g. 2), provi de constrai nts on the
end-member composi t i on of magmat i c gases i n
the regi on.
The TYZ geothermal systems al so contai n
geochemi cal envi ronments that are anal ogous to
those deduced to be responsi bl e for formi ng l ow-
suffi dati on epi thermal deposi ts (e.g., Henl ey
1985). Thi s perspecti ve i s substanti ated by
occurrence and zonati on Datterns of hvdrothermal
C\
-N-
I
I
I
E
@. c
A ,
. t ,
, i : , t ,
, : .
:
: nagru
:
ore fotming environment
L ow- s u I
/idati
on Ep i t herma I Dep os i ts
Tabl e L Components i ndi cati ng magmati c si gnatures i n l ow-sul fi dati on epi thermal deposi ts
magmat i c
component s si gnat ur e
' r
r"/ H" I l i Ra> I
N, Ar - Hc I l ci Ar
. . i
N. , / l l c
. . " 10
6' t o
8 t o l 0
"/ o. ,
Cl l conccn-
>10. 000 mg/ kg
tration
evi dence
di agnost i c
di agnost i c (' l )
-
chcck f br manl l e-
hcl i um i sot ope
si gnat ure
pcrmi ssi ve
-
check
wi t h 61, )
6l )
-20
t o
-80
"/ ". ,
pcrmi ssi ve f or dat a
t rends assesscd i n
conccrt rvi t h 6r8o
val ucs
so u rce
fl ui d i ncl usi ons
f l ui d i ncl usi ons
quarl z. cal ci t e (requi res
est i mat c of cqui l brat i on
temperaturc, e
9.,
7-r):
f l ui d i ncl usi ons
f l ui d i ncl usi ons
t emporal resol ut i on
poor t o moderat c
-
rcqui res bul k anal l ' si s
of rnat eri al pot cnt i al l l ' cont ai ni ng rnut i pl c
generat i ons of f l ui d i ncl usi ons
good t o moderat e
-
requi res anal l si s o1'
mat cri al pot ent i al l y conl ai ni ng mut i pl e
generat i ons o1' f ' l ui d i ncl Lrsi ons: i ndi vi dual
i ncl usi ons sampl ed bv t hermal
decrepi t at i on
good-rcqui res a l ew t ens of mi l l i grarns
mat cri al
poor 1o rnodcrat c
-
requi rcs bul k l nal vsi s
of mat eri al po{cnt i al i y cont ai ni ng rnut i pl c
gcncr r t i ons r ' ! - l l ui d i ncl usi ons
excel l ent
-
i ndi vi dual 1' l ui d i ncl usi ons can
be measured
permi ssi vc onl y 1br f l ui d i ncl usi ons
rcl at i vcl y young crust
l acki ng sonnat c
bri nt -s or cr aDori t cs
al terati on. the state of hydrotherrnal fl ui d-mi neral
equi l i bri a, occLl rrence of
"ore-grade"
concen-
t rat i ons of preci ous and base met al s i n
preci pi t at es, and rel at i vel y hi gh preci ous-met al
f l uxes (e. g. , Brown 1986; Brow' ne 1969; Browne
& El l i s 1910 Browne & Loveri ng 19' 73;
Hedenqui st & Browne 1989; Hedenqui st &.
Henl ey l 985at Henl ey 1985; Krupp & Seward
1987: Si mmons et al . 1992; Si mmons &.
Chri st enson 1994; Wei ssberg 1969). The compo-
si ti ons of deep geothermal waters are domi nated
by concent rat i ons of chl ori de (up t o 2500 mg/ kg)
and di ssol ved carbon di oxi de (up t o 20, 000
mg/kg), occurrence of reduced aqueous sul fur
speci es (t {2S, HS-) and near-neut ral pH (e. g. , El l i s
1919), wi t h t hei r equi l i bri um rni neral assembl age
compri si ng quartz, orthocl ase ("adul ari a"), i l l i te.
chl ori t e, pyri t e and cal ci t e.
+ epi dot e and
wai raki t e (Gi ggenbach 1988). These deepl y
deri ved waters al so transport rel ati vel y l arge
quanti ti es of preci ous and base metal s, whi ch
preci pi tate i n hot spri ngs, fractures, and vugs, and
i n wel l head pi pi ng. Of t hese, t he spect acul ar
sul f l de scal es, cont ai ni ng up t o 6 wt .
0%
Au and 30
wt.
o
Ag, on wel l head back-pressure pl ates at
Kawerau, Broadl ands-Ohaaki , and Rotokawa
demonstrate: 1) that hi gh concentrati ons of
aqueous Au and Ag (-l to 2 pg Au/kg; 8 pg
Ag/kg) i n chl ori de waters are possi bl e due to
bi sul fi de compl exi ng (Seward 1973 ). and 2) that
boi l i ng from about 260 to 180
' C
i s an effi ci ent
mechani sm to preci pi tate Au and Ag (Brown
1 e86) .
Metal fl uxes i n these three eastern systems
(i .e., Kawerau, Broadl ands-Ohaaki , and
Rotokawa; see Fi g. 2) appear hi gher than those i n
the central and western systems due to the hi gher
gas (CO2 and H2S) concentrati ons (Henl ey &
Hedenqui st 1986). The mass fl ow for the pre-
expl oi tati on state of Broadl ands-Ohaaki i s
esti mated at 100 kg/sec; thus, about 6500 years
are requi red t o f l ux I mi l l i on oz Au (0. 03 x 10"
kg) thro"ugh the upfl ow zone, whi ch covers about
10 km' ( Br own 1986) . Shor t er per i ods f or
equi val ent Au fl ux are i nferred for both Kawerau
and Rotokawa because both aqueous sul fi de
concentrati ons and mass fl ows are hi gher (Henl ey
& Hedenqui st 1986; Krupp & Seward 1987).
S.F. Simmons
Whi te l sl and
6
of Pl enty
^1(; Tarawera
,*L ffin.""n"
Mangaki
- { A" Wai man
^"fwui otuo,
lod
c""ooro"
Ngat amar i ki
BROADLANDS/
OHAAKI
Wai r akei j
GEOTHERMAL AREAS
Del i neated bY dri l l i ng
Del i neat ed bY geophYsi cs
Other thermal areas
VOLCANOES
Geothermal systems remai n acti ve for several tens
of thousands to several hundreds of thousands of
years (e. g. , Browne 1979; Henl ey & El l i s 1983),
i ndi cati ng that peri ods of metal deposi ti on at
epi thermal depths can be rel ati vel y short-l i ved and
sti l l account for very l arge, hi gh-grade orebodi es
(Henl ey 1985), based on the concentrati on of gol d
and si l ver di rectl y measured i n the hi gh-gasTYZ
systems.
Helium Isotopes
The l arge di fferences i n hel i um-i sotope
composi ti ons for atmospheri c, upper-mantl e, and
crustal or radi ogeni c sources, makes He a useful
tracer i n vol cani c and geothermal gases (Fi g. 3).
The at mospheri c
3He/ He
rat i o (Ra) equal s 1. 39 +
0.01 (Cl arke et al . 1969; Mamyri n et al . 1969) and
i s used as a reference standard to whi ch al l sampl e
458
Fi gure 2. Locati on map of
TVZ geothermal systems
described in the text
(from
Hedenqui st 1990).
isotopic ratios are compared in the form R/Ra.
The MORB R/Ra val ue of 8-9 i s determi ned from
gas anal yses of mi d-ocean ri dge basal ts and axi al
vent hot spri ngs (Crai g & Lupt on 1981). Deep
undepl eted mantl e may have much hi gher R/Ra of
15-30 (Lupton 1983). The conti nental crust R/Ra
val ue of
<0.1 resul ts from the decay of urani um
and thori um (Gerl i ng et al . 19' 11; Morri son & Pi ne
1es5) .
Vol cani c and geotherrnal gases from the
ci rcum-Paci fi c have hel i um-i sotope composi ti ons
that range from I to 8 ti mes Ra, i ndi cati ng that
they contai n a si gni fi cant component of mantl e-
deri ved hel i um (e.g., Gi ggenbach eI al . 1994;'
Hi l ton et al . 1993; Sano et al . 1985, 1981;
Torgersen & Jenki ns 1982; Torgersen el al . 1982).
