Approaches Issues and Debates - Evaluation Grid

For use with A2 Level Psychology by Michael W.
Eysenck
Published by Psychology Press. Copyright 2009 Psychology Press

Approaches, Issues, and Debates for AQA A2 Psychology

These are areas that are essential for good evaluation for the skills known as AO2 and AO3. You need to know which are
relevant to each sub-topic, and then practise using them on sample/past questions. You cannot do well in A2 without
considerable skill in using evaluation.
Issues include bias (culture- or gender-based), ethics (for human and non-human animal participants), methodology.
Debates include nature/nurture, free will and determinism, reductionism.
Approaches include cognitive, biological/physiological, behavioural/learning, and psychodynamic.
You need to practise using these to comment on, to evaluate, to identify strengths and weaknesses, and to explain the points you
are making.
Below is a set of grids, one for each A2 topic, with suggestions about appropriate/relevant issues, debates, and approaches to use
in evaluation. Checking these out and doing the Over to you! sections will help you score good marks in your exam answers.
NOTE: Only some, not all, issues/debates/approaches apply to any one sub-topic or essay question.

For use with A2 Level Psychology by Michael W. Eysenck

PSY3: BIOLOGICAL RHYTHMS AND SLEEP
Sub-topic Issue(s) Debate(s) Approach(es) Over to you! Further resources

Biological Rhythms Culture biasmany
cultures have a siesta so
their sleep rhythm is not
circadian; case studies
and small samples are
not generalisable; animal
studies might or might
not be generalisable
The siesta behaviour
suggests nurture as well
as nature is involved in
the circadian sleep
rhythm
Very biological, but
some research suggests
individual differences
Try writing a 15-minute
evaluation of the
research into biological
rhythms using these
and/or other ideas
Check the online
chapters on Approaches,
Issues, and Debates for
additional material to use
as evaluation
Sleep States Can we assume that
researchers see normal
sleep states when
participants are wired up
and in a laboratory? Is
there a validity or
mundane realism issue
here?
Endogenous and
exogenous control shows
nature and nurture
This reductionist stages-
of-sleep approach does
not explain the
differences between how
long people sleep, or
how sleep for an
individual varies
In what ways can non-
human animal studies
help our understanding
of sleep, and what are the
ethical issues of using
animals in this way?
Check out what validity
means, e.g. in Searle, A.
(1999) Introducing
Research and Data in
Psychology (Routledge),
p. 75
Disorders of Sleep What issues are there
when researching a
disorder? What are the
ethical concerns for such
a sensitive topic?
Is insomnia a genetic
condition (nature), or
learned (nurture)? What
sort of research could
help answer this
question?
Can you contrast what
the psychodynamic
approach might say
about somnambulism
with the biological
approach?
Consider what factors
can affect a persons
sleep. Can you write a
10-minute answer on
how psychological
knowledge could be
applied to support an
individual with
insomnia?
Go to www.bbc.co.uk
and search for sleep
disorders


PSY3: PERCEPTION
Sub-topic Issue(s) Debate(s) Approach(es) Over to you Further reading

