0 evaluări0% au considerat acest document util (0 voturi)
93 vizualizări54 pagini
Microbiology is the specific branch of 'biology' that essentially deals with the elaborated investigationof'microscopic organisms' termed as microbes, that are composed of only one cell. A microbiologist must be acquainted with many biological disciplines and with all major groups of microorganisms:viruses,bacteria,fungi,algae,andprotozoa.
Microbiology is the specific branch of 'biology' that essentially deals with the elaborated investigationof'microscopic organisms' termed as microbes, that are composed of only one cell. A microbiologist must be acquainted with many biological disciplines and with all major groups of microorganisms:viruses,bacteria,fungi,algae,andprotozoa.
Microbiology is the specific branch of 'biology' that essentially deals with the elaborated investigationof'microscopic organisms' termed as microbes, that are composed of only one cell. A microbiologist must be acquainted with many biological disciplines and with all major groups of microorganisms:viruses,bacteria,fungi,algae,andprotozoa.
mikros(small),bios(life) andlogos(science) Takentogether, Microbiologymean thestudyof microscopic organisms - invariablyrefers to the minute living body which are very small ( having diameter 0.1 to 0.2 mm ) and not perceptibleto thenakedeyes,especiallyabacteriumor protozoon. Microbiology is the specific branch of biology that essentially deals with the elaborated investigationof microscopic organisms termed as microbes, that arecomposed of onlyone cell. Microbiology is an exceptionally broad discipline encompassing specialties as diverse as biochemistry, cell biology, genetics, taxonomy, pathogenic bacteriology, food and industrial microbiology,andecology. A microbiologist must be acquainted with many biological disciplines and with all major groups of microorganisms:viruses,bacteria,fungi,algae,andprotozoa. Introduction Microorganismscarriedfromonehost toanother asfollows: (a) Animal Sources- Certainorganismsarepathogenic for humansaswell asanimalsand maybecommunicatedto humansviadirect,indirect,or intermediaryanimal hosts. (b) Air borne - Pathogenic microorganisms in the respiratory track may be discharged fromthe mouth or nose into theair and usuallysettle on food, dishes or clothing. They maycarryinfectionif theyresist drying. (c) Contact Infections - Direct transmission of bacteria from one host to another sexuallytransmitteddiseases(STD). (d) Food borne - Food as well as water may contain pathogenic organisms usually acquired from the handling the food by infected persons or via fecal or insect contamination. (e) Fomites- Inanimate objects e.g. books, cookingutensils, clothingor linens that could serveto transport themfromonelocationto another. (f) HumanCarriers- Persons who haverecovered froman infectious disease do remain carriersof theorganismcausingtheinfectionandmaytransfer theorganismto another. (g) Insects- Insectsmaybethephysical carriers,for instanceor act as intermediatehosts suchas:Anophelesmosquito. (h) Soil borne - Spore-forming organisms in the soil may enter the body via a cut or wound. Invariablyfruits and vegetables, particularlyroot andtuber crops, need thorough cleansingbeforebeingeatenraw. Introduction Early microbiology topics divided into specific fields: 1. Bacteriology : Bacteria & Archaea 2. Mycology : Fungi 3. Phycology : Algae 4. Parasitology : Protozoa and Parasitic Worms 5. Virology : Viruses 6. Immunology : Host Immunity & Vaccines 7. Recombinant DNA Technology : insertion of genes into microbes to produce Therapeutics Microbes Introduction The Discovery of Microorganisms Even before microorganisms were seen, some investigators suspected their existence and responsibility for disease. Among others, the Roman philosopher Lucretius (about 9855 B.C.) andthephysicianGirolamo Fracastoro (14781553) suggestedthat diseasewas caused byinvisiblelivingcreatures.Theearliest microscopic observations appear to havebeenmade between 1625 and 1630 on bees and weevils by the Italian Francesco Stelluti, using a microscopeprobablysuppliedbyGalileo. However, the first person to observe and describe microorganisms accurately was the amateur microscopist Antony van Leeuwenhoek (16321723) of Delft, Holland. Beginning in 1673 Leeuwenhoek sent detailedletters describinghis discoveries to theRoyal Societyof London. It isclear fromhisdescriptionsthat hesawbothbacteriaandprotozoa. Although microorganisms are ancient by many standards, microbiology itself is a comparatively new science. The existence of microorganisms was unknown until the discovery of Microscope( inventedinthebeginningof 17 th century). Introduction Characteristics of Microorganisms 1. Their sizeis verysmall. Viruses maybe10times smaller. Eachmicrobe contains inits genome thecapacityto reproduceitsownkind. 