(iii) f l ( x ) - 3 ( ~ ~ + 3 ~ + 1 ) ~ ( 2 x + 3 ) .

f " ( x ) = 6 ( ~ ~ + 3 ~ + 1 ) ( 2 r + 3 ) ~ + 6 ( ~ ~ + 3 ~ + 1 ) ~
El 3
a5
v = -
dv
A, ( ,-2 = 6 4 x 2 , ~ =
= 64.
!
e - e a r t e
1. (i) sinhx =
2
so-(sinhx) =
dr 2
a cosh x
sinhx @sh2x-sinh2x
(ii) tanh x = = , , -sech2x
I
1
2.
cosh-'x = ymeancnshy = x,sosinhy9 = l and2 = -
dr dr sinh
msh2y - ~ i n h ~ ~ + l s o s i n b ~ ~ = x 2 - l s o s i ~ l h ~ - d E
d 1
3( i ) r n ( s i n f i ) = c o s ( f i ) -
2f1
1 2 r
(ii) - log, ( x 2 + 1 p
- -
1
2 [
X
log, e = -
1 2dxTxdxT x 2 +
El6
Ay = ~ ( X + A ~ ) ~ - ~ ( X + A X ) - ~ X ~ - ~ X = &A~ + 2 ( Ax ) ~ - 5 Ax
= ( 4 ~- 5 ) Ax +2 ( AX) ~
dy = f l ( x ) Ax = ( 4r - 5) hn
SoAy = dy+2( Ax) 2
Forx = 5, Ax = 0.1,
Ay = ( 20 - 5 ) ( 0.1 ) + 2 ( 0.1 )2 = 1.5 + 0.02 = 1.52.
El7
~y - ( X + A X ) ~ - ~ ( . ~ + A X ) ~ + ~ ( ~ + A ~ ) - I - X ~ + ~ ~ ~ - ~ X + 1
= ( ~ x ~ - ~ ~ + ~ ) A x + ( ~ x - ~ + A K ) ( A K ) ~ = j y X ) A x + ~ ( A x ) ~
where = 3x-3+Ax.Meredy = f l ( x ) Ax = (3x2-6r+3)Ax.
If x = 2,Ax = 0.02thenAy = (12-12+3)(0. 02) = 0.06.
Limit, Continuity and
DitTerentiability '
- . Now
Y
. Hence
f ( a ) o r f ( b ) s o t h a t f ( c ) = M f ( a ) * c a
f ( c ) = M f ( b ) - c b.
This means that c lies in the oper interval a,b. We shall now show that c is the point
where f ' ( c ) = 0. Since f ( c ) is an absolute maximum off (x), we have
I then
(' + Ax ) -f
s 0 whenever Ax > 0
Ax
and
(' + A ) -'(') r 0 whenever Ax c 0
Ax
It is given that f' (x) exists for all x E ( a, b ).
Therefore,
c +Ax ) - f ( ~ )
rim f ( = f' (c) s 0.
A x - O + A X
The only possibility for 0 s f'(c) s 0 is f' (c) = 0.
Consequently we have shown the existence of at least one point c E ( a, b ) where
f' (x) vanishes. There may exist more than one such point.
The conclusion of Rolle's theorem also holds true if we replace the condition
f (a) = f (b) by the condition f (a) = f (b) = 0 keeping other conditions the same.
Rolle's theorem has a very simple geometrical interpretation. If the graph of a
Mean-Value l%eorems
function is an unbroken curve intersecting the x- axis at the points a and b and if
the curve has a tangent at every point except, possibly, at the end points, then there
must be at least one point (c , f (c) ) on the curve different from the end points at
which the tangent is parallel to the x-axis (Figure 3.1 (a) and 3.1 (b)).
Example 1 :
k
li
!
The polynomial function f (x) = x3 -x
is continuous and differentiable for all real x. If we take a = -1 and b = 1 , we
have f (-1) = 0 = f (1). Therefore the conditions of Rolle's theorem are satisfied
on [-1 , 1 1. Thus there must be at least a number c such that -1 c c c 1 and
f'(c) = 3c2 - 1 = 0. In fact we have two values
Both the mots are between -1 and 1.