Theories of
Perceptual
Organisation
Some research studies
are based on deception,
such as the visual
illusions. When or why
might such deception be
ethically acceptable?
Emotional and
motivational factors are
ignored in theories of
perception, so these
could be described as
being reductionist
Gregorys theory is
cognitive, and includes
the importance of
memory. How does this
differ from Gibsons
theory?
Pick one of the issues,
debates, or approaches
points and write a 10-
minute evaluation based
on your choice
Check out experimental
reductionism in the
online Debates in
Psychology chapter
Development of
Perception
The majority of research
in this area is based on
western individuals and
groups. What assumption
did the researchers make
which leads to criticism
that they showed cultural
bias?
Cross-cultural and other
studies have shown that
both nature and nurture
are involved in the
development of
perception
The importance of the
eyes and brain support a
biological approach to
perceptual development,
but this goes hand-in-
hand with environmental
factors, so that we make
sense of what we see
Plan, using a mind map
or other technique, how
you could write a 20-
minute answer on nature
and nurture and
perceptual development,
evaluating each approach
with examples and
explanations
The visual illusion
section of the Nature
Nurture chapter in Bells
(2002) Debates in
is worth a close look
Face Recognition
and Visual Agnosias
Studies of brain damage
can give valuable
information, but to what
extent would you
consider such a patient
capable of giving fully
informed consent? How
might this issue be dealt
with?
Research suggests that
the ability to recognise
faces (as opposed to
other stimuli) is
determined by the brain,
in the right fusiform face
area, which would make
this biological
determinism
Both the cognitive and
biological approaches
must apply here;
cognitive for memory of
faces, and biological for
recognition and
processing of visual
input
The very small number
of people with visual
agnosia means that
research is inevitably
biased. Does this mean
the research has little
value? Write a 10-minute
answer to this question
giving your arguments,
justification, evidence,
and explanations
The neurophysiology
section in J arvis (2000)
Theoretical Approaches
in Psychology
(Routledge), is a very
useful and quite detailed
account of brain
structure and function


PSY3: RELATIONSHIPS

The Formation,
Maintenance, and
Breakdown of
Romantic
Relationships
Culture bias shows up
here, also zeitgeist; very
northern European view
of romantic relationships
i.e. individualist, and
very mid twentieth
century
Do we have free will in
choosing romantic
partners, or are we
influenced or constrained
by our social group,
social/economic status,
and expectations?
Social factors would
support several theories,
but the cognitive
approach is also
suggested e.g. for equity
theory
Pick one of these ideas,
or choose another, and
write a 20-minute
evaluation of the theories
of romantic
relationships, including
discussion, evidence, and
explanations
Check out the section on
free will (and
determinism) in the
online Debates in
Psychology chapter
Human
Reproductive
Behaviour
What could be more
socially sensitive than
this? Private behaviour
will always be difficult
to research; are
participants likely to be
representative of the
population?
Free will does not seem
to feature here.
Behaviour is determined
by our genes, reduced to
our biological drive to
mate and reproduce
The evolutionary or
biological approach
ignores culture, social
norms, emotions, and
more
Write a 10-minute
discussion of the pros
and cons of the
evolutionary approach or
explanation of this
behaviour, identifying
strengths and
weaknesses
J arviss (2000)
Theoretical Approaches
in Psychology
(Routledge), has an
interesting short section
on mate selection and
evolutionary psychology
Effects of Early
Experience and
Culture on Adult
Relationships
Adolescence and
childhood are sensitive
topics to many; looking
back from the adult state
also has methodological
issues
The topic title suggests
that nurture may be more
influential than nature,
but this ignores
temperament, which is
mainly genetic
Both psychodynamic and
behavioural approaches
can apply
Construct a mind map, or
other detailed plan, of
how you could discuss
the ethical issues
involved in researching
early experiences
relating to adult
relationships
The excellent, and very
interesting, chapter on
socially sensitive
research in Banyard and
Flanagans (2005)
Ethical Issues and
Guidelines in
is well worth reading

