1

Analytical Methods
EEE347J 1
Z- Transforms
Dragan J ovcic
2
3 Z - Transform
Discrete systems introduction
Used with sampled data systems. A typical sampled data system is shown in Figure below. f(t) is
the continuous signal, f(kT) is the related sampled signal (T is the sampling period, k=0,1,2,...) and
h(T) is the signal after a hold element. Hold element keeps the signal value in between the sampling
instants.
The shape of corresponding signals, f(t), f(kT) and h(T) is given below.
3
Mathematical representation.
Mathematically, sampling process is represented using signal modulation theory. If a carrier is the
unit impulse train, then the sampler output is the product of carrier and the continuous input signal.
Input (continuous) signal Carrier Sampled signal
3 Z - Transform
4
3 Z - Transformation
Derivation of mathematical formulae
Train of unit impulses using impulse function:
The sampled signal is represented as product of input and train of unit pulses:
Take La-Place transform of the above formula:
z - transform is introduced as:
The output is in terms of z - transform:

=
=
=
k
k
kT t t ) ( ) (

=
=
=
k
k
kT t t f t f ) ( ) ( ) ( *
0 , ) ( ) ( ) ( * > =

=
=
t kT t kT f t f
k
k

=
=
=
k
k
kT t kT f t f
0
) ( ) ( ) ( *

=
+ + + =
0
2
) ( ) ( *
... ) 2 ( ) ( ) 0 ( ) ( *
k
kTs
Ts Ts
e kT f s f
e T f e T f f s f
z e
Ts
=

=
0
) ( ) (
k
k
z kT f z f
) (t f ) ( * t f
5
Definition z - transform
Used with discrete systems. It enables the study of discrete systems (difference equations)
using algebraic equations. Similar advantages to the use of La-Place transformation with
differential equations.
Definition: The z-transformation of a time function x(t) where t is non-negative, or of a
sequence of values x(kT) or x(k) where k takes zero or positive integers, and T is the
sampling period, is defined by the following equation:
The above is one-sided z-transformation, ie we assume x(t)=0 for t<0 or x(kT)=0 for
k<0. Note convention, we will be using shorter notation x(k) for x(kT).
The above formula can be expanded as:
[ ] [ ] [ ]


=

= =
= = =
0 0
) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) (
k
k
k
k
z k x z kT x
k x kT x t x Z Z Z
[ ] ... ) ( ... ) 2 ( ) ( ) 0 ( ) ( ) (
2 1
0
+ + + + + = =

k
k
k
z kT x z T x z T x x z kT x kT x Z
3 Z - Transform
6
Z - transform of elementary functions
Unit step function
Unit ramp function

<

=
0 0
0 ) ( 1
) (
t
t t
t x
[ ]
1 1
1
... ... 1 1 ) ( 1
1
2 1
0
X(z)
X(z)

+ + + + + = =

=
=

z
z
z
z z z z t
k
k
k
Z

<

=
0 0
0
) (
t
t t
t x
[ ] ( )
( )
( )
2 2
1
1
2 1
0 0
1
1
... ... 2 ) (
X(z)
X(z)

+ + + + = = =

=
=

z
Tz
z
z
kz z z T kTz z kT x t
T
k
k
k
k
k
Z
3 Z - Transform
7
Formulas for closed form expression for infinite series
Geometric progression. a - first term , r - common ratio
Binomial series:

Infinite series, special cases:
( ) ...
! 3
) 2 )( 1 (
! 2
) 1 (
3 3 2 2 1
+

+

+ + = +

b a
n n n
b a
n n
b na a b a
n n n n n
( ) ...
! 3
) 2 )( 1 (
! 2
) 1 (
1 1
3 2
+

+

+ + = + x
n n n
x
n n
nx x
n
r
a
S r if
r
r a
S
n
n

= < <

1
, 1 1
,
1
) 1 (
( ) ... 1 1
3 3 2 2 1
1
1
+ + + + =

z a z a az az
( ) ... 4 3 2 1 1
3 3 2 2 1
2
1
+ + + + =

z a z a az az
( ) ... 15 10 6 3 1 1
4 4 3 3 2 2 1
3
1
+ + + + + =

z a z a z a az az
( ) ... 3 3 1 1
3 3 2 2 1
3
1
+ + =

z a z a az az
3 Z - Transform
8
Polynomial function
Exponential function

Sinusoidal function

<

=
0 0
0
) (
k
k a
k x
k
[ ]
a z
z
az
z a z a az z a z k x a
k k
k
k k
k
k k

+ + + + + = = =

=
=

1
2 2 1
0 0
1
1
... ... 1 ) (
X(z)
X(z) Z

<

0 0
0
) (
t
t e
t x
at
[ ]
aT aT
k kaT aT aT
k
k akT
k
k at
e z
z
z e
z e z e z e z e z k x e