The hct i on
iszematx - Oandx - land* ubtsontheopenintewal(0,1).Butthe
h
function is not continuous on [0 , I]. Tbe end pointx - 1 is a point of
discontinuity. Therefore Rollers theorem is not applicable on the interval [0 , 1 1.
You can observe that * b different 6um icm ( dy/& - 1 ) on ( 0, l ) .
h 1
El
Can Rolle's theorem be applied to each of the following functions? Find 'c'in case
it can be applied.
(a) f (x) - six? x on the internal [ 0, x ]
@) f ( x) - 2 + 4 on [-2, 2]
(c) f ( x) - si nx+cosx on
(d) f ( x) - 2-2xon[0, 1].
Let f ( x) - a? + bx + c. Ifp and q are two real numbers such that f @) - f (q),
prove that
3 3 LAGRANGE'S MEAN-VALUE THEOREM
Let us oonsider a function f (x) which satisfies all that conditions of Rolle's theorem except
the condition, f (a) = f (b). Then the conclusion of the theorem need not hold true
(Figure3.2). That is, there need not be a p6int ( c, f (c ) ) on the graph where the tangent is
parallel to the x-axis. However, there appears to be a point where the tangent is parallel to
the chord that joins the points ( a, f ( a ) ) and ( b, f ( b ) ) of the graph y = f (x). A
generalization of Rolle's Theorem, called Mean-Value Theorem, says that this will always
happen, if the curve y - f (x) is continuous on [ a, b ] and differentiable on ( a,b).
Theorem 2 : (The Mean Value Theorem)
Let f: [ a, b ] - R be a function such that
(1) f is continuous on [ a, b ]
(2) f is differentiable on ( aJb )
Then there exists at least one point c E ( a, b ) such that
We shall prove the mean-value theorem by constructing a function G that satisfies
the conditions of Rolle's theorem.
We know that
f (b) -f (a)
b-a
is the slope of the chord joining P : ( a, f ( a )) and Q : ( b, f ( b )) and its equation is
x-a b-a
( x -,a ) where ( xJy )
='y(x)-f(a)+ b-a
is a point on the line PQ.
I
Define a function G : [ a, b ] - R by G (x) - f (x) - y ( x) (the vertical distance between
the curve y = f (x) and the chord PQ at an arbitrary point x of [aJb I). That is,
I
G ( 4 - f ( 4 -f ( 4 - L @H @ (x. -a)
b-a
I We see that
I
i
(1) G is continuous over [ a, b ]
(2) G' = f'(x)- exists at each point of ( a, b ) and
b-a
I
(3) G (a) - G (b) - 0.
Hence Rolle's theorem applies to G (x), and there exists a number c E ( a, b ) for which
r
G'(c) - Othat is
f (b) -f (a)
f'(4 = b-o
We give below two equivalent forms of the above conclusion of the mean-value theorem:
(i) f ( b) - f ( a) - ( b- a) f ( c) , wherea<c<b
(ii) fl (a+h)-f(a) = hf' (a+Bh)whereO<B<l.
Example3 :
Lety = 2 and -2 s x s 2.
Find a number c such that the tangent to the curve at the point P :.( c, f (c ) ) is
panllel to the chord joiningA : ( - 2, -8 ) and B : ( 2,8 )
1
We see that y = . I ? satisfies the conditions of lagrange's mean-value theorem.
cry
The slope of the tangent toy = 2 is - = 32.
1
&
The slope ofAB is
By Lagrange's theorem we have a point 'c' such that - 2 c < 2 and
f'(c) = 3c2 = 4 which implies that c - * - . There are two values of c
d-5
between -2 and 2 where the tangent to the curve y - x3 is parallel to the chord AB.
Example 4 :
I
Check whether Lagrange's formula is applicable to the function y = 1 - xY3 over
the interval [ - 1,l ]
I
Solution :
'll)e function is continuous in [ -1 , 1]
Tlie derivative
Y' (x) - - 2 i exists at all non-zero points of I - 1.1 1 and does not exist at 1
x - 0. Moreover. the slow ofAB is 1
2
and y ' (c) = - - (c)% 0 for any finite c.
3 1
Lagrange's formula does not hold in this case because the derivativef' (x) fails to
existatapointof(-1, 1), y = f(x)doesnothaveatangentatx=O.
The following four important theorems are based on Lagrange's mean-value
theorem.