Mantl e hel i um i s thought to ri se through the crust
wi th buoyant mel ts, exsol vi ng wi th other gases at
Atmosphere
Rlta=1
Fi gure 3. Hel i um i sotopi c composi ti ons from the
mai n terrestri al sources, i ncl udi ng atmosphere, upper
mantl e. and conti nental crust.
rel ati vel y shal l ow depths (<10 km) where magmas
crystal l i ze i n subvol cani c chambers. Sol i d rocks
contai n i nsuffi ci ent
' H.
to account for i ts rel a-
ti vel y hi gh concentrati ons i n geothermal fl ui ds
due to l eachi ng. Therefore, mantl e hel i um must
i ndi cate a di rect magmati c i nput and i s consi dered
here to be the si ngl e most di agnosti c i ndi cator of
magmati c contri buti ons to geothermal fl ui ds and
l ow-sul fi dati on envi ronments.
In the TVZ, geothermal gas sampl es range
from 3.5 to 8 R/Ra and vary i ndependentl y of
COz, Cl , or other component concentrati ons
(Gi ggenbach 1989; see Tabl e 2). Thi s l i kel y
resul ts because He i s a nobl e gas, and because the
processes affecti ng He-i sotope rati os are
decoupl ed from those affecti ng other components
(Gi ggenbach et al . 1994; Sano et al . 1981;'
Torgersen et al. 1982).
Tabl e 2. Chemi cal charact eri st i cs of TVZ geot hermal
f l ui ds (Hedenqui st 1986; Gi ggenbach 1995)
-4.5 -40
-3. 75 -3
I
- a. J - +J
-6 -43
-6
5
-45
-4
75
-38
-2. 5 -40
-3
s
-10
Low-suUidation Ep ithermctl Depos its
Nit r o g e n-He I i u m-Arg o n
The rel ati ve concentrati ons of N. Ar. and He
sampl ed from acti ve vol canoes associ ated wi th
mantl e hot-spots, crustal ri fts, and convergent
pl ate boundari es pl ot i n two di sti nct groups (Fi g.
4) that defi ne mi xi ng trends i nvol vi ng basal ti c,
andesi ti c, and meteori c water end-members
(Gi ggenbach 1992a). The
"andesi ti c"
end-member
is characterized by N2/He values that range from
1700 to 5000. By contrast, the
"basal ti c"
end-
member i s characteri zed N2/He val ues that range
from l 0 to 220, though the rel ati ve enri chment i n
hel i um may al ternati vel y suggest a crustal source
(Gi ggenbach 1986). Val ues of He/Ar for these
two source regi ons are cl ose to the mantl e rati o of
about 3. Ai r-saturated meteori c groundwater
(N2/Ar val ue about 50) forms the common end-
member to both trends and i ndi cates the i nfl uence
of the atmosphere (N2/Ar 82) on gas
composi ti ons. Di sti nct enri chments i n CO2/He
val ues for vol cani c gases al so exi st for
"andesi ti c"
versus
"basal ti c"
gases, i mpl yi ng that both N2 and
CO2 are deri ved from the same source, whi ch
Gi ggenbach (1992a) specul ates i s subducted
sedi ment.
The N2-Ar-He si gnature of geotl rermal fl ui ds
from hi gh-temperature systems i n Japan (Chi ba
19911' Ueda et al . 1991; Yoshi da l 99l ), New
Zeal and (Gi ggenbach 1992a), and the Phi l i ppi nes
(Gi ggenbach & Poreda 1993) overl aps wi th
vol cani c gas data and i ndi cates the exi stence of
deep i nputs from ei ther basal ti c or andesi ti c
source regi ons i n these systems. As ni trogen i s
rnostl y non-reacti ve i n geothermal fl ui ds, as are
argon and hel i um, the rel ati ve concentrati ons of
these three gases compl ement hel i um-i sotope
rati os as a potenti al tracer of deep magmati c
contri buti ons. For exampl e, geothermal systems
l ocated al ong the eastern margi n of the TYZl tave
N2-Ar-He composi ti ons that pl ot between the
andesi ti c and meteori c end-members, whereas
western TVZ geothermal systems have N2-Ar-He
composi ti ons that pl ot between a basal ti c and
meteori c end-member (Fi g. 4). These resul ts
i ndi cate the i ncorporati on of magmati c gases i nto
TVZ geothermal fl ui ds. In addi ti on, these
si gnatures correl ate wi th hi gh and l ow total -gas
concentrati ons for the
"andesi ti c"
and
"basal ti c"
systems, respecti vel y, and i ndi cate that the
l . Br oadl ands 970
Ohaaki
2. Kawer au 8l 0
3. Rot okawa 850
4. Wai r akei 1700
5. Mokai 2400
6. Wai mangu 5t l 5
7. Wai ot apu 1250
8. I ' okaanu 2500
Wai hi
9. Whi t c I sl and >10, 000
4s50 6. l
3 1 6 0
43 80
I 820
t27 5
l 875
t620
2000
1720
7 . 1
u.2
7. 0
7 . 5
7. 0
4. 0
6. 6 + 7 . l
Conti nental
crust
R/Fa<0.1
1 1
4s9
S.F. Simmons
Geot her mal
Vol cani c
2OO Ar
And Bas
O D
50
ASW
r.'- 20
Fi gure 4. Rel ati ve concentrati ons of
N, Ar, and He i n gases fi om
andesi ti c (And) and basal ti c (Bas)
vol canoes around the worl d and
geothermal gases fi om the
' fVZ,
al l
havi ng hel i um i sot opi c r at i os of
R/Ra
>4 (Giggenbach 1992a).
l OOO He
magmati c gas components, when present, resul t i n
a much hi gher gas concentrati on than that of
meteori c or crustal source (Gi ggenbach 19924'
Gi ggenbach et al 1994).
Oxygen and Hydrogen IsotoPes
Oxygen and hydrogen are the pri nci pal
components of geotherrnal waters, and thei r
i sotopi c composi ti ons pl ot cl ose to that of the
l ocal met eori c composi t i on
(Fi gs. 5a, b), i ndi cat i ng
thi s i s the pri mary source of water (Crai g 1963).
The commonl y observed posi ti ve enri chments i n
6180 and 6D resul t f rom one, or a combi nat i on, of
the three mai n processes affecti ng the composi ti on
of geot hermal f l ui ds (Fi g. I
).
At shal l ow l evel s, t he i sot ope composi t i ons of
the deep fl ui d can i ncrease upon ascent to the
surf' ace through steam l oss associ ated wi th
boi l i ng. Bot h cont i nuous and si ngl e-st ep modes
of steam l oss have been quanti tati vel y assessed,
assumi ng adi abati c cool i ng, and the resul ts
i ndi cate that si ngl e-step separati on produces the
maxi mum i sotope enri chments
(Truesdel l e/ a/.
1977; Gi ggenbach & Stewart 1982). For exampl e,
si ngl e-st ep st eam l oss f or a l i qui d whi ch boi l s
from 260 to 100
"C
produces posi ti ve shi fts of
about 1. 5
"/ oo
6180 and 10
"/ oo
6D (Fi g. 5c).
Subtracti ng these eff-ects from the composi ti ons of
surface waters sarnpl ed frori r wel l s and spri ngs
i ndi cates that deeper l evel processes tnust be
consi dered to expl ai n tl re i sotope composi ti ons of
the pre-boi l ed parent waters.
Intermedi ate-l evel processes i nvol ve i sotope
exchange through water-rock i nteracti on aI
el evated temperatures that depl etes the 6l 80 and
6D composi ti ons of fresh rocks and enri ch the
6180 and 6D composi ti ons of geothermal waters
(Crai g 1963; Tayl or 19731' Bl at t ner 1993). As
fresh rocks contai n l arge amounts of oxygen (up
to 46 wt.
o/o)
and rel ati vel y smal l amounts of
hydrogen (< 0.2 wr.o/o), the 6r80 composi ti on of
ei ther the rock or meteori c water i s rnore easi l y
shi fted than the 6D composi ti on as control l ed by
the bul k water-rock rati o and temperature-
dependent mi neral -water fracti onati on factors.
These i sotopi c shi fts have been model l ed
quanti tati vel y, assumi ng si rnpl e cl osed and open
syst ems (e. g. , Ohmot o & Rye 1914, Fi el d &
Fi f arek 1985; Cri ss &
-f ayl or
1986), and more
compl ex dyrrami cal l y evol vi ng i nfi l trati orr fronts
(e. g. , Bl at t ner & Lassey 1989; Bl at t ner 1993).