2.Thereisno cellular differentiation.Theyareunicellular andonecell iscapableof performingall the functions. Some microorganisms are multicellular when cosidered as microbes (fungi, algae) withlittleor no cellular differentiation. 3. Microorganisms are present everywhere on the bodies of animals and humans, on plant surfaces, in the air, water, dust, soil, and even inside the intestinal canal especially in the large intestine ,skin , eyes , urethra , upper throat , mouth, nose of all insects, birds, animals and humanbeings. Society benefits frommicroorganisms in many ways. They are necessary for the production of bread, cheese, beer, antibiotics, vaccines, vitamins, enzymes, and many other important products. Microorganisms are indispensible components of our ecosystems. They make possible the cycles of carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur that take place in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. They also are a source of nutrients at the base of all ecological food chainsandwebs.Indeed,modernbiotechnologyrestsuponamicrobiological foundation. Three Domains of Life Historical Developments of Microbiology Some momentous discoveries in science were made by amateurs, rather than by professional scientists. Antony van Leeuwenhoek (1632 -1723) known as the Father of Microbiology, stalwarts,wasapioneer inthefieldof Microscopyandusedmicroscopesof hisown design and manufacture. He was a linen merchant who built microscopes as a hobby. He made about 500 optical lenses that could magnifyobjects 275 times and wasanamazingfeat. He enjoyed usinghis microscopes to look at the various things includingriver water, pepper infusions, salivafeces and more. He communicated his findings to the Royal Society of London in the formof longseries of letters which were translated and publishedintheProceedings of Royal Society. Historical Developments of Microbiology Leeuwenhoek hadunusual degreeof curiosityandobservedeveryobject that couldbe seen through his microscope. He was one of the greatest Innovators driven by curiosityandinfiniteenergy. Inhisletter of September 17,1683withhisdrawingsabout animals inthescrapingsof teethhedescribeddifferent typesof bacteriaandcalledthemanimalcules . He also made magnificent observations on the microscopic structure of seeds, embryosof plantsandsomeinvertebrateanimals. He discovered Spermatozoa, RBC and is therefore known as Father of Animal Histology. He described characteristic microflora of human mouth, curd, vinegar and different types of microorganisms known today including protozoa, algae, yeast and bacteria. Antony Von Leeuwenhoek Leeuwenhoeks microscope Leeuwenhoekssketchesof bacteria from the human mouth. Historical Developments of Microbiology Historical Developments of Microbiology Discovery of microorganisms by Leeuwenhoek, from the point of view of the two thought; TheoryofAbiogenesis Theoryof Biogenesis Theory of Abiogenesis or the concept of spontaneous generation i.e. living animalculesareformedspontaneouslyfromnonlivingmatter. (Prevailingthoughts) Theory of biogenesis i.e. they are formed from the seeds or germs of these animalculeswhicharealways present intheair.(Virchow,1858) It was also believed at that time that many plants and animals can be generated spontaneouslyunder special conditions. Historical Developments of Microbiology BiogenesisVersus Abiogenesis It took several clever experiments, which appear too simple today, and more than hundred years to resolve the controversy. The abiogenesis for plants and animals wasdisapprovedasaresult of theexperiments. Italian Physician Fransesco Redi in 1665, showed that maggots (the larval stages of flies) developing in putrefying meat and will never appear if the meat is well protectedinavessel withthefinegaugemeshso that flies cannot laytheir eggs on meat. In 1745, JohnNeedhamtook hot boilingmutton gravy (meat infusion) in aflask and closed this flask with a cork. He found the spoilage of this infusion and observed animalcules in it. He killed and destroyed the living matter by boiling and thus concludedthat animalcules arosespontaneouslyfromthemeat. Historical Developments of Microbiology In 1769, Spallanzani an Italian naturalist performed a series of experiments and showed that heating can prevent