Theorem 3 :
Let f (x) be a continuous function over [ a,b ] and differentiable over ( q b ). If
f' ( x) - 0 for all x E ( a, b ) then f (x) is a constant function over [ q b 1.
I f f (x) is non-constant and continuous over [ q b ] then there exist two distinct
points x, and x2 of [ a,b ] such that f (x,) # f (xJ. Then by Lagrange's mean-value
theorem on [ x,, x2 ] we get a point c such that xl < c < x2
f ' (4 -
f ( ~ 2 ) -f ( ~ 1 )
#
x2 -x1
This result contradicts the basic assumption that f ( x) - 0 for
x E ( a, b ).Therefore, f (x) must be a constant function for x E [ a, b 1.
Theorem 4 :
Let f (x) and g(x) be two continuous functions over [a,b ] and differentiable over
(a,b ). Iff' (x) = g' (x) for x E ( a, b ) then there exists a real constant K for which
f ( x) = g( x) t Kf o r x E [ a, b] .
We consider the function h ( x) - f (x) - g (x). Then h' ( x) - 0 for x E ( a, b ). By
theorem (i) h ( x) = a constant ( say K ) on [ a , b 1.
Therefore f (x) = g ( x) t K, for x E [ a, b 1.
Theorem 5 :
Let f ( x) be differentiable over ( a, b ) and f' ( x) > 0 there. If x, and + are two
numbers such that a < x, < x2 < b. Then f (x,) < f (x2).
We consider the interval [ xl, x2 1. By Lagrange's theorem there exists a number c
such that xl < c < x2
f' (4 -
f (x2) - f ( ~ 1 )
x2 - 1 1
It is given that x2 > xl and f (c) > 0. Therefore, we get f (x2) - f (x,) > 0 or
Theorem 6 :
Let f ( x) be differentiable over ( a, b ), and f (x) < 0 there. If xl and x2 are two
points such that a < xl < x2 < b then f (x,) > f (x2).
You can prove the Theorem 6 on similar lines of Theorem 5.
Verify the Mean Value Theorem (MVT) for the following functions:
(b) f ( x) = h2 t 3 on [ 0, 2 ]
E4
Let f be a function on [ 4 6 ] satisfying the assumptions of MVT. Let c be a point
guaranteed by the MVT. Rove that if g (x) = f (x) + 1 and h (x) = f (x) + 2 for all
x in [ u,b 1, then the same point c satisfies - gl(c) and
b- a
hO-h - hl(c)also.
b- a
3.4 INCREASING AND DECREASING FUNCTIONS
A function f (x) is said to be increasing (or decreasing) over an interval I iff (x,) c f (xz) (or
f (x,) > f (x2 ) ) whenever x,, 3 E I and x, < 3 .
Theorem 5 of (3.3) indicates that iff' (x) > 0 over ( a, b ) then f (x) is increasing over ( a, b ).
It can also be shown that iff (x) > 0 over ( a, b ) and iff (x) is continuous over [ a, b ) (or
( a, b ] 3 then f (x) is increasing over [ a, b ) ( or ( a, b ] ). You can prove these results on
your own, by showing that f (a) < f (x) ( or f (x) < f ( b ) ) whenever x E ( a, b ) using
Lagrange's mean-value theorem. Further, you can deduce iff (x) is wntinuous over [ a, b ]
and f' (x) > 0 over ( a, b ), then f ( x ) is increasing over ( a, b 1.
In a similar way we can prove that if f'(x) < 0 over ( a, b ), then f (x) is decreasing over
( a, b ). In addition, iff (x) is continuous over [ a, b ] ( or ( a, b ] ) then f (x) is decreasing
over [ a, b ] ( or ( a, b ] ). Then it follows that iff' (x) < 0 wer (qb) and continuous over
[a, b] then f ( x ) is decreasing over [ a, b ] .
Example 5 :
Determine the intervals over which the function y = x3 - 3x2 is (i) increasing, and
(ii) decreasing;
Solution :
The function f (x) = 2 - 3 2 is continuous and f' (x) - 3 2 - 6r = 3x ( x - 2 )
exists for all real x E R, f' (x) = 0 for x = 0 and x - 2
Therefore we consider the intervals ( - -, 0 ), ( 0, 2 ) and ( 2, - ).
