The Digestive System

Digestive processes
o Ingestion the intake of food
o Digestion the mechanical and chemical breakdown of food into a form usable
by the body
Mechanical digestion the physical breakdown of food into smaller pieces
Chemical digestion the chemical breakdown of macromolecules into
monomers (via enzymes)
o Absorption the uptake of nutrients into the epithelial cells of the digestive tract
o Defecation the removal of undigested materials
General characteristics of the digestive tract
o Layers of the wall
Mucous membrane involved in secretion, absorption, and protection
Submucosa provides nutrients for the other layers via blood vessels;
contains nerves and lymphatic vessels
Muscular layer mixes and moves the contents of that section of the tube
Serous layer lubricates the organs and reduces friction
o Movement of material through the digestive tract is primarily carried out by
peristalsis.
Peristalsis alternate waves of contraction and relaxation that propel the
contents of that tube forward.
o Innervation of the digestive tract
Parasympathetic impulses generally cause an increase in digestive
activities
Sympathetic impulses generally inhibit digestive activities and contract
sphincter muscles.
Organs of the Digestive Tract
o The Mouth opening to the digestive tract
Functions of the mouth
Opens to the outside of the body to facilitate feeding
Aids in preparing the food for digestion
Serves as an organ of speech and pleasure
Includes
Cheeks form the lateral walls of the oral cavity
Lips - help gauge temperature and texture
The tongue
o Aids in mixing food with saliva
o Pushes the food into and away from the teeth
o Pushes the food towards the pharynx for swallowing
o Papillae are present on the surface of the tongue
Contain taste buds
Facilitate food manipulation
The palate forms the roof of the oral cavity
The teeth
o Two sets of teeth
Primary teeth teeth that fall out (baby teeth)
Secondary teeth teeth that are used for all of the
adult life
o Types of teeth
Incisors (8) used for biting
Canines (4) used for grasping and tearing
Bicuspids (8) used for grinding and crushing
Molars (12) for grinding only
Saliva and the Salivary glands
o Function of saliva
Moistens food
Binds pieces of food together
Begins the digestion of carbohydrates and fats
Makes taste possible
Regulates pH in the mouth
Cleanses the mouth and inhibits bacterial growth
o Composition of Saliva
Mostly water
Salivary amylase enzyme that begins starch
digestion in the mouth
Lingual lipase enzyme that digests fat
Mucus binds food and lubricates it
Immunoglobulin A (IgA) antibody that inhibits
bacterial growth
Electrolytes including sodium, potassium,
chloride, phosphate, and bicarbonate ions
o The salivary glands
Parotid glands
Submandibular glands
Sublingual glands
o Salivation stimulated by the sight, smell or thought of
food; also stimulated by parasympathetic impulses, the
presence of food in the oral cavity, and irritation of the
stomach and esophagus
Mastication breaks the food down into smaller pieces; increases the
surface area
o The pharynx passageway for air, food, and drink
Swallowing
o The Esophagus the tube that connects the pharynx to the stomach
Anatomical features associated with the esophagus
Esophageal hiatus the opening in the diaphragm that for the
esophagus
Cardiac sphincter group of circular muscles at the end of the
esophagus
o Primarily prevents regurgitation of food; protects the
esophagus from stomach acids
o The Stomach
Gross anatomy of the stomach
Regions of the stomach
o Cardiac area adjacent to the opening from the esophagus
o Fundic superior-most section
o Body the main part of the stomach
o Pyloric muscular section that pushes the stomach contents
into the small intestine
Pyloric sphincter a group of circular muscles that
control the movement of stomach contents into the
small intestine.
Microscopic anatomy of the stomach
Mucosa simple columnar epithelium
Gastric pits cells at the base of the gastric pits divide and produce
new epithelial cells
Glandular cells
o Mucous cells secrete mucus
o Parietal cells - secrete hydrochloric acid and intrinsic
factor
o Chief cells secrete pepsinogen
Gastric secretions
Hydrochloric acid makes the stomach acidic
o Activates pepsin
o Denatures proteins
o Destroys microorganisms
Pepsin enzyme that splits proteins
Intrinsic factor aids in the absorption of vitamin B12
Vomiting induced by excessive stretching of the stomach
Protection of the stomach
Mucous coat produces a highly alkaline mucus
Epithelial cell replacement every 3 to 6 days
Tight junctions between the epithelial cells prevent gastric juice
from seeping between the cells.
Regulation of gastric function
Cephalic phase the stomach responds to the sight, smell, taste, or
thought of food
Gastric phase the presence of food in digestive tract, the stomach
distension, and changes in pH stimulate gastric secretions
Intestinal phase gastric secretions are in response to the intestinal
gastrin
o Gastrin is released when the stomach contents first enter
the small intestine
o The Liver
Functions of the liver
Regulates glucose concentrations in the blood
Controls the synthesis and catabolism of fats and proteins
Stores glycogen, iron, and vitamins A, D, and B12
Filters damaged red blood cells and bacteria from the blood
Detoxifies the blood
Microscopic anatomy of the liver
Hepatic lobule the smallest functional unit of the liver
o The Gallbladder stores and concentrates bile between meals
Bile composition
Bile salts aid in digestion
Bile pigments give it its green color; results from the breakdown
of red blood cells
Cholesterol used to produce bile salts
Some electrolytes are also present in bile
Function of bile salts
Emulsify fats
Aid in the absorption of fatty acids, cholesterol, and fat-soluble
vitamin D
o The Pancreas
Secrete enzymes that breakdown carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and nucleic
acids
Pancreatic juice also is high in bicarbonate ions neutralize the contents
coming from the stomach.
Regulation of pancreatic secretion
Parasympathetic impulses increase secretion
Hormones
o Secretin released in response to the acid in chyme
o Cholecystokinin released in response to the presence of
fats and proteins present in chyme
o The Small intestine most of the nutrient absorption takes place in the small
intestine
Gross anatomy of the small intestine
Parts of the small intestine
o Duodenum
o Jejunum
o Ileum
Other structural modifications
o Villi finger-like projections that increase the surface area
for nutrient absorption
o Microvilli microscopic finger-like projections on the
surface of epithelial cells
o Plicae circulares deep permanent folds of the mucosa
Increase surface area
Slows down the movement of chyme
Intestinal secretions
Mucus protects against acidity
Intestinal juice watery fluid that is used for nutrient absorption
o The Large intestine
Functions of the large intestine
Little or no digestive functions
Absorbs water and electrolytes
Forms and stores feces
Secretes mucus need for lubrication
Gross anatomy of the large intestine
Parts of the large intestines
o Ascending colon
o Transverse colon
o Descending colon
o Cecum
o Rectum storage area for feces
o Anal canal
o Anus opening of the anal canal to the exterior of the body
o Internal and external sphincter muscles control movement
of feces out of the body
No villi present
Bacterial flora
Break down cellulose
Produce vitamins K, B12, thiamine, and riboflavin
Produce methane gas the cause of flatulence
Absorption and motility
Peristalsis is sluggish to allow sufficient water and electrolyte
absorption
Mass movements
Defecation reflex stimulated by the filling of the rectum with feces