appearance of animalcules in infusion although duration and level of heating required is variable. He was not satisfied with using cork to plug the flask and sealed it hermetically to prevent contact with the air completely. He found that sealed infusions remained barren for alongtime. A tiny crack intheflask canresult in development of animalcules andtheywill not appear unlessnewair enteredtheflask to comeincontact withtheinfusion. Spallanzani took a series of flasks and gave heat treatments for different interval of times. He could distinguish animalcules of different types, i.e., Superior or animalcules of higher class which were destroyed by slight heating undoubtedly protozoaand animalcules of lower class which were very minute, and much more heat resistant - thebacteria. Historical Developments in Microbiology Although the experiments Spallanzani conducted were very good but faulty experiments continued to be performed and evidence gathered in favor of abiogenesis. Moreover, Needhamobjected to theobservations bySpallanzani that therewasno growthintheinfusionsbecauseair whichisessential for lifehadbeen excludedfromhisflasks. An interestingpractical application of Spallanzanis observation was done by Francois Appert,1805 for preservation of foods by enclosing themin airtight containers and then heating the containers called Appertization (canning called later). He performedanexperiment byfirst makingtheair freeof microorganisms bypassing it through red hot tube. This air which still contained 19.4 %oxygen, with and without heatingwas passed through aset of flasks containingboiled infusions, the former remainedunaffected. Historical Developments of Microbiology The greatest biologists of the 19 th century, Louis Pasteurs (1822-1895, France) contributions are the most significant in the history of science and industry and his work with germs and microorganisms opened new areas of scientific studies. Pasteur first demonstratedthroughaseries of definitive experiments that air contains microscopically observableorganizedbodies. Proof of Biogenesis Louis Pasteur Historical Developments of Microbiology Proof of Biogenesis Louis Pasteurs aspirated large quantities of air through a tube which containedaplugof cottonto serveasafilter. Heremovedthecottonplugandsuspendedit inasolutionof alcohol andether. Whenheexaminedthesedimentsmicroscopicallyheobservedthepresenceof small oval shapedbodies. Helater confirmedthat whenheatedair is passedthroughaboiled infusionno microbial development takes place but when cotton plug is suspended in the heatedinfusion,microbial growthoccurs. Pasteur repeated his experiment through swan necked and goose neck flasks so that the germs fromair cannot ascend into it. He boiled the broth in it to kill all microorganisms in the neck as well as in the flask. The infusion remained sterile in this flask until the neck of the flask was broken resulting in the growth of microorganisms. Thus he established that development of microorganisms in organicinfusionsbringabout chemical changes. Louis Pasteurs experiment Historical Developments in Microbiology Proof of Biogenesis One of the traditional arguments against biogenesis was the claimthat heat used to sterilize the air or specimens was destroying an essential vital force. Those supporting abiogenesis said that, without this force, microorganisms could not spontaneouslyappear. In response to this argument, an English Physicist John Tyndall (1820-1883) conducted experiments inaspeciallydesigned box called Tyndall chamber to prove that dust carriesthegerms. Tyndall demonstrated that if no dust was present, sterile broth remained sterile for indefinite period. While doing these experiments, Tyndall (1877) also devised a process for complete sterilization by alternate heating and cooling known as Tyndallization. Hefoundthat insomecasesevenboilingtheinfusionfor morethan 5 hours was not sufficient to sterilize it and concluded that bacteria have both thermo stableandthermo labilephases. These thermo stable resting bodies were also observed by Ferdinand Cohn in hay bacteriaandwerecalledendospores. Historical Developments of Microbiology Beneficial from Biogenesis theory Careful investigation of the problem by Pasteur led to conclude that alcoholic fermentation was replaced by another type of fermentation which converted sugar to lactic acid. It was his abilityto applyandrelatediscoveries to practical world that made hiscontributionsverysignificant. Theimportant contributionsmadebyPasteur aresummarizedas; a) Fermentation is a biological