IfxE(--, O) then f (x)>O
I f xE( O, 2) then f'(x)<O
I f xE( 2, m) then f (x)>O
It follows that f (x) is increasing over ( - oo,O ] decreasing wer [ 0, 2 ] and
increasing wer [ 2, ) (can you draw the graph?)
Show that the function f (x) = tan x increases on ( - n/2, n/2 ) and ( n/2,3n/2 ).
E6
X
Examine whether the function f (x) = - is increasing over [ 0, n/2 ).
CQSX
Lety = ~-fisinx,~sxsx.~indthevaluesofx~[~,x]wherey'c~,~' 5 0
andyl> 0.
3.5 CAUCHY'S MEAN-VALUE THEOREM
This theorem is also called generalised mean-value theorem for derivatives and is useful in
evaluating indeterminate forms which you will be studying in the next unit
Theorem 6 :
Iff (x) and g (x) are umtinuous functions aver [ a, b ] and differentiable over
( a, 6 ) and for x E ( a, b ), g' ( x ) z 0 then there exists a number c such that
a < c < b .
and
Prod:
First of all we shall show that
g( a) z g( b) if g ' ( x ) rr 0 for x E( a , b ) .
If we suppose g ( a) - g (b) then by Rolle's theorem we shall have at least one
point c E ( a, b ) such that g' (c) = 0. But it cannot happen since g' (x) cr 0 for
every x E ( a, b ). Thus g (a) H g (b).
L
We next wnsider the function
You can check that h (x) satisfies all the conditions of Rolle's theorem. Therefore,
there exists a point c E (a, b ) such that h'(c) = 0
You can note the following:
(1) If g (x) - x, then Cauchy's theorem reduces to Lagrange's hemem.
(2) We cannot prove the Cauchy's theorem by applying Lagrange's theorem to
the numerator and denornimtor of the fraction separately
g t b) - g (a)
because by Lagrange's theorem we shall get
f (b) - f (a) f (~1) b- a
I -
g(b)-g(a) - g(b)-g(a) g'(c2)
b- a
where a u c, < b and a < c2 < b andc, need not be. equal to c2 This result is not that
of Cauchy.
Example 6 :
DO the functions f (x) = 8 and g (x) =
2
ix?
satisfy the conditions of Cauchy's
theorem in the interval [ - 3' 3 ] ?
Solution :
One of the conditions of the Cauchy's theorem is g' (x) * 0 for x E ( a, b ). Here
3
B ( 4 = - a = -3andb = 3.Wenotethatg(-3) = g(3),g(x)is
1 +2
continuous over [ - 3, 3 ] and gl(x) exists over ( - 3, 3 ). Therefore by Rolle's
theorem there is a number c such that -3 < c < 3 and gl ( c) = 0 and the condition
g' (x) + 0 for x E ( - 3, 3 ) does not hold. Cauchy's theorem is not applicable here.
Example 7 :
Use Cauchy's theorem to show that 1 + x < 6.
Solution :
Let f (x) = kc, g (x) = 1 + X. ThenJ.)(x) 9 d and gl(x) = 1. The functions/(.r)
and g (x) satisfy the conditions of Cauchy's theorem on the interval [ 0, x ] for any
finite x. Therefore, there exists a point c such that 0 < c < x and
Find all values of c that satisfy the wnclusion of the Cauchy's mean-value theorein
for the functions and intervals given, if applicable.
3 2
X -X
(a) f(x) = -
2
2
, g(x) = x , a = 0 and b = 3.
@) f (x) = xlR, g (x) = 2 , a, b E R.
3.6 TAYLOR'S THEOREM
An important problem of applied mathematics is to approximate a given function by means
of a Suitable polynomial function, because polynomials are comparatively easy to handle.
For example, you can easily f i d the approximate numerical value of a function by
expanding it into a power series and evaluating the first few terms. In fact this is sometimes
the only method of computing the function. It is also possible to estimate the error involved
by such an approximation, so that you can improve the result by adding more and more
tenns of the power series until the approximation is satisfactory. The general method for
expanding functions into power series is by means of Taylor's formula. We formulate the
problem as follows. We qssume that the function y = f (x) has derivatives up to ( n + 1 )th
order, inclusive, in some neighbourhood of the point x = a. We shall find a polynomial
P, (x) of degree s n such that
d P . ( x ) 1 = f ( a ) ...