PSY3: AGGRESSION

Social Psychological
Approaches to
Explaining
Aggression
Aggression is anti-social
behaviour, so
researching it is
sensitive; also, what
counts as aggression
varies from one cultural
group to another
If aggression is learned
as a child from the
domestic environment, is
this behaviour
determined by that
environment as well as
the effect of nurture?
Learning theory, faulty
cognition? What about
genes, hormones,
neurochemicals?
Mind map, or plan in
some other way with
detailed discussion
points, the debates about
aggression
Clarke (2003) has an
interesting section on
personality and
aggression in Pro-Social
and Anti-Social
Behaviour (Routledge)
Biological
Explanations of
Aggression
Research suggests the
brains limbic system has
a causal function; also
the pre-frontal cortex and
amygdala. But can we
generalise from animal
studies to humans; or
from murderers to the
population?
Some biological
evidence suggests
aggression could be
partly innate, so is this
determinism? Does this
absolve those people
from censure?
This biological approach
ignores alternative or
additional explanations
and factors such as
cognitive, emotional, and
social
Write a 10-minute
discussion of the
alternative or additional
factors ignored by the
biological approach
The online chapter
Approaches in
Psychology has a section
on the biological
approach which is really
useful reading
Aggression as an
Adaptive Response
We cannot test
evolutionary biological
explanations, and even
looking at current very
non-industrial cultures
cannot compensate for
this lack of empirical
evidence, however
appealing the
evolutionary explanation
This is an extreme nature
explanation, with little
nurture; it is also
deterministic and
reductionist, which
makes it a narrow
explanation when one
considers the complexity
of human behaviour
The evolutionary
approach is part of the
biological approach, and
ignores many social and
other factors, though
learning theory and
identity do support some
of the explanations
Write a 15-minute
discussion on the issues
around evolutionary
explanations, giving
clear explanations
The online chapter
Approaches in
Psychology has a section
on the evolutionary
approach which is really
useful reading

PSY3: EATING BEHAVIOUR

Eating Behaviour Food and eating are
emotive and sensitive
issues. To some, food
can equate to love; to
those who have
insufficient food, it
means life. Western
research assumes no
shortage of food, so this
is a bias issue
Clearly the need to eat is
nature (innate), but what,
and how, and when we
eat is nurture. In some
wealthy cultures,
individuals can choose
what and when they eat,
which could illustrate
free will, but in other
cultures there is no
choice
Several approaches
could explain this
behaviour, such as the
psychodynamic,
behavioural, and
biological views; there
are also social factors
that could affect eating
behaviours
Discuss, in a 15-minute
written answer with clear
explanations and
examples, how culture
affects eating behaviour
Access the BBCs
website www.bbc.co.uk
and search food and
mood
Biological
Explanations of
Eating Behaviour
Much of the empirical
evidence is based on
non-human animals,
which involves at least
two issues, the ethical
issue and the
generalisation issue
The common preference
across many, but not all,
cultures for alcohol,
could suggest some
biological determinism
Biological explanations,
including evolutionary
ones apply strongly, with
their strengths and also
their weaknesses
Mind map, or use
another strategy, to make
a detailed plan of how
you would organise a
discussion on the use of
non-human animals in
this research

Eating Disorders Main issues with any
disorder are the social
sensitivity; the ethics
such as gaining informed
consent to study
participants with
disorders; the small
sample size, and gender
and cultural bias
Neither free will nor
determinism explain why
some and not the
majority of people do not
develop these disorders.
Nature, and also nurture,
might be able to go some
way to explaining this
Biological and
psychodynamic
explanations do not deal
with the effect of culture
here; also the majority of
Western girls do not
develop these disorders,
which most approaches
do not explain
Write a 15-minute
discussion explaining
why/how the debates
relate or do not relate to
these disorders
Banyard and Flanagan
(2005) in Ethical Issues
and Guidelines in
have an interesting
section on dealing with
cultural sensitivity