Gi ggenbach (1993) has al so const ruct ed a si mpl e
i sotope-exchange model based on hydrothermal
al terati on as represented by the fol l owi ng
reacti on:
Ca-f ' el dspar
+ K-f ' el dspar
+ l l , O + COr
-+
K-mi ca + 2 quart z
-r
cal ci re
(1)
Zsn\ \
/ x w a \ \
/ "c. ?-. \
{Qi13j"'ir
-7-
a
6 D %"
- 1 5
6 D %"
0
-20
-40
-ou
-80
Gi ggenbach poi nted out that pure water on i ts
own i s rel ati vel y i nert and unl i kel y to break
structural bonds and dri ve the hydrothermal
reacti ons requi red for i sotopi c exchange, hence
the rel evant i ncl usi on of CO2 as the mai n aci d
speci es, promoti ng the hydrol ysi s of fel dspars
( see Ci ggenbach 1981, 1984, 1988) . Thus, one
Low-sulfidation Epithermal Depos its
6t"o %' u
mol e of CO2 i s consumed i n converti ng Ca- and
K-fel dspars to K-mi ca. Accordi ngl y, mi ni mum
water-rock rati os i nvol ved wi th i sotopi c exchange
wi l l range bet ween 0. 15 and l , gi ven t hat
H2O1CO2 rnol e rati os i n vol cani c fl ui ds are >
5
and i n geothermal fl ui ds
>30.
Usi ng these val ues
i n cal cul ati ons (see Gi ggenbach 1993) i ndi cates
- 2 - 4 - 6
6180 %,o
Fi gure 5. The oxygen and hydrogen i sotopi c composi ti ons of geothermal and vol cani c
fl ui ds: (A) geothermal systems associ ated wi th andesi ti c vol cani sm (from Gi ggenbach
1992b); (B) TVZ geothermal systems in Table 2; (C) the oxygen and hydrogen isotopic
enri chments i n l i qui d due to adi abati c si ngl e steam l oss from 260 to 100
oC
(Gi ggenbach &
Stewart 1982). The water-rock i nteracti on curve i n (B) assumes equi l i bri um i sotopi c
exchange between l ocal water (6' tO
: -7
o
l oo and 6D
: -45
o/oo;
and K-mi ca at 300
' C
(see
Gi ggenbach 1993); dots represent water-rock wei ght rati os.
O local groundwaters
O
geothermal di scharges
I vol cani c condensates
.
SMOW
Whi t e
l sl and
.oG \->
rr'i'x\$g2.'P
1. Broadl ands Ohaaki 5. Mokai
2. Kawerau
3. Rotokawa
4. Wairakei
6. Wai mangu
7. Wai otapu
8. Tokaanu-Wai hi
aoitino
pc
,* c
S.F. Simmons
maxi mum posi t i ve enr i chment s of about 9
ol oo
6' nO and 6.5
u/nn
6D due to water-rock i nteracti on
( Fi g. sb) .
Water-rock i nteracti on has l ong been thought
adequate to expl ai n the i sotopi c enri chments
observed i n geothermal fl ui ds. However, recent
scruti ny of the i sotopi c composi ti ons of geo-
thermal waters associ ated wi th arc vol cani sm i n
the ci rcum-Paci fi c i ndi cates a common i nput of
magmati c water to geothermal systems (Fi g. 5a).
For these geothermal waters, both 6180 and 6D
val ues are hi gher i n compari son wi th those i n
l ocal meteori c water. The strai ght l i nes connecti ng
Iocal meteori c and geothermal waters i ncrease i n
sl ope wi th i ncrease i n l ati tude. The l i nes form
traj ectori es that poi nt to a common end-member
composi ti on of about 9
"/oo
6' tO and
-20
o/oo
6D,
cl ose to the composi ti on of hi gh-temperature
di scharges from nearby andesi ti c vol canoes (Fi g.
5a). Thi s so cal l ed
"andesi ti c"
water (Gi ggenbach
1992b) has a 6D val ue about 45 + l 5
o/on
heavi er
than that whi ch was previ ousl y esti mated for
magmati c waters on the basi s of anal yses of
amphi bol es arrd mi cas from eroded pl utons
(Sheppard et al . 1969 Tayl or 1986). The l i ghter
6D si gnature resul ts from i sotope fracti onati on
between water i n a mel t and water vapor exsol ved
duri ng cryst al l i zat i on (Tayl or 1986), and t he
actual composi ti on of water i n an undegassed mel t
i s l i kel y i nt ermedi at e i n composi t i on (Tayl or
1992). The trends i n Fi gure 5a thus i ndi cate that
rnagmati c water contri butes to some geothermal
waters, i n proporti ons up to 20 %, si nce i sotope
enri chments due to water-rock i nteracti on al one
cannot expl ai n t he change i n sl opes of met eori c-
geothermal water traj ectori es as a functi on of
l ati tude (Gi ggenbach 1992b, I 993).
' fhe
stabl e-i sotope composi ti ons of parent waters
i n TYZ geot hermal syst ems (Fi g. 5b) i l l ust rat e
that resol uti on of the rel ati ve contri buti ons of
i ntermedi ate (water-rock i nteracti on) and deep-
l evel (magmati c and meteori c water mi xi ng)
effects i s di ffi cul t for many cases because the
strengths of thei r respecti ve si gnal s si gni fi cantl y
overl ap. Hence, st abl e-i sot ope composi t i ons
provi de permi ssi ve, but not di agnost i c, evi dence
of a rnagmati c contri buti on to deep geothermal
waters.
Chloride
Chl ori de concentrati ons for geothermal waters
i n systems associ ated wi th arc magmati sm,
isolated frorn seawater recharge and lacking
evapori tes at depth or a source of connate bri nes,
typi cal l y range from about 500-2500 ppm for
rhyol i te-rel ated systems (e.g., Tabl e 2) and 6000
to 12,000 ppm for andesi te-rel ated systems
(Hedenqui st & Henl ey 1985b). As i s t he case f or
stabl e i sotopes, the chl ori de concentrati ons of
geothermal waters can be related to one, or a
combi nati on, of the three mai n processes affecti ng
the composi ti on of geothermal fl ui ds (Fi g. I
).
Because the meteori c recharge for deep
convecti ve systems stafts as al most pure water,
the concentrati ons of chl ori de measured i n
geothermal waters must be deri ved through
processes other than boi l i ng. The magni tude of
boi l i ng effects, however, can be cal cul ated to
determi ne the parent composi ti on (see Henl ey er
al . 1984). For exampl e, a ri si ng l i qui d that boi l s
adi abati cal l y from 300 to 100
oC
produces about
40 Yo steam by wei ght, and concentrates chl ori de
i n t he l i qui d by a f act or of about 1. 7; i n t hi s case,
1700 mg/kg chl ori de i n a water di scharged at the
surface i ndi cates i ts deep pre-boi l ed parent
cont ai ns 1000 mg/ kg chl ori de. Such enri chment s
are l i kel y t o be cl ose t o t he maxi mum, gi ven t hat
the temperature of fi rst boi l i ng i n most geothermal
systems rarel y exceeds atl out 300
' C.
Experi mental resul ts i ndi cate up to several
hundred mg/kg aqueous chl ori de can be deri ved
through l eachi ng of crustal rocks by pure hot
wat er (El l i s & Mahon 1964. 1967. Fi g. 6).
Accepti ng a mi ni mum bul k water
-
rock wei ght
rati o of 0.1 for geothermal systems, maxi mum
chl ori de concentrati ons of up to several thousand
mg/kg are possi bl e and overl ap wi th the range of
composi ti ons observed i n acti ve geothermal
systems.
Al ternati vel y, magmati c contri buti ons can
account for chl ori de i n geothermal fl ui ds, as i s
i ndi cated by the concentrati ons of up to a few
wei ght percent i n hi gh-temperature vol cani c
emi ssi ons (e. 9. , Hedenqui st & Lowenst ern 1994)
and hi gh-sal i ni t y f l ui d i ncl usi ons (>35 wt . %
NaCl ) associ ated wi th i gneous i ntrusi ons (e.g.,
Roedder 1984). The processes rel ati ng to tl re
462
ct)
CD
tr
: 200
o
0.075
Ei
o
O.O5O
o.:g
E
o.o,, H
z
Fi gure 6. Concentrati ons of aqueous chl ori de
experimentally teached from different rock types for a
peri od of 14 days at
>500
oC,
usi ng pure water and
water-rock rati os
*
I (El l i s & Mahon 1964, 1967).
transfer of magmati c chl ori de i nto the overl yi ng
geothermal convecti ve cel l are not wel l -
understood but are l i kel y to be more compl ex than
can be assumed from si mpl e mi xi ng (e.9.,
Fourni er 1987), and thi s makes magmati c i nputs
di ffi cul t to quanti fy.