process and is brought about by development and activitiesof microorganisms. b) A typical fermentation can bedefined by its principal end product, e.g. lactic, alcoholic andacetic acidfermentation. c) Fermentationis aspecific process meaningtherebyeveryfermentationis accompanied by development of a specific type of microorganism which shows physiological specificitywith respect to fermentation e.g., alcoholic fermentation by yeast and lactic acidfermentationbylactic acidbacteria. Historical Developments of Microbiology Beneficial from Biogenesis theory Pasteur also discovered the process known as pasteurization after his name for preservation of wine by sudden heating to 60-70 0 C for few minutes and then coolingto destroytheharmful organisms.Thisnot onlysavedthewineindustrybut the process was also applied later to preserve milk and other liquid foods. Today pasteurization is widely used in fermentation industries, but we are more familiar withit inthedairyindustry. The experiments by Pasteur and Tyndall finally disapproved the theory of spontaneousgenerationandpromotedthegeneral acceptanceof theory of biogenesis. Historical Developments of Microbiology Germ theory of Disease EvenbeforePasteur provedbyexperimentsthepossibilityof microorganismsasagents of disease, several careful observers had made strong arguments for the germ theoryof disease. A little earlier to this, John Bassi in1836 and M.J. Berkeley in 1845 had shown that silkwormdiseaseandthegreat Potato Blight of Irelandwascausedbyfungus. Few years later, J.L. Schonlein showed that certain skin diseases in humans are caused byfungal infections. Pasteur describedthat microbes werekillingthesilkworms andeliminatingtheworms will wipe out the disease. He also demonstrated that by weakening the disease germs in lab and then infecting the weakend germs into animal or person, the animal developedimmunityagainst that disease. In Germany, Robert Koch (1843-1910) confirmed Pasteur's germtheory and took it several stepsfurther.Hisinvestigationsbeganwithastudyof Bacillusanthracis,which causes a disease in cattle. At first he cultured the anthrax bacillus and later in trackingand culturingthe organismresponsible for tuberculosis and cholera. Koch remembered for his formulation of four (4) basic principles or postulates of bacteriologyknownasKochspostulates. 1. Microorganism must be present in every case of the disease. 2. Microorganism must be isolated from the diseased host and grown in pure culture. 3. The specific disease must be reproduced when a pure culture of microorganism is injected into healthy susceptible host. 4. Microorganism must be recovered once again from experimentally inoculated host. Kochs postulates Historical Developments in Microbiology Microbiology in the Twentieth Century In the 20 th century, studies on microorganisms have contributed towards development of other disciplines suchasindustrial microbiology,biochemistryandmolecular geneticsetc. The discovery of cell free alcoholic fermentation by H. Buchner in 1897 laid down the foundationfor thebeginningof Biochemistry. The discovery that vitamins used by animals are similar to growth factors required by bacteria led to the finding that there is similarity of metabolismin all living systems and hence microorganisms were used as models to understand basic fundamental metabolic processes. Escherichia coli has been extensively used in this category to understand biochemistryandgeneticsof variouscellular processes. studied the consequences of permanent genetic changes in biochemical terms (mutants of breadmoldNeurospora). Historical Developments in Microbiology Historical Developments in Microbiology Microbiology in the Twentieth Century Oswald Avery, Colin Macleod and Maclyn Mc Carty proved that DNA is the basic genetic material and amodel was proposed for the molecular structure of DNA by James Watson andFrancisCrick in1953. Collapse of the boundaries between the subjects such as Microbiology, Genetics, and Biochemistry has lead to deeper understanding of biology at molecular levels under new discipline called Molecular Biology and Genetic Engineering. The application of Molecular biology has revolutionized the use of genetically engineered microorganisms for technological purposes. Now microorganisms are being used to produce non-microbial products at commercial scale for the welfare of human beings. Production of injectable insulin by genetically engineered E. coli has opened the possibilities for search and development of other suitable organisms for production of useful