PSY3: GENDER

Psychological
explanations of
Gender
Development
The social sensitivity of
gender issues, e.g.
gender stereotyping and
prejudice; gender
difference studies and
sample size
Nature and nurture
why is there little
difference in IQ but
much larger differences
in school achievement
between the sexes?
Cognitive theories apply
here, but so also do
social factors
Write a 15-minute
discussion on how a
named theory can or
cannot explain the debate
identified here
Abbots (2001) Social
and Personality
Development
(Routledge), has good
sections on gender
development
Biological Influences
on Gender
An issue here is that
seeing gender-related
behaviours as
biologically driven can
lead to bias if an
individual does not show
the typical gender
behaviour expected
The biological
determinism of the
does not allow for the
variety of behaviours
seen within each gender
in everyday life
Learning theory vs.
For either the biosocial
or the evolutionary
explanation, draw up a
list of discussion points
for and against the
theory, including
evidence and
explanations
The evaluation of the
is covered very clearly in
the online chapter
Approaches in
Psychology
Social Contexts of
Gender Role
Cross-cultural studies
give global and valid,
rather than ethnocentric,
data about gender roles
Social factors show the
importance and
interaction of nature and
nurture
Social factors are clearly
important but the
biological approach is
also relevant and should
not be ignored
Mind map, or use
another strategy, to plan
an essay discussing the
effects of social
influence and culture on
gender development
Search the BBC site
www.bbc.co.uk, for
gender development
for more information


PSY3: INTELLIGENCE AND LEARNING

Theories of
Intelligence
Different groups and
cultures define
intelligence differently,
yet research focuses on a
narrow definition
The cultural aspects of
intelligence suggest that
much research is
wrongly determinist in
its assumptions
Cognitive vs.
behaviouralthough
neither addresses
emotional IQ
Mind map, or use
another strategy, to
produce a detailed plan
for an essay discussing
one theory of
intelligence, including
evidence and
explanations
Banyards (1999)
Controversies in
has a good section on
psychometric tests, such
as IQ tests
Animal Learning
and Intelligence
A main ethical issue is
the use of non-human
animals in research, even
in research about
themselves
Conditioning studies
have quite a reductionist
basis, as in A follows or
leads to B; this is
challenged by the
ecological explanation
because of e.g. instinct
The behavioural
approach is challenged
by studies showing self
recognition and social
learning
Write a 10-minute
answer discussing the
evidence for animal
learning and what this
tells us
Search for octopus +
IQ tests on
www.bbc.co.uk and read
the CBBC report, then
watch the videos to
decide whether you think
the tests are valid
Evolution of
Intelligence
It is impossible to gather
significant amounts of
empirical evidence for an
evolutionary theory,
even though the fossil
record does provide
some such
The ongoing debate here
is that we can only guess
the influences of nature
and nurture, because of
lack of evidence, plus the
fact that we are unable to
assess the genetics of
intelligence; only brain
size and structure
Evolutionary, also
cognitive and social
explanations, join here
Write a 15-minute
discussion of the
influence of ecological
demands OR social
complexity and brain
size on the evolution of
human intelligence
If you Google human
evolution you can
watch the video clip
Human Evolution: The
Evidence


PSY3: COGNITION AND DEVELOPMENT

Development of
Thinking
Methodological issues
include sample size and
experimenter bias
Assuming that all
children develop
cognitively in the same
way implies a
determinist view, which
other evidence
challenges
Biological and cognitive
explanations combine
with social factorsthey
are not mutually
exclusive
Map out in detail the
support and the
challenges you could use
in a discussion of one
theory of cognitive
development
There is an interesting
section on Issues in
Oakleys (2004)
Cognitive Development
(Routledge)
Development of
Moral
Understanding
Ethical issues relate to
having children as
participants, especially
when judgements are
being made about other
sensitive areas such as
morality
Kohlbergs view can be
regarded as reductionist
in that the focus is on
cognition, with human
emotions being ignored
The cognitive
explanation is useful, but
emotions also play an
important part
Write a 15-minute
discussion of the
challenges to one theory
of moral development,
including evidence and
explanation
Oakley (2004) has a
stimulating section on
gender and moral
development in
Cognitive Development
(Routledge)
Development of
Social Cognition
Researching a disorder is
always highly socially
sensitive, especially if
there is a suggestion of a
genetic input or a gender
issue
Theories can be regarded
as biologically
deterministic, because
cognitive factors are
emphasised, based on
brain function, and
motivation tends to be
overlooked
Both biological and
cognitive explanations
contribute here, but other
factors are also needed in
the explanations
Compare the theory of
mind and the
perspective-taking
theories, looking for
points in common and
points of difference.
Organise your points into
a table
Search the BBC website
www.bbc.co.uk for
articles on Theory of
Mind