Deep pre-boi l ed TVZ geothermal waters
contai n up to about 2500 mg/kg chl ori de, whereas
the magmati c water from Whi te Isl ands contai ns
>10,000 mg/kg (Tabl e 2). Even so, the source of
chl ori de i n these geothermal waters, whether i t be
derived from water-rock interaction or direct
magmati c i nput, cannot be di sti ngui shed on the
basi s of the chl ori de concentrati on al one. The
range of chl ori de concentrati ons i n parent
geothermal waters feedi ng systems across the
TYZ
(Table 2), which varies by a factor of 5
despi te the passage of the waters through si mi l ar
country rocks, suggests a source other than si mpl e
rock l eachi ng. The vari ati on i n B/Cl rati os
(Gi ggenbach 1995) across theTYZ, and chl ori ne-
i sotope studi es (Hedenqui st et al . 1990), i nstead
poi nt to a deep i gneous ori gi n for chl ori de. In the
absence of these parameters, only from extreme
enri chments i n chl ori de (e.g., >10,000 mg/kg) can
a magmati c source be i nferred.
MAGMATIC CON PONNNTS IN EPITHERMAL
ORn Dnpostts
Low- sulfidat ion En it her mal Dep os its
t eri st i cs of si x wel l -st udi ed, worl d-cl ass, l ow-
sul fi dati on epi thermal deposi ts for whi ch evi dence
of magmati c contri buti ons exi sts. These deposi ts
have been mi ned for preci ous and base-metal s
(Fi g. 7), whi ch occur as open-space f i l l i ngs i n
vei ns and stockwork structures or wi thi n pore
spaces among sedi mentary cl asts. The geol ogi c
sequences associ ated wi th these deposi ts are
di verse, but the rocks that host orebodi es are made
up of vol cani cs (Antamok-Acupan, Comstock,
Emperor, Tayol ti ta) and/or underl yi ng and ol der
basement uni ts contai ni ng sedi mentary and
metasedi mentary l i thol ogi es (Fresni l l o, Hi shi kari ).
None of the deposi ts have rock types i n thei r
strati graphy that are l i kel y to contai n evapori tes or
connate bri nes.
The mai n geol ogi c feature common to al l of
these deposi ts i s thei r cl ose spati al and temporal
rel ati onshi p to regi onal magmati sm associ ated
wi th convergent movements al ong a pl ate margi n.
The composi ti on of nearby i gneous rocks may i tt
fact have a geneti c i nfl uence on the metal contents
of ores (Si l l i toe thi s vol ume), as i s postul ated fbr
Emperor, where gol d-si l ver-tel l uri de ores are
rel ated to al kal i c mafi c i gneous composi ti ons
(Ri chards thi s vol ume). l gneous i ntrusi ons occur
at al l of the deposi ts except Hi shi kari , whi ch
formed at shal l owest depth. At Antamok-Acupan,
A=Antamok-Acupan
C=Comslock
E=Emperor
F=Fresni l l o
H=Hi shi kari
N=NZTvZ
T=Tayoltita
Cu+Pb+Zn Ag (x100)
Fi gure 7. Temary pl ot of rel ati ve metal contents of
ores produced from l ow-sul fi dati on deposi ts i n Tabl e
3. The metal ratios of TVZ geothermal precipitates
are similar to the metal ratios of ores from Comstock
and Tayoltita.
400
100
o
x
(!
3
o
-
9 E 9 9 1 o = =
E E E E E
g
H
c - o r : ! c !
Au (x100)
Tabl e 3 the sal i ent geol ogi c charac-
463
S.F. Simmons
Tabl e 3. Geol ogi c charact eri st i cs of l ow-sul f i dat i on epi t hermal deposi t s
Associ at ed
i gneous rock Deposi t Au
Ant amok- 0. 5
Acupan,
Phi l i ppi nes
Comst ock 0. 28 6. 56
l . ode, USA
Approx
Principal areal
metals extent
Country
rocks
vol c-i ntru-
di atreme-sed i ntermedi ate
(meta)
Rct' ercnces
omsti e/ al . 1990
Cookc & Bl oom
1990; Mi t chel l &
l , each l 99l ;
Sawki ns et al . 1979
Vi kr c e/ a/ . 1988;
Vi kr e 1989
Ahmad et al. 1987;
Andorson & Baton
1990; Eat on &
Ser t er f i el d 1993;
Kwak 1990,
Setterfi cl d et al
1992
Gsmmel f et al . 1988.
I . anget al . 1988;
Macdonal d et a/.
I 986; Ruval caba-
Rui z & Thompson
1988; Si mmons
I 991
lzawa et al. 1990
Smi th el al . 1982
Orebodi es Age
Ma
Empcror,
I' rj i
0. I I 0. 04
Ag-Au 9 km2
Au-Ag- 6 km2
Te
vol c-i ntru-
metased-
metavol c
vol c- i nt r
(sed)
sed-vol c-
i ntru
i ntermedi ate-
l ' el si c
mal i c ( al kal i c)
i ntermedi atc-
f el si c
5 (?) Au-Ag vei ns, stock
di ssemi nati ons;
pr e- exi si ng hi gh-
S & porph mi n
vel ns; pr e-
exi sti ng hi gh-S &
porph mi n
vei ns, stockwork;
pre-exi sti ng
hi gh-S & porph
mi n
vei ns, stockwork
mantos, chi mneys
Fr esni l l o, 0. 015 10. 0
Mexi co
I l i shi kar i , 0 25 0. l 5
Japan
Tayol ti ta,
Mexi co
Ag- Pb- l 0 km2
Zn
Au- Ag I km2
15. 0 Ag- Au 4 km2
- l
scd- vol c i nt er mcdi al e
-29
0 3
vet ns
vei ns vol c- i nt r u i nt er medi at e
rAbbrevi ati ons:
vol c:vol cani c, hi gh-S & porph mi n=hi gh-sul fi dati on and porphyry-styl e mi neral i zati on, i ntru:i ntrusi ve, sed:scdi mentary,
meta:metamorphi c.
Comstock, and Emperor, prol onged peri ods of
hydrothermal activity produced spatially related
porphyry and hi gh-sul fi dati on epi thermal styl es of
mi neral i zati on that preceded the empl acement of
l ow-sul fi dati on ores (Comsti et al . 19901. Cooke &
Bl oom 1990; Mi tchel l & Leach 1991; Setterfi el d
et al. 1992; Sillitoe & Gappe 1984; Yikre et al.
1988: Vi kre 1989). Thei r occurrence, however,
does not i nfl uence the di scussi on. bel ow. on l ow-
sul fi dati on ores.
Characteri sti cs of the fl ui ds associ ated wi th
mi neral i zati on are l i sted i n Tabl e 4. Fi ne
centi meter-scal e mi neral parageneses are the basi s
for fl ui d-i ncl usi on and stabl e-i sotope studi es,
except for Comstock, for whi ch the sampl es
i nvesti gated were obtai ned from uni versi ti es,
museums, and pri vate col l ecti ons (Vi kre 1989).
Hydrogen-i sotope anal yses are avai l abl e for
Antamok-Acupan, Comstock, Emperor, and
Fresni l l o, but hel i um-i sotopes and N2-He-Ar gas
anal yses are l i mi ted mostl y to Fresni l l o. Fl ui d-
464
i ncl usi on data and hydrothermal mi neral s, wi th
the occurrence of sul fi des and
"adul ari a"-i l l i te
i n
every deposi t, i ndi cate condi ti ons of mi neral i -
zati on of 300 to 150
oC
from fl ui ds of l ow-
sul fi dati on character, havi ng reduced aqueous
sul fur speci es and near-neutral pH, si mi l ar to the
deep fl ui d composi ti ons of TVZ geothermal
systems. These si mi l ari ti es provi de the basi s for
i nt erpret at i ons bel ow.