P,, ( a) = f (a),
(3.1)
It is reasonable to accept that such a polynomial, in some sense, is close to the function f (x).
P, (x) = c , + c , ( x - a ) + ~ ~ ( x - a ) ~ + ...+ c, ( x- a) ".
We shall determine the constants co, cl , c ~ . . . c, so that the conditions (3.1) will be satisfied.
Then we obtain
f ( a) = P,, ( a) = Co
= n . ( n - 1 )...2.1 c,
co = f (a), c, =
@!c2 r ( a ! c n - f ( n ' ( a )
l ! 2 ! n !
( x - a ) ( ~ - a ) ~ ( ~ - a ) ~ f " ( a )
P, = f (a) + 7 f'(a) + 7 f" ( a) + ...+
n ! (3.2)
Let R, (x) be the difference of values of the function f ( x ) and the corresponding
polynomial constructed P, (x) , Figure 3.4.
Y
0
Figurc 3.4
pproximation for f (x) .
Here R, (x) is called remainder. We shall try now to find a suitable form of R, (x) in terms
of some higher order derivative off (x) so that we can estimate the error involved in the
polymial approximation of a function. The result is given in the following theorem which is
called Taylor's Formula with a remainder.
Mean-Value Theorems
Theorem 7 :
(Taylor's Fornula with Remainder)
If f (x), f @),f" (x), ..., f"i@) are mtinuow on the dosed interval [ a, b ] and i f
f("+ ) (x) exists in the open i n t e ~ d (a, b )then there exists a point c, a < c < b
such that
i b - ~ ) ~
f ( b) =f ( a) +( b- a) f ( a) + 2! f" (a) + ....
+ M f ~ ) ( a ) + W f ( n + l ) ( c ) n ! ( n + l ) !
We construct a polynomial P, (x) of degree s n such that
d
( a = a , , C x 1
- f (a) -.
x- a
d"
....-p,,(x ) I -f (")(a).
dd' x- a
As you have already seen, such a polynomial is (3.2), i.e.,
+ ('-"r C) (a).
n !
The remainder R, (x) is defined by R,, (x) = f (x) - P, Q.
Let US write it in the form
( f - - a) "+l KQ.
Rn( x) ' ( n + l ) !
"She function K (x) is to be determined.
I f x - b, we can write
+ w (4 (. ) + WK (b).
n ! ( n + l ) !
We now consider the auxiliary function
... _ - R ) ( b - ~ ) " + ' ~ ( ~ ) .
n ! ( n + l ) !
In ~~mtruding Q (x) we have taken the diferena o f f (6) and the right side expression of
(3.4) by replacing a by x . You can check that Q (x) satisfies the conditions of Rolle's
thtorem on [ a, b ] . ' lbmfore thm exists at least a number c E ( a, b ) such that Q ' (c) = 0.
Since
... + ... - n! @ d f ( n + ~ ) h ) + W K ( b ) n 1
Therefore K (b) = f (" + ' ) (c),
for some c between a and b.
The theorem is proved.
!
Corollary 1 :
i
It follows fiom the Taylor's theorem that :
If f (x) has derivatives of all orders in a neighbourhood I of the point x = a, then
for each positive integer n and for each x E I
+
- a n , , (x-a)'"
n ! (a)+ ( n + l ) ! f'"+"(c)
for some c between a and x.
Wecanwritec = a+O( x- a) wher eO<O<l .
The above formula (3.5) is called Taylor's formula of the function f (x) with
remainder.
Corollary 2 :
When the remainder
(x-a)""
Rn(x)- ( n + l ) ! p""(c)+ o
as n -r for all x in a neighbourhood of a, we say that the Taylor-series expansion
for f (x) converges to f (x) on that interval and write
1
The right side of equation (3.6) is also called the power series expansion off (x) in
powers of ( x - a ).
Corollary 3 :
If in Taylor's formula (3.5) we put a = 0, we will have
x"
+ , f '"I (0) +
n .
"I" ,
f ( n+l ) ( Or ) wher eO<O<l .
( n + l ) .
(3.7)
This special case is known as Maclaurin's fonnula.