+ + + + + = = =
=
=

1
2 2 1
0 0
1
1
... ... 1 ) (
X(z)
X(z) Z
3 Z - Transform

<

=
0 0
0 sin
) (
t
t t
t x

[ ]
1
1
1

=
z e
e
aT
at
Z
) (
2
1
) sin(
t j t j
e e
j
t

=
[ ]
( )
( )
1 cos 2
sin
cos 2 1
sin
1 2
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
sin
2
2 1
1
2 1
1
1 1
X(z)
+
=
=
+
=
=
+

=
T z z
T z
z T z
T z
z z e e
z e e
j
z e z e j
t
T j T j
T j T j
T j T j

Z
9
Table of z - transforms
La-Place function discrete function z - transform
) (t u ) (kT u
s
1
at
e
akT
e

1
1
1

z e
aT
a s +
1
t kT
( )
2
1
1
1

z
Tz
2
1
s
2
t ( )
2
kT
( )
( )
3
1
1 1 2
1
1

+
z
z z T
3
2
s
at
te
akT
kTe

( )
2
1
1
1


z e
z Te
aT
aT
( )
2
1
a s +
t sin kT sin
t cos
kT cos
2 1
1
cos 2 1
sin

+ z T z
T z

2 2

+ s
2 2
+ s
s
2 1
1
cos 2 1
cos 1

z T z
T z

t e
at
sin

kT e
akT
sin

( )
2 2

+ + a s
2 2 1
1
cos 2 1
sin


+ z e T z e
T z e
aT aT
aT

t e
at
cos

kT e
akT
cos

( )
2 2
+ +
+
a s
a s
2 2 1
1
cos 2 1
cos 1


+

z e T z e
T z e
aT aT
aT

3 Z - Transform
1
1
1

z
10
Important properties of Z - transform
Multiplication by a constant
Linearity
Multiplication by a
k
Real translation theorem
Backward difference
Forward difference
Complex translation theorem
Initial value theorem
Final value theorem
[ ] [ ] ) ( ) ( ) ( z aX t x a t ax = = Z Z
) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) (
z bG z aF z X
k bg k af k x
+ =
+ =
[ ] [ ] { } ) ( ) ( ), ( ) ( z X z nT k x z X z nT t x
n n
= = Z Z
[ ] ( ) ) ( 1
1
1
z X z x(k)
) x(k)-x(k- x(k)

=
=
Z
[ ] ( ) ) 0 ( ) ( 1
1
zX z X z x(k)
)-x(k) x(k x(k)
=
+ =
Z
[ ] ) ( ) (
aT at
ze X t x e =

Z
) ( lim ) 0 ( z X x
z
=
( ) [ ] ) ( 1 lim ) ( lim
1
1
z X z k x
z k

=
3 Z - Transform
[ ] ) ( ) (
1
z a X t x a
k
= Z
11
Z - transform
Example 1: Determine z - transform of the damped cosine function described as:
Solution:
t e t x
at
cos ) ( =
[ ]
( )
( )
aT aT
aT
aT aT
aT
aT aT T j T j
aT T j T j
T j a T j a
at
e T z e z
T z e z
z e T z e
T z e
z e z e e e
z e e e
j
z e z e j
t e
2 2
2
2 2 1
1
2 2 1
1
1 ) ( 1 ) (
cos 2
cos
cos 2 1
cos 1
1
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
cos X(z)

=
=
+

=
=
+ +
+
=

= =

Z
) (
2
1
) cos(
t j t j
e e
j
t

+ =
3 Z - Transform
12
Poles and zeros in z - plane
Assuming we have function in z - domain.
It is transformed (factorised):
where z
i
are the zero locations, and p
i
are location of poles of X(z).
Example 2. Determine poles and zeros of Y(z).
Solution:

Poles are p
1
=-2, p
2
=-3,
Zeros are z
1
=0, z
2
=1
n
n n
m
m m
a z a z
b z b z b
z X
+ + +
+ + +
=

...
...
) (
1
1
1
1 0
( )( ) ( )
( )( ) ( )
n
m
p z p z p z
z z z z z z b
z X


=
...
...
) (
2 1
2 1 0
3 Z - Transform
) 3 )( 2 (
) 1 (
) (
6 5
) 1 (
) (
2
+ +

=
+ +

=
z z
z z
z Y
z z
z z
z Y
13
Inverse Z - transform
If then inverse z - transform is defined as:
Inverse z - transformation gives the unique values of signal x(kT), but signal x(t) is not unique.
The value of x(t) between the sampling instants is not known.

Methods for calculating inverse z-transformation:
- Use of table of z - transformation,
- Direct division method,
- Computational method,
- Partial-fraction expansion method,
- Inversion integral method.
- Direct division method
We expand the X(z) into infinite series.
Used with the small number of pulses or determining first several terms of x(kT).
... ) ( ... ) 2 ( ) ( ) 0 ( ) ( ) (
2 1
0
+ + + + + = =

k
k
k
z kT x z T x z T x x z kT x z X
[ ] ) ( ) ( z X k x
1 -
Z =
3 Z - Transform
[ ] ) ( ) ( k x z X Z =
14
- Computational method
Used with computers. All the coefficients must be known.
Example 3. Determine Y(k), sampled signal response, if signal Y(z) is given below. Assume that
signal U(z) is given as unit step sampled signal.
Solution:
Recursive formula:
k=-2;
k=-1;
k=0;

) (
2 . 0 2 . 1
5 10
) (
2
z U
z z
z
z Y
+
+
=
0 , 0 ) (
,... 2 , 1 , 0 1 ) (
< =
= =
k k u
k k u
) ( 5 ) 1 ( 10 ) ( 2 . 0 ) 1 ( 2 . 1 ) 2 (
) ( 5 ) ( 10 ) ( 2 . 0 ) ( 2 . 1 ) (
2
k u k u k y k y k y
z U z zU z Y z zY z Y z
+ + = + + +
+ = +
0 ) 0 ( ) 2 ( 5 ) 1 ( 10 ) 2 ( 2 . 0 ) 1 ( 2 . 1 ) 0 ( = + = + y u u y y y
10 ) 1 ( ) 1 ( 5 ) 0 ( 10 ) 1 ( 2 . 0 ) 0 ( 2 . 1 ) 1 ( = + = + y u u y y y
... , 68 . 18 ) 4 ( , 4 . 18 ) 3 (
...
17 ) 2 ( ) 0 ( 5 ) 1 ( 10 ) 0 ( 2 . 0 ) 1 ( 2 . 1 ) 2 (
= =
= + = +
y y
y u u y y y
3 Z - Transform
15
- Partial fraction expansion method
Similar method to the partial fraction expansion with La-Place transforms. All the terms in
partial fraction should be easily recognisable in tables of z - transforms.
Find the poles and factor denominator.
If there is a zero at origin, divide function with z. The degree of numerator can be the same as
denominator.
Expand X(z) into partial fractions.
- case where all the poles are simple:

n n
n n
m m
m m
a z a z a z
b z b z b z b
z X
+ + + +
+ + + +
=

1
1
1
1
1 0
...
...
) (
( )( ) ( )
n
m m
m m
p z p z p z
b z b z b z b
z X

+ + + +
=

...
...
) (
2 1
1
1 0
n
n
p z
c
p z
c
p z
c
z
z X

+ +

= ...
) (
2
2
1
1
( )
i
p z
i i
z
z X
p z c
=

=
) (
3 Z - Transform
16
- case where the poles are multiple:

Example 4. Determine y(k) if Y(z) is given as where x(k) is unit step function.
Solution: (In three different ways)
a) partial fractions with
y(0)=0, y(1)=10, y(2)=12, y(3)=12.4, ...
( )
1
2
2
1
1
) (
p z
c
p z
c
z
z X

=
( )
1
) (
2
1 1
p z
z
z X
p z c
=

=
( )
1
) (
2
1 2
p z
z
z X
p z
dz
d
c
=
)
`

=
( ) ( )( ) 2 . 0 1
10
) (
2 . 0
10
) (

=

=
z z
z
z X
z
z Y
( )( ) ( ) ( ) 2 . 0
5 . 12
1
5 . 12
2 . 0 1
10 ) (

=

=
z z z z z
z Y
( ) ( )