products on industrial scale. Theexploitation of microorganisms, their systems or their processes for technological purposesis studiedunder Microbial biotechnologyor industrial microbiology. Historical Developments in Microbiology Rise of Medical Microbiology The work on Anthrax and rabies started the golden age of medical bacteriology. The Pasteur Institute in Paris and Institute in Berlin became the world centers of science of Bacteriology. Robert Koch developed methods for isolation of pure cultures of bacteria and concentrated his work more on isolation, cultivation and characterizationof diseasecausingagentsof major diseases inman. Ontheother hand, Pasteur focusedhis attentiononseekingexperimental evidenceof how infectious diseases occur in human body and how recovery and immunity occurs. This was a great medical revolution and within 25 years, methods for prevention by immunization or hygienic methods were developed against most of themajor bacteriacausinghumandiseases. Historical Developments in Microbiology Development of pure culture methods Around1870it wasrealizedthat pureculturesmust beusedfor proper understanding of formandfunctionof microorganisms. A pure culture of an organismis the culture which contains large population of only onetypeof microorganismgenerallydevelopedfromasinglecell. Brefeld introduced the practice of single cell isolation and cultivation of fungi on solidmediumcontaininggelatinassolidifyingagent. Joseph Lister developed serial dilution technique for pure culture isolation. He devised a small syringe prototype of the modern micropipettes to dispense small aliquots of liquid in different tubes containingmilk so that final dilution contained one or none of the organism and isolated pure culture of bacteria which was confirmedbymicroscopic examination. Historical Developments in Microbiology Development of pure culture methods Robert Koch was experimentingwith solid mediaand used sterile cut surfaces of potato placed on sterile covered plates to grow bacteria. Since the surface was opaqueit wasdifficult to examineculturesof bacteria. Richard.J.Petri introducedPetri dishasasuitablemediumcontainer for theculture of bacteria. Pour plate and streak methods for the isolation of pure cultures were also developed by Koch. The use of gelatin as solidifying agent (protein which is susceptibleto microbial digestion) andchanges fromgel to liquidat 28 0 C whilethe optimumtemperaturefor growthof widerangeof bacteriaisbetween30 37 0 C. FranHesseintroducedagar - acomplex polysaccharideextractedfromredalgaeas thesolidifyingagent, whichwas foundto beasuitablesolidifyingagent becauseof it is not digested by bacteria easily and its melting point is 100 0 C and remains solidified below 44 0 C, besides producing a transparent stiff gel and growth of bacterial/fungal coloniescanbeseeneasilyontheir surface. Importance of Microorganisms Microorganisms play an important role in sustaining life on this planet and in our daily life throughthefollowingactivities: Symbiosis:Microorganisms liveinsideother cells andarehelpful to thecells inwhichtheylive. Relationships between microorganisms and larger organisms. Some useful bacteria are knownassymbionts. More generally, it turns out that inside of most cells of most plants there are little microorganisms, bacteria actually, which supply the energy gathered fromsunlight to plant. Even our own cells for the most part cannot use the energy in the food you eat until bacteriumfoundinour owncellsconvert that foodto ausableform. Transformation of matter: Microorganisms degrade dead organic matter and return to the atmosphere in inorganic form. They complete the cycle of matter and are responsible for transformationof C,N andSandother important elementswhichareessential for life. Biological nitrogenfixation:They fix nitrogen fromatmosphere and make it available to the plants in usable form. Important microorganisms under this category include, Rhizobium, Azotobacter,Azospirillumetc. Importance of Microorganisms Cellulose degradation in Rumen: Ruminants feed on straw and grass which contains about 50%cellulose.Thereis symbiotic associationof microorganismswithrumenfor degradation of cellulose and about 10 10 10 11 cells/ml of different bacteria are usually present in the rumen.Most important of theseincludeRuminococcusandClostridium. Biogas:Animal waste products and cellulose containingwaste is fermented by microorganisms (Methanogen) andmethanegassoformedisusedasafuel. Composting:Decomposition of organic matter by microorganisms to convert it into