Chloride
Of al l the components that coul d be used to
i ndi cate a magmati c source, chl ori de, or sal i ni ty,
i s the easi est to measure by observi ng i ce mel ti ng
temperatures i n fl ui d i ncl usi ons. Gi ven careful
fl ui d-i ncl usi on petrography combi ned wi th these
measurements, sal i ni ty vari ati ons provi de the
cl earest si gn of change i n fl ui d composi ti on wi th
ti me. The bi ggest drawback i s the uncertai nty
regardi ng the sal i ni ty, as the i ce mel ti ng
temperature (7.) between 0 to
-
1.5
' C
may al so be
Low-sulfi dat io n Ep i I he r ma I D e p os i I s
Tabl e 4. Characteri sti cs of mi neral i zi ng fl ui ds i n l ow-sul fi dati on epi thermal deposi ts
Sal i ni ty l {ydrothcrmal
' Hei
He
Deposi t
' I' "Cl
wto/o mi neral sr 6r8oqtz"/oo 618c)"rool oo 6Dn,o
o/oo
(R/Ra) Rcf' crcnces
82 et al . 19' 79. Si mmons 1986
n cupan,
Phi l i ppi ncs
Comst ock 250-300 l -7
Lodc. [ JSA
Bmperor. 160-300
I U l
i l - chl - ep- mag
qt z- cal c- sul l ' - ad
- 1.
I t o 8. 9
- 7. 8
t o L9
i l - chl - mont
4. 5- 7 qt z- cal c- sul f ' - ad 16. 9 t o 6. 5 t o 12. 9
i l - chl - r o- mont 20. 5
Fr csni l l o, 200- 300 l
- l
5
Mexi co
l 3. 9t o 3. 9t o' 7. 7
t 7. 4
-69
to
-
r 33
- 10
t o
-
5 8
- 3 0 t o -
1 t o 2
74
O' Nei l & Si l ber man 1974;
1' ayl or 1973; Vi kr e et a/ . l 98t ' i ;
Vi kr e 1989
Ahmad et al . 1981 , Anderson &
Eaton 1990; Eaton & Setterl i el d
1993; Kwak 1990; Set t er l l el d et
al 1992
Macdonal d et al . 1986,
Ruval caba- Rui z &' l ' hompson
1988; Si mmons et al . 1988.
Si mmons, 1991
l zawaet al . 1990 Matsuhi sa &
Aoki 1994
Chur chi l l 1980; Cl ar ke &' l ' i t l ey
1988; Conrad et al . 1992 Smi th
qtz-cal c-sul f' -ad-
i l - chl - mont
I I i shi kar i , I 50- 250
Japan
l ayol ti ta, 250-280
Mexi co
deri ved from di ssol ved gases, mai nl y COz
(Hedenqui st & Henl ey l 9S5b). Thus, t he onl y dat a
for whi ch sal i ne sol uti ons can be confi dentl y
i nterpreted are those i ndi cati ng
>2.5 eq. wt.
o
NaCl . Furthermore, because of the vagari es
associ ated wi th fl ui d-i ncl usi on trappi ng. i ce
mel ti ng studi es requi re a mi ni mum of fi ve to ten
measurements from a few spati al l y di stri buted but
parageneti cal l y constrai ned sampl es to be certai n
of the range of fl ui d comPosi ti ons.
The sal i ni ty data for the si x deposi ts are
pl otted i n Fi gure 8 and show a range from
<1 to
15 eq. wt.
o
NaCl . The data for Hi shi kari and
Tayol ti ta i ndi cate that the mi neral i zi ng fl ui ds were
di l ute waters, whi ch i s typi cal of the maj ori ty of
gol d-si l ver epi thermal deposi ts (Hedenqui st &
Henl ey 1985b); note that for Tayol ti ta a few fl ui d
i ncl usi ons cont ai ni ng
>4 wt . % NaCl exi st , and
Conrad et al . (1992) suggest that these represent
i nputs of magmati c fl ui ds. In contrast,
m i neral i zi ng f l ui ds f or Emperor, Fresni l l o,
Comstock, and Antamok-Acupan were sal i ne
(>2.5 eq. wt.
yo
NaCl ), and the chl ori de i n these
systems may have a magmati c ori gi n. Onl y for
Fresni l l o. however, can sal i ne fl ui ds be
<l qt z- cal c- sul f ' - ad 7. 3 t o 9. 8
- 5. 7
t o
- 0. 1
i l - chl - mont
0- 13 qt z- cal c- sul l ' - ad- 3 l t o 8. 0
- 5. 8
t o I l
ab
i l -chl -aot-eD
et al 1982
adul ar i a. cal c_ca| ci t e. ch| _ch| or i t e. ep: cpi dot e. i | _i | | i t e.
mag=magneti tc. mont- montmori l l oni te, q1z:quartz, ro-roscoel i te, sul Fsul fi des, zeol =zeol i te
geneti cal l y l i nked to mi neral i zati on, wi th Ag-Pb-
Zn transport bei ng favored by chl ori de compl exes.
Fi gure 9 shows some of the resul ts of a fl ui d-
i ncl usi on study associ ated wi th the i nfi l l i ng of the
-1
m wi de Santo Ni no vei n i n the Fresni l l o
Di stri ct. Spati al and temporal vari ati ons i n
composi ti ons i ndi cate epi sodi c i nj ecti ons of bri nes
(up to 12 eq. vrt. % NaCl) into fractures otherwise
fi fl ed wi th rel ati vel y di l ute fl ui ds (-3 eq. wt.
yo
NaCl ). Bri nes are cl osel y associ ated wi th sul fi de
mi neral i zati on, occurri ng pri mari l y i n sphal eri te-
hosted fl ui d-i ncl usi ons, whereas the l ow-sal i ni ty
fl ui d-i ncl usi ons are hosted by barren quartz and
cal ci te. Thi s rel ati onshi p i s found el sewhere i n the
Fresni l l o di stri ct, i ndi cati ng that mi neral i zati on
was coi nci dent wi th the repeated i ntroducti orr of
sal i ne l i qui ds. The hi gh sal i ni ty i s i nterpreted to
have been deri ved from a bri ne reservoi r of
magmati c ori gi n, whi ch was si tuated beneath a
di l ute geothermal convecti on cel l (Si mmons
1991). The rocks i n t he di st ri ct most l y consi st of
a hi ghl y deformed graywacke-argi l l i te sequence
overl ai n by younger rhyol i te vol cani cs, unl i kel y
hosts for connate bri nes or evapori tes. Nor can
si mpl e rock l eachi ng account for the sl rarp
465
I
I
I
I
S.F. Simmons
ctl
:
E
40,000
E
()
cr 1n
{
B
6 o
(u
z
E p E b t g
j i = a 1 l i o =
=
g
3 F E b
l g i l d E E E
r F j u r n ' ! -
g
Fi gure 8. Range of sal i ni ti es determi ned from fl ui d-
i ncl usi on i ce mel ti ng measurements (7.) for epi thermal
deposi ts (Tabl es 3, 4). The shaded regi on shows the
1,,
range for which the freezing-point depression due to
di ssol ved sal ts or carbon di oxi de cannot be
di st i ngui shed ( Hedenqui st & Henl ey 1985b) .
Stage I
vari ati ons and hi gh sal i ni ti es over ti me. Further
evi dence that the hi gh sal i ni ti es at Fresni l l o
i ndi cate a magmati c contri buti on i s based on
geneti c si mi l ari ti es found i n a number of other
nearby Ag- base-metal deposi ts whi ch form a
metal l ogeni c bel t that transects northern Mexi co
(Cl ark
et al . 1982). Other than thei r contai ned
metal s, these deposi ts share si mi l ar ages of
mi neral i zati on, cl ose associ ati on wi th magmati sm,
and occurrences of sal i ne fl ui d-i ncl usi ons. some
of whi ch, based on thei r enri ched stabl e i sotopes,
very hi gh sal i ni ti es exceedi ng 35 eq. wt.
o/o
NaCl ,
and proxi mi ty to i ntrusi ons, are cl earl y magmati c
i n ori gi n (e.9., Rye 1966: Sawki ns 1964).
Therefore, chl ori de i n the Fresni l l o bri nes seems
to be not onl y of magmati c ori gi n, but was
necessary to the i ntroducti on of metal -transporti ng
f l ui ds.
Orygen and Hydrogen Isotopes
Stabl e-i sotope studi es of epi thermal deposi ts
are largely restricted to quartz, calcite, and
20,000
I
contribution ofaq.
t
carbon dioxidetoTm
Santo Ni fro Vei n
425 Level West-Central
St age l l St age l l l Stage l V
* * s E ; * g ; * * s
o
ll
o
0
250"
O
- 6
= z
Es
' i ;
F }
r
(J
I
E
o
o
E
@
F
ME-
Fi gure 9. Sharp vari ati ons i n fl ui d sal i ni ti es over ti me duri ng formati on of the Santo Ni no vei n, Fresni l l o Di stri ct;
data compiled from observations of the west-central sector on the 425 level.