Example 7 :
Write the Taylor's formula for the function
y = sin x about the point x = 0 with remainder Rn (x).
y - sinx
y(0) = 0
y' - ms x - sin(:+x), yl(0) = sinz - 1
2
y" = - si nx = sin 2. - +x , yn(0) = si nn = 0
y = sin n . - + x , y" (0) = sin (. 5).
( a
Then the Taylor's formula for sin x about x - 0 is
where0 a c a x .
We note that if the function sinx is approximated by the polynomial
2 2
x- - +- - ...+? sin n-
3 ! J ! n.
the error involved is
for some c between 0 and x.
Then
To obtain the above inequality we have used the,,fact
(si n01 % 1.
In the limit, as n -, = we get
Thesefore we can make the error as small as we like by taking sufficiently large n.
Suab kind of approximate polynomials are generally used to find approximate values of
sine for 8 fixed.
Tbe graphs of the function sin x and first three approximations: PI (x) = x,
are shown in Figure 35.
We observe that the approximation improves, if n is increased.
Example 8 :
Use Maclaurin's formula and expand the function y = log, (1 + x ), defined in
[0 ,1] , in powers of x. Estimate the absolute error due to deleting the remainder
R9 (4.
Mean-Value Tbcoren~s
Solution :
I
f (0) = log, 1 = 0
f ( x) = ( - 1 In -
( n - I ) !
f ( n ) ( ~ ) = ( - ~ ) ~ - l ( n - l ) !
( x + lln'
Therefore the Maclaurin formula for log, ( 1 + x ) is
whereO<c<x.
The error term when log, ( 1 + x ) is approximated by a polynomial of degree
n = 9i s
The absolute error is
because
O s x r l and - <I .
1 + c
Example 9 :
Expand the polynomial
p ( x ) = ~ - ~ 4 + ~ - ~ + & - l i n p o w e r s o f ( r - l ) .
Solution :
By Taylor's fonnula in powers of ( x - 1)
+ up 5!
(I) + MP 6! (6) (1) + ..... + yp "(1)
where c is between 1 and x.
We obtain
p( l ) - 0, d ( 1 ) = 0 , ~ " (1) - 0
p (3) (1) - 18,p (4) (1) 0 72,p (1) = 120
p ' 6) (x) = 0,p (7) (x) - 0, .....
Therefore,
= 3 ( ~ - 1 ) ~ + 3 ( x - l ) ~ + ( x - l ) ~ .
This equality is exact and holds true for all x.
E9
Use Maclaurin's formula to establish the inequality cos x r 1 -2/2
Write Taylor's formula of the functiony - d? about the point a = 1 with
remainder R3 (x).
1
Verify the quadratic approximations - = 1 + x + 2 near x = 0 a ~ ~ d deterlni~~e '
1 -x
its accuracy for ( x I s 0.1.
3.7 SUMMARY
In this unit we havk
1. proved Rolle's theorem and learned the geometrical meaning of it;
2. used Rolle's theorem to prove Lagrange's mean-value theorem and Cauchy's
mean-value theorem and learned about their applications;
3. derived a few consequences of Lagrange's theorem;
4 . derived the Taylor's formula with remainder for functions satisfying certain
conditions and used it to write polynomial approximations for given functions and
estimated the error involved in such approximations.
3.8 SOLUTIONS / ANSWERS
(a) f ( x ) = sin2 x is continuous on [ 0, x 1, differentiable in
( 0, n ) and f ( 0 ) = 0 = f ( x ) so Rolle'\ theorem can be applied. Now
n
f ' ( c ) = 2si nccosc = Oforc = -
2 '
@) f ( x ) = x + 4 is continuous on [ - 2' 2 1, differentiable in
( - 2' 2 ) and f ( - 2 ) = 22 + 4 = f ( 2 )so Rolle's theorem can be applied.
No wf f ( c ) - 2c = Oforc = 0.
(c) f ( x ) = sin x + cos x is continuous on 0 -- , differentiable in
I
(0, I 1, ( 0 ) = 1 = ( z 1 so Rolle'slheorim cannot be used. One may see
, I
fi
that f ' ( c ) = 3c2- 2 = Oforc = * - o u t o f w ~ i c ~ ~ i s i n ~ ~ , ~ ~ s o G
that f ' ( c ) = 0 may be true even if Rolle's theorem cannot be used.