PSY4: PSYCHOPATHOLOGY
Sub-topic Issue(s) Debate(s) Over to you Further reading

Clinical
Characteristics +
Issues Surrounding
Classification and
Diagnosis
Ethical issues are concerned with
the sensitivity of researching
disorders, such as the giving of
informed consent. There are also
the methodological issues, such
as the artificiality of criteria and
the cut-off between normal and
disordered; and there are cross-
cultural differences in what is
considered abnormal behaviour
The classification systems
could be argued to be
determinism in action
Write a 10-minute discussion
on the three issues identified
here, including examples and
explanations
J arvis (2000) section on the
importance of language and
culture in Theoretical
Approaches in Psychology
(Routledge) is short, but makes
key points
Biological
Explanations and
Therapies
Perhaps the main issue here is to
what extent the therapy works
and produces long-term benefit;
also the question of validity, i.e.
are the symptoms or the actual
underlying cause being treated?
Nature and nurture is an
obvious debate, linking to the
cross-cultural issues; genetic
explanations also link to
biological determinism
Write a 10-minute answer
discussing evidence about the
validity of these therapies
Caves (1999) Therapeutic
(Routledge) is worth dipping into
for extra information
Psychological
Explanations and
Therapies
A main issue here is to what
extent the therapy works and
produces long-term benefit; also,
is there any cultural or social
bias in the explanation?
Nature and nurture is an
obvious debate, linking to the
cross-cultural issues. Genetic
explanations also link to
biological determinism,
whereas social and cultural
factors are nurture, and could
indicate some free will
Mind map, or use another
strategy, to plan a detailed
discussion about cultural and
social effects in explanations
of abnormality
Caves (1999) Therapeutic
(Routledge) is worth dipping into
for extra information


PSY4: MEDIA PSYCHOLOGY
Media
Influences on
Social
Behaviour
One ethical issue is giving participants
media experiences, which might
increase their anti-social tendencies
The suggestion of
media influences is
clearly nurture, but
temperament (which
is nature) is a
possible factor too
Behaviourism or
Learning Theory
(including social
learning) applies here,
but social factors and
biological ones also
play a part
Mind map, or use
another technique, to
plan a detailed
discussion of media
influences on pro-
social behaviour,
including evidence
and evaluation
The section on media
influences is worth
reading in Clarkes
(2003) Pro-Social
and Anti-Social
Behaviour
(Routledge)
Persuasion,
Attitude, and
Change
An important ethical issue is how
psychological knowledge could be
used; deliberately influencing attitudes
is a good example of this. There are
also methodological issues, such as
self-reporting and correlational
findings
Nature and nurture
are involved, as
cognitive ability and
personality are
nature, but
judgements about
the communicator
are likely to be more
socially- or
culturally-based, and
therefore nurture
Much of this is very
cognitive in its
approach, but other
factors such as emotions
and personality are also
involved
Write a 10-minute
discussion including
evidence on the non-
cognitive factors
involved in
persuasion and
attitude change
The BBC website
search for
persuasion links to
an interesting article
and video clip on how
to persuade
www.bbc.co.uk

The Psychology
of Celebrity
Research has to be careful to make the
distinction between celebrity worship
which is not pathological, and that
which is. There is also the issue of
when fandom becomes intense, as this
distinction is an artificial construct and
could be a matter of opinion, thus
questioning reliability and validity
Nature could be
more important than
nurture, as research
identifies innate
characteristics (e.g.
personality and
intelligence) as
relevant factors
Several approaches
could contribute
explanations; biological
for personality;
cognitive for obsessive
thinking; but emotional
and attachment factors
also seem pertinent
Write a 15-minute
discussion of the
Absorption
Addiction model,
including evidence
and evaluation