Quartz
and calcite volumetrically
domi nate the vei n-fi l l i ngs of stages l , II, and III, for whi ch si l ver sul fosal ts and base-metal sul fi des are the ore-
beari ng mi neral s; stage IV consi sts onl y of cal ci te and i s barren. No data are avai l abl e for sul fi des i n stage III. Bri ne
pulses are associated with deposition of sulfides and sulfosalts in Stages I and II, whereas dilute fluids are
associ ated wi th deposi ti on of quartz and cal ci te gangue. See Si mmons et al . (1988) and Si mmons (1991) for further
descr i pt i on and di scussi on.
466
"adul ari a"
gangue, as these are the most common
oxygen-beari ng mi neral s. The 6l 8O.i n.,ul compo-
si ti ons are converted to 6l sowater composi ti ons
from mi neral -water equi l i bri um fracti onati on
equat i ons ( e. 9. , Fr i edman & O' Nei l 1977;
Matsuhi sa et al . 1979) and esti mated equi l i bri um
temperatures, the l atter typi cal l y determi ned from
fl ui d-i ncl usi on homogeni zati on data. The mi ni -
mum range of homogenization temperatures for
any one generati on of pri mary fl ui d-i ncl usi ons
from these deposi ts i s about 20
"9,
correspondi ng
to an uncertai nty of about * 0.5
"/no
i n cal cul ati ng
equi l i bri um water composi ti ons. Note that oxygen
i sotopes can al so be measured di rectl y on
i ncl usi on fl ui ds (e.g., Yi gk et al . 1994), though
such resul ts are not avai l abl e for the deposi ts
di scussed here.
Hydrogen-i sotope composi ti ons are measured
di rectl y on i ncl usi on fl ui ds rel eased under vacuum
by crushi ng; thus, ore-rel ated sul fi de mi neral s,
along with quartz and calcite, can be analyzed.
The uncertai nti es i n bul k anal ysi s are unknown
because several fl ui d-i ncl usi on generati ons may
be present, but average resul ts suggest a range of
up 20
"/on
are possi bl e. The 6D data are di ffi cul t to
i nterpret wi thout knowl edge of the meteori c water
Low-s ulfi dat ion Ep i t her ma I Dep os i ts
Fi gure 10. The shaded regi ons represent
the range of quartz oxygen-i sotope compo-
si t i ons ver sus equi l i br i um t emper al ur e.
esti mated from fl ui d-i ncl usi on data, for
epi thermal deposi ts (Tabl es 3, 4). The
curves represent cal cul ated composi ti ons of
l ocal meteori c (-6 to
-18
"/*)
and magmati c
water (8
o/oo;
in equilibrium with quartz as a
function of temperature, based on
fractionation factors determined bv
Matsuhisa et al.
(1919\.
6t8o %n
composi ti on at the ti me of mi neral i zati on. The
composi ti on of l ocal meteori c water may be
i nferred from trends i n combi ned 6r80- 6D data;
i n very young deposi ts, modern meteori c water
composi ti ons can be used.
Oxygen-i sotope composi ti ons of quartz from
the si x epi thermal deposi ts are pl otted versus
temperature i n Fi gure 10. Curves representi ng the
i sotopi c composi ti ons of magmati c (6t80
:
8
o/oo)
and l ocal meteori c water i n equi l i bri um wi th
quartz are shown for comparison. The 6180
val ues of fl ui ds from these deposi ts ei ther pl ot
between meteori c and magmati c composi ti ons
(Antamok-Acupan,
Comstock, Hi shi kari ,
Tayol ti ta) or overl ap wi th the magmati c
composi ti on (Emperor, Fresni l l o), wi th maxi mum
posi ti ve enri chments rel ati ve to l ocal meteori c
water that range from 7
o/oo
6180 at Hi shi kari to
l 8-20o/no 5l 80 at Comstock, Emperor, and
Fresni l l o. Accepti ng a val ue of about 9ol oo 6180 a,
the maxi mum possi bl e for enri chment to meteori c
water due to water-rock interaction (as previously
descri bed), suggests that the waters at Comstock,
Emperor, and Fresni l l o had mi ni mum magmati c
water i nputs of 50o%, and the waters at Hi shi kari ,
Tayoltita, and Antamok-Acupan had no magmatic
Comstock
Tayoltita
Hishikari htrdn
Fresnillo
,r
{
Emperor
,y
{
467
S.f-. Simmons
i nput but i nstead were deri ved from shi fted
rneteori c water. Al ternati vel y, assurni ng that there
were no posi ti ve enri chments due to meteori c
water-' rock i nteracti on. the mi ni mum magmati c
i nputs i nto deposi t waters ranged frorn about 100%
at I l i shi kari t o 90yo at Emperor and Fresni l l o.
-fhese
two model s bracket the range of possi bl e
i nterpretati ons.
' Ihe
resul ts from Hi shi kari , whi ch
i ndi cat e changes i n t he 6l 80 wat er composi t i on
over ti me. are di scussed further bel ow.
Mat suhi sa & Aoki (1994) used t he banded
quartz-adul ari a-sLrl fi de vei n fi l l i ng of the Ryosen
5 vei n
(average vei n grade of 280 g Au/ t )
Fl i shi kari t o assess changes i n 6' oo' u, , , . . compo-
si t i ons wi t h t i me. Hi ghest ore grades wi t hi n t he
vei n occur i n vcry f i ne-grai ned sul f i de-ri ch
Gi nguro bands t hat l i e near and paral l el t o t he
rval l rock contacts. Sul fi de-poor bands are
conrposed of fi ne-grai ned
quartz and ofthocl ase
(adul ari a) t hat are di f f i cul t t o separat e physi cal l y.
By i ngeni ousl y compari ng 6l sOqurnz-adurari a versus
the quartz"-adul ari a rati o tl f the materi al anal yzed
(determi ned frorn XRD and Al anal yses),
Mat suhi sa & Aoki
(1994) def i ned t wo di st i nct
l i near trends. whi ch i n turn were used to i nterpret
pure encl -member composi ti ons ftrr 6' 8Our"r,, and
E' t O"dul ", i u associ at ed wi t h hi gh-grade
(>1000 g
Aui t), and l ow-grade
(<20 g Au/t) stages of vei n
fi l l i ng; l ate barren quartz was al so anal yzed'
Oxygen-i sot ope equi l i bri urn t emperat ures were
calculated for quartz-adularia pairs, and
homogeni zati on temperatures
were measured for
barren quartz. The results indicate 6'tO*u,.,
composi t i ons of
-0. 1o/ o. ,
f or f l ui ds associ at ed wi t h
Au-Ag mi neral i zat i on, i n cont rast ^t o 618O*u, . ,
composi ti ons of
-3.6
and
-4.3
to
-5.7"/uo
for fl ui ds
associ ated wi th l ater l ow-grade and barren stages,
respecti vel y. Thus a rni ni mum enri chment of
about 3.5"/oo 6' tO i s i ndi cated for
"ore-stage"
waters rel ati ve to
"gangue-stage"
waters,
sLrggesti ng that mi neral i zi ng fl ui ds contai ned
i nput s of 30oh- or more. magmat i c wat er.
Hydrogen- and oxygen-i sotopi c composi ti ons
of waters associ ated wi th four of the epi thermal
deposi ts
(Tabl e 4) are pl otted i n Fi gure 11, and
show broad patterns further suggesti ng that the
mi neral i zi ng fl ui ds were mi xtures of meteori c and
magrnat i c wat er (Ahmad el al . 1987; O' Nei l &
468
6"0 %.
Fi gure l l . fhe oxygen and hydrogen i sotopi c
composi ti ons of epi thermal fl ui ds for epi thermal
deposi ts (Tabl es 3, 4). The posi ti ons of l ocal meteori c
water for Antamok-Acupan and Emperor are based
on present-day composi ti ons, whereas fbr Comstock
and Fresni l l o thev are esti mated fi om stabl e-i sotope
trends.
Si l berman 1974; Sau' ki ns et al . 1979; Si mmons e/
, z/ . 1988; Vi krc 1989). Boi l i ng cannot account f or
these trends as i ndi cated by the cal cul ated
enri chments due to adi abati c steam l oss (Fi g. 5c).