E2
Take the interval [ p, q 1. Then Rolle's theorem can be used for
f ( X ) = ax + bx + c since f ( x ) is continuous on [p, q 1, differentiable in (p, q )
andf ( p) = f ( q) . Thenf f ( c) =2 a c +b = Oforsomecin[p,q].Here
b
c = - - Now consider the equation f ( x ) = ax + bx + c = 0.Obviousl y if the
2a'
-b 1
twomotsarepandq,thenp+q = -sothatc = - ( p + q ) and
a 2
(a) f ( x ) = tan x is continuous in
2 1- 0 4
f l ( c ) = sec c = -
2
= - i.e. sec c = -. Such a point will exist
X X
--0
fi
4
fi X
because cos c = -for some 8 between [ 0, - 1. For this note that
2 4
E
intermediate value theorem, some 8 in
1
l1 -3 - 4 - c - - which is inside the interval. @) f l ( c ) - 4 c +3 = -
2 4'
2 1
(c) .J' ( c ) = 3c = - = 1, which means c = * both of which are in the
2
interval.
E4
Wehavegl ( x) = f l ( x) f oral l xi n( a, b) andg( b) - g( a) = f ( b ) - f ( a ) .
Agamhl ( x) - f l ( x) f or al l xi n( a, b) andh; b) - h( a) - f ( b ) - f ( a ) . /
ES
f ( x ) - tan x means f ' ( ; ) = sec2 x > 0 for all x; so it is increasing everywhere,
and in particular on the intervals given.
E6
increasing.
E7
y - x - f i s h , * f l ( x ) = 1 - ~ c ~ . S o f ' ( x ) < O f o r
X
decreases for 0 to - and its value decreases from 0 to - 1, we have
2
3
(a) Cauchy's MVT conditions are satisfied, f ' ( x ) - -x -x, g ' ( x ) = 2x H 0
2
cancelled since c H 0.
1
%
b"-a"
Now - -
1 a-fi
2 2 ' V-P - b 2 - a 2 s 0 C - [ a s ] '
b - a
Meaa-Value 'lheorems
UNIT 4 APPLICATIONS
Structure
'4.1 Introduction
Objectives
4.2 Applications to Geometry
4.2.1 Geometrical Meaning of the Derivative
4.2.2 Equations of the Tangent and Normal at a Point
4.2.3 Angle of Intersections between Two Curves
4.2.4 Differential Coefficient of the Length of an Arc of y - f ( x )
4.3 Maxima and Minima
4.3.1 Necessary Condition for a Maximum and Minimum
4.3.2 Geometrical Interpretation
4.3.3 Points where f '( x ) does not exist
4.3.4 First Suflicient Condition for a Maximum or a Minimum-Change of Sign of
First Derivative
4.3.5 Rule for Finding Maxima and Minima
4.3.6 Second Sufticient Condition for Maximum and Minimum (Use Seoond
Derivative)
4.3.7 Greatest and Least Values of a Fundion in Closed Interval
4.3.8 Maxima and Minima : Problems
4.4 Indeterminate Forms
4.4.1 The Indeterminate Form OD
4.4.2 The Indeterminate Form w /
4.4.3 Further Indeterminate Forms
4.9 Summary
4.1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 2, we defined the derivative of a function-We studied several important theorems
like Rolle'$ theorem, Mean value theorems etc. Differential Calculus is a very useful tool in
studying pnctical problems. In this unit we shall study some applications of the derivative
of a function. In Section 4.2 we propose to study application of derivatives to geometry. In
4.3 we shall discuss how derivatives can be used to determine the points where a
differentiable function has maxima and minima and how to solve practical problems
involving minimisation or maximisation of some functions.
0 bj ec tives
After reading this unit, you should be able to
*
find the tangent and normal to the graph of a given function at given points,
* find the angle of intersection between two curves,
* find the curvature, radius, centre and circle of curvature of a curve,
* locite the points where a function has a maximum or a minimum,
,
*
solve some problems when it is required to minimise or maximise a function, and
*
to evaluate limits of functions which have indeterminate forms 0/0, m/=, 0.m
00 - QO, o., mO, or IS.
APPLICATIONS TO GEOMETRY