nutrient rich manureis known as composting. Bacillus, AspergillusandThermoactinomyces areimportant inthisprocess. Mycorrhiza:Association of roots of manyplants with fungi forms acompositestructure called mycorrhiza. Fungus helps in absorption of mineral salts fromsoil and plant in turn provides carbohydratesfor thegrowthof fungus. Recent Applications of Microorganism (Bacteria) Biosensors Technically a Biosensor is a miniaturized analytical tool comprising of highly specific biological sensingelement or transducer which convert physiochemical interaction into adiscreteor continuousdigital electronic signals. Biosensors usingcomponents from bacteria to detect toxic pollutants and continuous monitoring of nutrients/other parameters. Bacterial sensor requires both a receptor which is activated in the presence of pollutant and areporter whichwill makethischangeapparent. Recent Applications of Microorganism (Bacteria) They find application in medical, environment field and in food industries for measurement of specific parameters. Theseare 1. Clinical diagnosisandbiomedical monitoring 2. Agricultural,horticultural,veterinaryanalysis 3. Detectionof pollution,andmicrobial contaminationof water 4. Fermentationanalysisandcontrol 5. Monitoringof industrial gasesandliquids 6. The detection of toxic pollutants in soil, water and is important for the protectionof humanandanimals. 7. Direct biological measurement of flavors,essences,andpheromones Xanthomonas- to monitor progressionof infectioninplants. Bradyrhizobium- to monitor root noduleformationanddevelopment. Lactococcus- to detect thepresenceof antibioticsinmilk. Photobacterium- to detect toxicpollutants. E.coli- to detect thepresenceof mercuryinsoil samples. Recent Applications of Bacteria Bioremediation The concept of using microorganisms to remove pollutants is known as bioremediation. We can use either indigenous microorganisms or genetically engineered microorganisms. Pseudomonas and Bacillus are two most important and most commonlyused bacteriafor bioremedical purposes. These bacteriacan either turn pollutants into energy source that they consume or alternately they produce enzymesthat break downthesepollutantsinto lessharmful molecular products. Studies are being carried out to develop efficient microbial inoculants for bioremediation of effluents from distillery, tanneries, textile and food processing industriesetc. A Subsurface Engineered Bioremediation System Scope of Microbiology Depending on their applications in different fields, the major areas of applied microbiologyare: Agricultural Microbiology/ soil Microbiology: Microorganisms related to soil fertility, plant diseases, transformation of matter, biological nitrogenfixationsetc.arestudied. FoodMicrobiology: Microorganisms important with respect to food fermentations, food spoilage, food poisoningandfoodpreservationarestudiedinthisarea. Medical Microbiology: Microorganisms are casual agents of several diseases of plants, animals and human beings. Medical Microbiologydeals with- Studiesoncausativeagentsof disease Diagnostic procedures&identificationof diseasecausingorganisms Development of effectivevaccines andpreventivemeasuresetc. Scope of Microbiology Molecular Biology: Istheprogramof interpretingthespecific structureandfunctionof organismsinterms of their molecular structures, reproduction, chemical reactions. Microorganisms havebeenusedasatool to explorefundamental lifeprocesses. Genetic engineeringandBiotechnology: This is an important development in applied Molecular Biology which refers to the human capability to alter the genetic make up of an organism. It has been possible becauseof thedetailedknowledgeof structureandfunctionof DNA anddiscovery of the restriction enzymes which can cleave or cut the DNA at specific sites along the chain length. Use of genetically engineered microorganisms has opened great potential for productionof drugs,vaccines, improvement of agricultural crops. Scope of Microbiology Industrial microbiology: Different microorganisms are used for the production of wide range of productsat industrial scaleaslongastherehasbeenhistory. Microorganismsareusedto: Ferment useful chemicals(ethanol,acetone,etc.) Produce certain food stuffs (wine, cheese, yogurt, bread, half sour pickles,etc.) Produce of recombinant products (recombinant insulin, human growth hormone,etc.) Destroywastes(sewage,oil spills,bioremediation) Geochemical Microbiology: Prospects for deposits of coal, mineral and gas, recoveryof minerals fromlow gradeores,andgasformationandexplorationarestudiedinthisarea. Scope