Here agai n the Fresni l l o and Emperor data pl ot
cl ose to the fi el d of magmati c water, though thei r
deuteri um val ues are di ffi cul t to di sti ngui sh from
the 6D composi ti ons of l ocal Ineteori c waters. A
much stronger i ndi cati on of a magmati c compo-
nent i n ore fl ui ds i s suggested by' the Comstock
data. based on two di fferent l i nes of evi dence: l )
the i ncrease i n the posi ti ve sl ope of traj ectori es
connecti ng meteori c and hydrothermal waters as a
functi on of i ncreasi ng 6D, accepti ng that the
source of meteori c water remai ned constant
duri ng t he peri od of mi neral i zat i on (Vi kre 1989),
and 2) the posi ti on of one sampl e associ ated wi th
bonanza si l ver ore from the 1200-foot l evel ofthe
Con Vi rgi ni a mi ne, whi ch has a wat er
composi ti on of 1.9
u/,,,,
6' *o and
-69
n/oo
6D
(O' Nei l & Si l berman 19' 14). Accordi ngl y, the
proporti on of magmati c i nput i nto Comstock
fl ui ds ranges from about 30 to 75 %o'
The wi de range of 6D val ues i ndi cated for
both Emperor and Cornstock data sets deserve
further comment i n the l i ght of thei r potenti al
rel ati on to i nputs of magmati c waters. Tayl or
6 D%.
x Emperor
1 Frssni l l o
O Ant amok-Acupan
. Comst @k
F
(g
E
CE
$
I
I
I
i
(1986, 1992) has shown t hat t he 6D composi t i on
of water vapor i n equi l i bri um wi th a hydrous
magma decreases as the fraction of water
remai ni ng i n the mel t decreases, and that the
resul ti ng range of 5D water-vapor composi ti ons
depends on the mode by whi ch a hydrous magma
degases. Thus, the 6D composi ti ons of water
vapor evol ved through conti nous open-system and
cl osed-system degassi ng range from
-25
to
<-125
n/uo
and
-25
to
-60
o/oo,
respectively, as the fraction
of water remai ni ng i n the rnel t decreases from 1 to
0. 1 (Tayl or 1986, 1992). The 5D val ues of
Emperor fl ui ds range from
-
l 0 to
-58o/oo,
overl appi ng wi t h magmat i c vapor composi t i ons
deri ved from ei ther mode of degassi ng. The 5D
val ues for Comstock fl ui ds^are much l i ghter and
range from
-69
to
-133"1oo,
suggesti ng that
magmati c vapors were mostl y deri ved from open-
system degassi ng. The rel ati vel y wi de range of
6D composi ti ons i n these two deposi ts may
therefore rel ate to magma degassi ng processes.
Helium Isotopes
Hel i um i sotopes were measured for vei n
materi al s obtai ned from subsurface mi ne
worki ngs (>100 m depth) at Fresni l l o and
Antamok-Acupan (Tabl e 4). Incl usi on fl ui ds
hosted by quartz, cal ci te, and sul fi des were
rel eased under vacuum by thermal decrepi tati on
or crushi ng 10- t o 20-g monomi neral i c sampl es;
thei r i sotope composi ti ons were measured on a
Ni er-type doubl e focussi ng mass spectrometer.
The R/Ra values, between 6 to
'7
at Antamok-
Acupan and between I and 2 at Fresni l l o (Fi g.
12), i ndi cate a component of mantl e He,
presumabl y transported to shal l ow crustal l evel s
by ascendi ng magmas (Si mmons 1986; Si mmons
et al. 1988).
The Fresni l l o resul ts seem l ow for arc-rel ated
fl ui ds, and they may resul t from three di fferent
processes: 1) preferenti al outward di ffusi on of
l He
over
"He;
2) i n-.si tu radi ogeni c accumul ati on of
*H";
or 3) radi ogeni c accumul ati on of
-He
associ ated wi th l ong magma resi dence ti mes and
crustal contami nati on. Of these, the l ast seems
most l i kel y, gi ven the rel ati vel y thi ck conti nental
crust through whi ch Fresni l l o magmas mi grated
(see Si mmons et al . 1988). The hel i um-i sot ope
Low-su lfidat ion Ep it herma I De p o s i t s
O A Fresni l l o
a
O Bagui o
t A t A
at mo. ph"r i c h"l i ur l
He concentration (x 10
6
)
cc STP/g
Fi gure 12. Hel i um-i sotope composi ti ons (R/Ra)
versus hel i um amount for i ncl usi on fl ui ds contai ned i n
quartz, calcite, and sulfides from Fresnillo, and quartz
from Antamok-Acupan (Si mmons 1986; Si mmons et
a/ . 1988) .
rati os of geothermal emanati ons associ ated wi th
arc vol cani sm and si mi l arl y thi ck crust range from
1. 30 t o 2. 16 R/ Ra i n t he Sout hern Vol cani c Zone.
andl .44 to 6.47 R/Ra i n Central Vol cani c Zone of
the Andes, thus supporti ng thi s i nterpretati on
(Hi l ton et al . 1993). For Fresni l l o, the resul ts
further i ndi cate rel ati vel y uni form composi ti ous
through ti me i rrespecti ve of mi neral host or fl ui d-
i ncl usi on sal i ni ti es, confi rmi ng that processes
governi ng hel i um i nput are decoupl ed from those
affecti ng other fl ui d components (i ncl udi ng
metal s), consi stent wi th observati ons of TVZ
geothermal fluids and data from other
hydrothermal deposi ts (Si mmons et al . 1987).
Note that i nvesti gators wi shi ng to pursue He-
i sotope anal yses of epi thermal materi al s shoul d
ensure that thei r sampl es are shi el ded from the
effects of cosmi c radi ati on, especi al l y at hi gher
el evati ons of about 1500 m asl or more, as
cosmogeni c
' H"
"un be produced by nucl ear
reacti ons i nvol vi ng spal l ati on or neutron
absorpt i on by' Li (e. g
, Kurz
1986). Such ef f ect s
are interpreted for surface vein-quartz samples at
2200 m asl from the Fresni l l o di stri ct, whi ch have
anomal ous val ues exceedi ng 100 R/Ra (Si mmons
1986; Si mmons et al . 1986). The observed
exponential decrease in R/Ra with depth (from
r
S.F. Simmons
I l 6 R/Ra at the surface to 65 R/Ra at l .l m depth)
al ong wi t h cal cul at i ons of t he cosmi c-ray
attenuati on l ength i n rocks, however, i ndi cate that
these radi ati on effects are unl i kel y to penetrate
depths greater than about l 0 m at Fresni l l o
(Si mmons 1986; Si mmons el al . 1986).
N2-Ar-He Ratios
Probl ems associ ated wi th the anal ysi s of gas
speci es i n f' l ui d i ncl usi ons are rel ated to l oss of H2
and H2S (through di ffusi on and post-extracti on
reacti on; see Graney & Kesl er thi s vol ume) and
these artefacts alter the redox state calculated for
publ i shed dat a(e. g. , Roedder 1984; Hedenqui st er
al . 1992). However, such probl ems shoul d not
affect measurement of N, Ar and He, though there
are few avai l abl e measurements on epi thermal
materi al s. Norman & Musgrave (1994) reported
data from three epi thermal deposi ts, i ncl udi ng the
Sant o Ni f l o vei n, Fresni l l o (Fi g. l 3). Gases were
measured by a quadrupol e mass spectrometer for
fl ui ds rel eased under vacuum by thermal decrepi -
t at i on or by crushi ng of 0. 1 t o 5 g of i ncl usi on-
beari ng materi al . The two smal l er deposi ts from
New Mexi co (not\shown) both have gas trends
i ndi cati ng a possi bl e
"basal ti c"
si gnature. The
Fresni l l o data (Benton 1991) form a broad l i near
pattern that roughl y overl aps wi th the mi xi ng
envel ope havi ng andesi ti c and meteori c end-
members. These resul ts are consi stent wi th
sal i ni ty, and stabl e- and hel i um-i sotope data,
whi ch support the exi stence of magmati c
contri buti ons i n the Fresni l l o fl ui ds. Unfor-
tunatel y, data from coexi sti ng fl ui d i ncl usi ons and
stabl e i sotopes are unavai l abl e to assess co-
vari ati ons or further constrai n thi s i nterpretati on'
DISCUSSION
In thi s paper I have attempted to document the
mai n geochemi cal evi dence whi ch i ndi cates
magmati c contri buti ons to l ow-sul fi dati on epi -
thermal envi ronments. The strength of thi s
evi dence i s bol stered by studi es of acti ve systems'
where fl ui d composi ti ons from geothermal
systems i n di fferent stages of evol uti on can be
compared on a regi onal and gl obal scal e. Besi des
thi s temporal constrai nt, the capaci ty to anal yze
al l fl ui d components means that i nterpretati ons of
410
Fresni l l o
2000
N, / He
1000
looo He
2oo Ar
Fi gure 13. Rel ati ve concentrati ons of ni trogen, argon
and hel i um i n gases from Fresni l l o i ncl usi on fl ui ds
(Benton 1991,Norman & Musgrave 1994).