=
1 1
2 . 0 1
1
1
1
5 . 12 ) (
z z
z Y
3 Z - Transform
( )
) (
2 . 0
10
) ( z X
z
z Y

= = =

1 1
1
) ( ,... 2 , 1 , 0 , 1 ) (
1
z
z
z
z X k k x
,
) (
z
z Y
{ } ( )
k
z Y Z k y 2 . 0 1 5 . 12 ) ( ) (
1
= =

17
b) Partial fractions with Y(z)
We expand Y(z), rather than Y(z)/z.
Apply shifting theorem:
y(0)=0, y(1)=10, y(2)=12, y(3)=12.4, ...
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1
1
1
1
2 . 0 1
5 . 2
1
5 . 12
2 . 0
5 . 2
1
5 . 12
) (

=
z
z
z
z
z z
z Y

=
=

0 0
.. 3 , 2 , 1 1
1
1
1 -
1
1 -
1
1
1
1
k
k
z
z
z
z
Z Z

=
=

0 0
.. 3 , 2 , 1 2 . 0
2 . 0 1
1
1 -
2 . 0 1
1 -
1
1
1
1
1
k
k k
z
z
z
z
Z Z
) 2 . 0 1 ( 5 . 12 2 . 0 * 5 . 2 5 . 12 ) (
1 k k
k y = =

3 Z - Transform
18
c) Compare with computational method:
3 Z - Transform
( )
....
48 . 12 4 . 12 * 2 . 0 10 ) 4 ( ), 3 ( 10 ) 3 ( 2 . 0 ) 4 (
3
4 . 12 12 * 2 . 0 10 ) 3 ( ), 2 ( 10 ) 2 ( 2 . 0 ) 3 (
2
12 10 * 2 . 0 10 ) 2 ( ), 1 ( 10 ) 1 ( 2 . 0 ) 2 (
1
10 0 * 2 . 0 10 ) 1 ( ), 0 ( 10 ) 0 ( 2 . 0 ) 1 (
0
0 ) 0 (
0
0 ) (
0 ) (
) 1 ( 10 ) 1 ( 2 . 0 ) 0 (
1
) ( 10 ) ( 2 . 0 ) 1 (
) ( 10 ) ( 2 . 0 ) (
) (
2 . 0
10
) (
= + = =
=
= + = =
=
= + = =
=
= + = =
=
=
<

=
=
=
=
= +
=

=
y x y y
k
y x y y
k
y x y y
k
y x y y
k
y
k
k y
k x
x y y
k
k X k Y k y
z X z Y z zY
z X
z
z Y
19
Confirm with initial and final value theorem:

Sketch response:
3 Z - Transform
0 1 2 3 4 5
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
kT
y
(
k
T
)
,

x
(
k
T
)
x(kT)
y(kT)
5 . 12
8 . 0
10
2 . 0
10
lim ) ( ) 1 ( lim ) ( lim , 0
10
) 2 . 0 )( 1 (
10
lim ) ( lim ) 0 (
1
1
1
= =

= = =

=

= =

z
z Y z k y
z z
z
z Y y
z z k z z
20
Partial fraction expansion method
Example 5. Obtain inverse z transformation of Y(z) where

Solution:
( ) ( ) 1 2
2
) (
2
3

+
=
z z
z z
z Y
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) 1
3
2
1
2
9 ) (
1 2 2 1 2
1 2 ) (
2
3 2
2
1
2
2

=

+
=
z z z z
z Y
z
c
z
c
z
c
z z
z
z
z Y
( )
( ) ( )
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
3
2 1
2 1
9
) (

=
z
z
z
z
z
z
z Y
,... 2 , 1 , 0 , 3 2 2 9 ) (
1
= + =

k k k y
k k
( )
( ) ( )
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
3
2 1
2 1
9
) (
1 1 1

=

z
z
z
z
z
z
k y z z z
3 Z - Transform
21
Z - transform of differential equations
If a dynamic system, described by differential equation, is subject to discrete signals, we use
z - transformation to analyse the system behaviour. Using z - transform we have algebraic
equations for discrete signals. Differential equation becomes difference equation.
Differentiation and integration represented using difference equations
3 Z - Transform
kT (k-1)T
y((k-1)T)
y(kT)
y(t), y(kT)
y(t)
T
T
p
T kT y ydt
T
T k y kT y
T
kT y
T
p
dt
dy
kT
T k
* ) (
) ) 1 (( ) ( ) (
) 1 (


=

t, kT
22
Using backward difference equations differential and integral terms become:
Example 6: Determine z transformation of the filter described in time as given below. Assume y(t)
is output signal and x(t) is filter input.