of Microbiology Environmental Microbiology: Deals with use of microorganisms to protect the environment fromthe toxic pollutants and microbial load and develop suitable methods for treatment of these wastes and their recycleduse. Microbesareabsolutelynecessaryfor suchbasic thingsas: makingnutrientsavailablefromnon-livingsources providingenergyto ecosystems freeingupnutrientsfromno longer livingsources Technical termsfor microorganismsareanddoenvironmentallyincludes: microbesareproducers microbesarenitrogenfixers microbesaredecomposers microbesaresymbiontsandendosymbionts Without microorganismswewould: haveno oxygento breath nothingto eat not beableto utilizetheenergyinfoodevenif wecouldeat it Antibiotics : Antibiotic refers to a natural or synthetic substance that destroys microorganisms or inhibits their growth. Antibiotics are employed extensively to treat infectious diseases in humans, animals, and plants. In fact, the terminology antibiotic etymologically evidently signifies anything against life. Obviously, in the event when the microorganisms are critically present in a natural medium two situations may arise invariably viz., (a) favouringthe growth of bacteria usually termed as symbiosis ;* and (b) antagonizing the growth of bacteria normally called as antibiosis. ** Charles Robert Darwin (18091882), a British naturalist) aptly commenced scientific and methodical investigative explorations into the fundamental problems of natural selection and struggle amongsthe interspecies ; and later on came up with his famous doctrine Survival of the fittest. Louis Pasteur (18221895) observed for the first time the characteristic antagonistic interrelations prevailing between the microorganisms of different species. Joubert and Pasteur first observed the critical destruction of cultures of Bacillus anthracisby means of certain air-borne microbes. A follow up by Sirotinin(1888) emphatically proved the antagonistic action of Bacillus anthracisupon the enteric fever, and Blagoveshchensky(1890) carefully ascertained the antagonistic effect of the blue-pus organism on the Bacillus anthracis. It was ultimately the miraculous discovery of Lashchenkov(1909) and Alexander Fleming (1922) who meticulously isolated the enzyme lysozyme***, that was chiefly capable of inhibiting a relatively larger segment of microorganisms. Chain, Florey, and co-workers (1929) made the epoch making historical development in the emerging field of antibiotics with the remarkable discovery of wonderful therapeutic and interesting pharmacological properties of the extracts obtained from the cultures of the mold Penicillium notatumthat eventually gave rise to the formation of the wonder drug penicillin. Specifically the antibiotics are extremely useful in the control, management and treatment of a good number of human infectious diseases but their diversified applications are found to be equally useful in the meticulous curing and controlling of plant and animal diseases as well. Penicillin has been effectively employed in the management and control of pests. Antibiotics, in general, are invariably employed in animal husbandry as feed additive to cause enhancement in the fattening of food animals. Food handling and processing industries extensively make use of antibiotics to critically minimiseinevitable spoilage of fish, vegetables, and poultry products. Present day modern scientific researches being conducted across the globe do make use of antibiotics as useful and indispensable tools for the elaborated study of biochemical cellular mechanisms. Since the discovery of penicillin many more antibiotics came into being as stated under : Waksman (1944) : Streptomycin[Streptomycesgriseus] a soil microbe ; (1945) : Bacitracin [Bacillus subtilis] ; (1947) : Chloramphenicol (Chloromycetin) [Streptomyces venezuelae] ; (1947) : Polymixin[Bacillus polymixa] and various designated polymixins A, B, C, D, and E. (1948) : Chlorotetracycline[Streptomyces aureofaciens] a broad-spectrum antibiotic. (1948) : Neomycin [a species of Streptomyces] isolated from soil. Antibiotics Class Designated Antibiotics Aminoglycosides Gentamycin,Kanamycin,Neomycin,StreptomycinandTobramycin Ansamycins MaytansineandRifampicin Beta - lactam Amoxicillin, Ampicillin, Cephalosporin,CloxacillinandPenicillin Cyclic polypeptides Polymixins(A,B,C,D andE) Fluoroquinolones CiprofloxacinandOfloxacin. Macrolides Azithromycin, Bacitracin,Clarithromycin,andErythromycin Polyenes AmphotericinB,GriseofulvinandNystatin Tetracyclines Doxycycline,OxytetracyclineandTetracycline