one component' s ori gi n can be checked for
i nternal consi stenci es by compari ng i t to other
components that behave i n a si mi l ar manner (e.g.,
oxygen and hydrogen isotopes can be compared to
chl ori de, and hel i um i sotopes can be compared to
COz, N2, and Ar). l n epi thermal deposi ts,
temporal constraints are relative as determined
from the mi neral ogi c record, wi th mi l l i meter to
centi meter-scal e parageneses restri cted to
di stances of a few hundred meters or l ess; hence,
i nterpretati on of spati al vari ati ons i n the
composi ti ons of pal eo-fl ui ds at a fi xed poi nt i n
ti me across a deposi t i s extremel y di ffi cul t. Data
quality is also restricted by the errors inherent to
anal yses and i nterpretati ons of mi neral s and
i ncl usi on fl ui ds. Thus, acti ve geothermal systems
provi de a scal e of compari son for spati al and
temporal relations and a framework for
interpretation not available from study of low-
sul fi dati on deposi ts.
Wi th these caveats, hel i um i sotopes and N2-
Ar-He rati os can provi de the most di agnosti c
evi dence of magmati c contri buti ons to epi thermal
deposi ts; the few avai l abl e data i ndi cate that these
components are promi si ng tracers of fl ui d ori gi ns
and deserve much further i nvesti gati on. In
contrast, enrichment in both oxygen and hydrogen
isotopes relative to meteoric water, and high
concentrati ons of chl ori de, can provi de permi ssi ve
100
Ai r
evi dence of magmati c contri buti ons (Tabl e 1).
Currentl y, Fresni l l o i s the onl y deposi t for whi ch
al l of these techni ques have been appl i ed, though
there i s a gap i n the conti nui ty of sampl es
i nvesti gated from thi s deposi t, and the i sotope
studi es are reconnai ssance i n scal e.
Al though there i s evi dence of magmati c
contri buti ons, i t shoul d be cl ear that the domi nant
source of water enteri ng most l ow-sul fi dati on
epi thermal envi ronments i s meteori c, but thi s i s
not the i ssue here. Instead, a number of
researchers have summari l y di scounted the
possi bi l i ty of magmati c contri buti ons i n magma-
rel ated ore-formi ng hl ,drothermal systems,
argui ng that water-rock i nteracti on i s suffi ci ent to
expl ai n enri chments both for oxygen and hydro-
gen i sotopes, and the ori gi ns of other components,
i ncl udi ng met al s (e. g. , Tayl or 1973 Campbel l er
al . 1984; Seal & Rye 1992), notwi thstandi ng the
fact that a few percent magmatic water could also
account for the same i sotopi c enri chments (e.g.,
O' Nei l & Si l berman 1974 Sawki ns et al . 1979).
The problem then relates to the framework of
i nterpretati on, and I bel i eve thi s i nvol ves
appreci ati on: I
)
of the nature of magmati c
components, 2) that magmati c components
potenti al l y contri bute to ore formati on, and 3) that
magmati c contri buti ons can reach shal l ow epi -
t hermal envi ronment s.
The nature of magmati c components i s best
understood from exami nati on of degassi ng
vol canoes and study of porphyry ore deposi ts
(".9., Hedenqui st & Lowenstern 1994). These
components are mostl y vol ati l e and i ncl ude water,
carbon di oxi de, chl ori ne (as HCI), sul fur (as SO2
and H2S), and base and preci ous metal s, al l of
whi ch are observed i n l ow-sul fi dati on epi thermal
envi ronments, wi th chl ori ne and sul fur bei ng
i mportant for metal transport. The si gnatures
whi ch record the appearance of magmati c
components i n the epi thermal envi ronment are
mostl y restri cted to those i n Tabl e l . Other
potenti al tracers, such as the i sotopi c compo-
si ti ons of carbon, sul fur, and l ead, are commonl y
ambi guous due to effects rel ati ng to redox state or
crustal contami nati on, and are di ffi cul t to i nterpret
(see Hedenqui st & Lowenstern 1994).
That magmati c fl ui ds can reach and i nfl uence
l ow-sul fi dati on epi thermal envi ronments i s
Low-suffidation Epithermal Depos its
probabl y better documented than mosr geo_
scientists realize, with a much clearer magmatic
connecti on exi sti ng for hi gh-sul fi dati on
epi -
thermal envi ronments (Arri bas
thi s vol ume). At
one extreme are the erupti ons of magma through
geothermal systems, whi ch i n recent hi story
i ncl ude the 1886 erupti on of Mt. Tarawera i n New
Zeal and (Si mmons
el a/. 1993), the 19?6-1977
eruption at Krafla in Iceland (with
the first
recorded di scharge of magma from a geothermal
wel l : Larsen et al . 1979), and the l 99l erupti on of
Mt. Pi natubo, Phi l i ppi nes, formerl y a geothermal
prospect of t he Phi l i pi ne Nat i onal Oi l Company
(wi th two pre-erupti on expl orati on wel l s: Del fi n et
al. 1992). At the other extreme is the evidence for
steady i nfl ux of magmati c components (hel i um,
ni trogen, chl ori ne, and water) i nto geothermal
systems and epi thermal deposi ts. These extremes
al so represent end-members on a ti me-scal e of
i nfl uence, one nearl y i nstantaneous, from hours to
days, and the other conti nuous, over hundreds to
tens of thousands of years. At ti me-scal es i n
between are the pul ses of fl ui d that refl ect the
magmati c i nputs i nferred for Fresni l l o, Hi shi kari ,
and Comstock. These sharp changes i n fl ui d
composi ti ons have not been recogni zed i n acti ve
systems, though wel l s have onl y been moni tored
for a maxi mum of about 35 years (e.g., Wai rakei ).
Fl ui d pul ses are al so known f rom t he mi neral ogi c
record of some acti ve geothermal systems; for
exampl e, 618O.ut.i t" val ues at Kawerau i ndi cate the
former fi el d-wi de presence of a carbon di oxi de
and 6r8o-enri ched thermal fl ui d (up to 5
"/un
compared to current val ues of
-3.75
' ' l n,,)
of l i kel y
magmat i c ori gi n (Chri st enson
1989). Thus bot h
transi ent and persi stent i nfl uxes of magl nati c
contri buti ons are possi bl e.
Onl y at Fresni l l o, f or whi ch hi gh-sal i ni t y
bri nes of rnagmati c ori gi n are i nterpreted, can a
cause and effect rel ati onshi p between magmati c
i nputs and mi neral i zati on be consi dered. For other
deposi ts, such as Hi shi kari and Comstock. the
avai l abi l i ty of metal -transporti ng l i gands i n
mi neral i zi ng fl ui ds cannot be assessed by current
anal yti cal techni ques and, therefore, any geneti c
l i nk between magmati c i nputs and mi neral i zati on
i s i nferred onl y by spati al associ ati on between
preci ous-metal occurrence and i sotopi cal l v
(6180
S.F. Simmons
and 6D) enr i ched gangue mi ner al s. Even i n t he
' l VZ.
where rel ati vel y hi gh concentrati ons of
preci ous metal s are bei ng fl uxed i n
"gassy"
geot her mal l l ui ds cont ai ni ng magmat i c
contri buti ons, the cause and effect rel ati on i s
ambi guous as the source of aqueous sul fur,
assumi ng i t accounts for the aqueous Au and Ag,
cannot be traced. The ul ti mate source of metal s i n
l ow-sul fi dati on epi thermal deposi ts thus remai ns
poorl y understood.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I t hank J. W. Hedenqui st , J. Mar gol i s, R.
Sher l ock, and J. F. H. Thompson f br t hei r per -
cepti ve comments and cri ti ci sms of an earl i er
versi on of thi s paper, and thank Loui se Cotteral l ,
who drafted some of the Fi gures.
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