Search the BBC site
for celebrity
worship
www.bbc.co.uk


PSY4: THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ADDICTIVE BEHAVIOUR
Models of
Addictive
Behaviour
There is no clear, accepted definition
of addiction. Also, addiction and
addicts are examples of a socially
sensitive research area, and so extra
ethical concerns apply
The biological
explanations suggest
nature, whilst the
learning or
behavioural
explanations involve
nurture
Behavioural, cognitive,
and biological
approaches all have
contributions, as do
social factors
Write a 10-minute
discussion including
evidence of either
the biological or the
behavioural
explanation of
addiction
Search the New
Scientist website for
an interesting
comment on internet
addiction
www.newscientist.co
m
Factors
Affecting
Addictive
Behaviour
There are cultural issues as to which
behaviours (and their extent) count as
addictions
Nature and nurture
interact, as some
factors are innate
(such as personality)
and others are
environmental (such
as advertising and
social norms)
Cognitive explanations
are important (e.g. in
attributional style), but
there are many factors
involved as the
biopsychosocial
explanation suggests
Mind map, or use
another technique, to
produce a detailed
plan of discussion
including evidence
of the factors in
either the
biopsychosocial
approach or Davies
stage model
Another New Scientist
article looks at a case
study of gambling,
titled Hooked: Why
your brain is primed
for addiction
www.newscientist.co
m
Reducing
Addictive
Behaviour
The social sensitivity of this
psychopathology means that many
addicts cannot accept that they are
addicted, and/or feel powerless as well
as ashamed. There is also the issue of
research comparing therapies if this
shows that any have little usefulness
Do addicts have free
will over their
addiction? Is
addictive behaviour
determined either
biologically or
socially?
Clearly the cognitive
approach has impact on
reducing addictive
behaviour, but many
other factors are
involved, such as
emotions, and social
and environmental
barriers
Choose one
biological and one
psychological
therapy and write a
15-minute discussion
including evidence
and evaluation of the
two therapies
The BBC website has
some alternative ideas
on addiction therapy,
but is there research
evidence?


PSY4: ANOMALISTIC PSYCHOLOGY
Theoretical and
Methodological
Issues in the
Study of
Anomalous
Experience
Pseudoscience, reliability, and validity
of evidence, fraudall important
issues
Write a detailed
plan, such as a mind
map, linking
Ganzfeld studies to
the three basic
principles of science
The BBC website has
a video clip
demonstrating how
easy it is to produce
fake results. Search
for ESP in
www.bbc.co.uk
Factors
Underlying
Anomalous
Experience
Sensitivity is needed towards social or
cultural norms in paranormal beliefs,
such as superstitions and near-death
experiences, or paranormal
explanations of physiological states,
such as sleep paralysis
Nature is involved if
the biological
explanations are
valid, but nurture is
also a factor for
norms and
experiences
The cognitive and
biological approaches
are important here, with
possible cultural factors
and psychodynamic
explanations, such as
the effects of early
childhood experiences
Construct a simple
table of the evidence
for differences
between
superstitious and
non-superstitious
people
Searching the New
Scientist website for
near death
experience gives
some interesting
articles on, for
example, producing
similar experiences in
the laboratory
www.newscientist.co
m
Belief in
Exceptional
Experience
Considerable sensitivity should be
shown when researching, and
therefore questioning, participants
beliefs. Methodologically there is an
issue in that much exceptional
experience has to be studied
retrospectively, and that sample sizes
are small and biased
Nurture is clearly
involved where a
belief is cultural, and
where any belief is
involved, as these
are the result of the
individuals
environment
Cognitive explanations
are relevant, modified
by personal experience
and possible innate
factors
Write a 15-minute
discussion and
evaluation of the
evidence supporting
the validity of
exceptional
experiences
New Scientist has a
good article on the
Power of Belief
www.newscientist.co
m

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For use with A2 Level Psychology by Michael W.

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