Miscellaneous Chloramphenicol,ClindamycinandCycloserine The various important points with respect to the development of antibiotics are summarized below: In all approximately 5000 antibiotics have been prepared, characterized, and evaluated for their therapeuticefficacytill date. Nearly 1000 antibiotics belongingto only six genera of filamentous fungi i.e. Including CephelosporiumandPenicilliumhavebeenreportedsuccessfully. About 50 antibiotics havebeen synthesized fromtwo generaandbelongingto the class of non-filamentousbacteria. Nearly 3000 antibiotics have been prepared froma group of filamentous bacteria i.e. IncludingStreptomyces. Approximately 50 antibiotics are at present actively used in therapeutic treatment and veterinarymedicinearoundtheworld. The Future of Microbiology Microbiologyhashadaprofoundinfluenceonsociety. Sciencewriter BernardDixonis veryoptimisticabout microbiologysfuturefor two reasons. First,microbiologyhasaclearer missionthando manyother scientific disciplines. Second,it isconfident of itsvaluebecauseof itspractical significance. Thefollowingbrief list shouldgivesomeideaof what thefuturemayhold: 1. New infectious diseases are continually arising and old diseases are once again becomingwidespread and destructive. AIDS, hemorrhagic fevers, and tuberculosis are excellent examples of newand reemerginginfectious diseases. Microbiologists will haveto respondto thesethreats,manyof thempresentlyunknown. 2. Research is needed on the association between infectious agents and chronic diseases such as autoimmune and cardiovascular diseases. It may be that some of thesechronicafflictionspartlyresult frominfections. The Future of Microbiology 3. Microbiologists must find ways to stop the spread of established infectious diseases. Increases in antibiotic resistance will be a continuing problemin current medical treatment. Microbiologists have to create new drugs and find ways to slow or prevent the spread of drug resistance. New vaccines must be developed in molecular biology and recombinant DNA technology to protect against diseases suchasAIDS. 4.We already understand how pathogens interact with host cells and which diseases arise.Therealso ismuchto learnabout howthehost resistspathogeninvasions. 5. Further research on unusual microorganisms and microbial ecology will lead to a better understanding of the interactions between microorganisms and the inanimate world. Greater knowledge of symbiotic relationships can help improve our appreciation of the livingworld. It also will lead to improvements in the health of plants,livestock, andhumans. The Future of Microbiology 6. Microorganisms are increasingly important in industry and environmental control, and we must learn how to use them in a variety of new ways. For example, microorganisms can - serve as sources of high-quality food , enzymes for industrial applications, degrade pollutants and toxic wastes, protect food and crops from microbial damage. 7. Microbial diversity is another arearequiringconsiderable research. Less than 1%of the earths microbial population has been cultured. We must develop newisolation techniques and an adequate classification of microorganisms, which cannot cultivatedinthelaboratory. Thediscoveryof newmicroorganisms maywell leadto further advances inindustrial processesandenhancedenvironmental control. 8. Microorganisms are excellent subjects for the study of a variety of fundamental questions in biology. For example, howdo complex cellular structures develop and howdo cellscommunicatewithoneanother andrespondto theenvironment? The Future of Microbiology 9.Manymoregenomessequencedof microorganismswill bedeterminedinthecoming years for learning how the genome is related to cell structure and what the minimumassortment of genes necessary for life is? Analysis of genome continuing advances in the field of bioinformatics and the use of computers to investigate biological problems. 10. Finally, microbiologists will bechallengedto carefullyassess theimplications of new discoveries and technological developments. They will need to communicate a balanced view of both the positive and negative long-termimpacts of these events onsociety. SuggestedReading SuggestedReading 1. Pelczar, M.J, Chan, E.C.S & N. R. Krieg. Microbiology- Concepts and Applications(International Edition),McGraw- Hill Inc. 2. Stanier, R.Y., Ingraham, J.L., Wheelis, M.L. & P.R.Painter. General Microbiology.FifthEdition,MacMillan. 3. Prescott, L. M, Harley, J.P & D.A. Klein. Microbiology. Third Edition, WCBPublishers. 4. Wikipedia.