Solution: Using differentiation
Obtaining difference equations using computational method:
ax ay
dt
dy
+ =
3 Z - Transform
T k x t x
T
k x k x
T
k x
t x
dt
d
) ( ) (
) 1 ( ) ( ) (
) (

[ ] ) ( ) 1 ( 1 ) (
) ( ) (
) 1 ( ) (
) ( ) (
) (
k aTx k y aT k y
k ax k ay
T
k y k y
k ax k ay
T
k y
= +
+ =

+ =

23
Apply z-transform:
Use z-transformation rule for backward difference
Solution: Using Integration
Integrate equation:
t becomes kT in discrete systems:
3 Z - Transform
[ ] { } { } ) ( ) 1 ( 1 ) ( k aTx Z k y aT k y Z = +

+ =
t t t
xdt a ydt a dt
dt
dy
0 0 0

+ =
kT kT kT
xdt a ydt a dt
dt
dy
0 0 0
ax ay
dt
dy
+ =
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
) (
1 1
) (
) ( ) ( 1 ) (
) ( ) ( 1 ) (
1
z X
aT z
zaT
z Y
z zaTX z Y aT z zY
z aTX z Y z aT z Y
+
=
= +
= +

24
Sampled signal is determined at kT instants.
If k is substituted by k-1:
Subtracting the last two equations:
- Backward difference method for integration:
Use z-transformation rule for backward difference:
3 Z - Transform

+ =
kT kT
xdt a ydt a y kT y
0 0
) 0 ( ) (


+ =
T k T k
xdt a ydt a y T k y
) 1 (
0
) 1 (
0
) 0 ( ) ) 1 ((


+ =
kT
T k
kT
T k
xdt a ydt a T k y kT y
) 1 ( ) 1 (
) ) 1 (( ) (
T kT ax T kT ay T k y kT y ) ( ) ( ) ) 1 (( ) ( + =
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
1
z aTX z aTY z Y z z Y + =

aT z
aT
z X
z Y
+
=
1
1 ) (
) (
[ ]
) (
1 1
) ( z X
aT z
zaT
z Y
+
=
25
Example 7. Consider the second order filter:
where y is output and x is filter input. Assuming that filter input is discrete unit step signal
with period T, determine difference equation and z transformation of the output. Employ
computational method.
Solution:
Derivative term is replaced with a two-point difference term. Second order differential is second
order difference.
( ) ) (
) 1 ( ) (
) (
) 1 ( ) (
) 1 ( ) (
1
2
k gx
T
k x k x
f k by
T
k y k y
a k y k y
T
+

= +

+
gx x
dt
d
f by y
dt
d
a y
dt
d
+ = + +
2
2
( ) ) ( ) 1 ( ) ( ) ( ) 1 ( ) ( )) 2 ( ) 1 ( ( ) 1 ( ) (
1
2
k gx k x
T
f
k x
T
f
k by k y
T
a
k y
T
a
k y k y k y k y
T
+ = + +
) 1 ( ) ( )) 2 (
1
) 1 ( )
2
( )
1
)( (
2 2 2

+ = + + + k x
T
f
g
T
f
k x k y
T
k y
T
a
T
b
T
a
T
k y
3 Z - Transform
) (
) (
) (
) ( ) (
2
2
k gx
T
k x
f k by
T
k y
a
T
k y
+

= +

26
Apply z - transform:
) ( ) ( ) (
1
) ( )
2
( )
1
)( (
1 2
2
1
2 2
z x z
T
f
g
T
f
z X z Y z
T
z Y z
T
a
T
b
T
a
T
z Y

+ = + + +
2
2
1
2 2
1
1
)
2
( )
1
(
) (
) (

+ + +

+
=
z
T
z
T
a
T
b
T
a
T
z
T
f
g
T
f
z X
z Y
3 Z - Transform