STUDY OF COAL INDUSTRY

BY
HARISH KUMAR BISOYI
1226113118



INTRODUCTION

Coal is the most abundant and economical fossil fuel in the world. Coal is primarily used for the
generation of electricity, with much smaller volumes used for industrial process heat and in steel
production. Over 40 percent of the worlds electricity is produced from coal. As such, it is an
important fuel source and will remain so for decades due to its low cost and abundance.
However, like all fossil fuels, it is formed from carbon and when it burns, its carbon combines
with oxygen to form carbon dioxide (CO2), a greenhouse gas.
CO2 emissions from coal power generation are considered a major contributing factor to global
warming. Further, traces of sulfur and nitrogen are also trapped inside coal. If oxides of these
elements are released into the air, they can combine with water vapor to form acid rain. Minerals
and dirt are also contained in coal. These particles do not burn and result in coal ash.
Coal is formed from the decomposition of organic materials that have been subjected to millions
of years of geologic heat and pressure. While coal is generically described as a single
commodity, it in fact varies widely in important physical and chemical characteristics such as
energy content, carbon content, moisture content, and presence of contaminants such as sulfur.
These attributes determine both the price of coal and the applications for which it is used

THE COAL INDUSTRY PROFILE OF INDIA
The report provides top-level market analysis, information and insights into the coal mining
industry in India including:
In-depth analysis of the coal mining industry
A detailed analysis of market attractiveness, covering the key trends, drivers and
regulatory frameworks
Detailed market sizes for a period of 10 years (20062015), including production and
consumption analysis
Detailed import and export figures for coal for a period of 10 years (20062015)
Description and analysis of the competitive landscape for the coal mining industry
Summary

India had million tons coal reserves in 2010, which accounts for significant share of total global
reserves. India produced million tons of coal in 2010. Other major coal producers include China,
the USA and Australia. India is also a leading consumer of coal globally. In India, the majority
of its coal is consumed by thermal power generation plants. The cement industry is highly energy
intensive and is the third-largest coal user in India and, as such, the robust growth of cement
industry will fuel the demand for coal. About45 % of coal production in India is derived from
open-pit mines while underground mining contributes for about 38%. Coal India Ltd and
Singerani Collieries Company are the two leading producers of coal in India. Around XX% of
the coal produced in India is non-coking coal. Indian coal has high content of ash, as low sulphur
content, low refractory nature of ash, low iron content in ash and low chlorine content.

Scope

This report provides a comprehensive analysis of the coal mining industry in India:
It provides historical values for the coal mining industry for the reports 20062010
review period and forecast figures for the 20112015 forecast period
It offers a detailed analysis of production, consumption, imports and exports of key
minerals in terms of volume as well as value
It details the regulatory framework for the coal mining industry
Reasons To Buy
Gain insights into the coal mining industry in India
Identify the key market trends, opportunities and challenges
Assess the industry structure and competitive landscape for coal mining industry in India
Assess growth opportunities and industry dynamics by looking at the report's production,
consumption, import and export figures for coal mining industry in India by volume and
value
Analyze the regulatory environment governing the coal mining industry in the country

INDIAN COAL MINING - INDUSTRY OVERVIEW

More than 90 percent of coal in India is produced by the government-owned companies. CIL
is one of the largest coal producing companies in the world.
The role played by private sector players is limited to captive mining for the purpose of self
consumption, be it steel production, power generation, cement production, fertiliser
production.
Currently, in spite of large reserves of coal, the industry is unable to increase the coal
production to match the demand and to reach its potential production. Hence, India has to
import coal to meet its additional requirements.
Indian power sector relies heavily (around 78 per cent) on coal for electricity generation. As
the infrastructure to support coal imports is inadequate and coal reserves are found in
abundance in India, the domestic coal production has to gear up to meet future demand.

COAL USES
Coal is primarily used as a solid fuel to produce electricity and heat through combustion. World
coal consumption was about 7.25 billion tonnes in 2010 (7.99 billion short tons) and is expected
to increase 48% to 9.05 billion tonnes (9.98 billion short tons) by 2030.China produced 3.47
billion tonnes (3.83 billion short tons) in 2011. India produced about 578 million tonnes (637.1
million short tons) in 2011. 68.7% of China's electricity comes from coal. The USA consumed
about 13% of the world total in 2010, i.e. 951 million tonnes (1.05 billion short tons), using 93%
of it for generation of electricity.
[35]
46% of total power generated in the USA was done using
coal.
When coal is used for electricity generation, it is usually pulverized and then combusted (burned)
in a furnace with a boiler. The furnace heat converts boiler water to steam, which is then used to
spin turbines which turn generators and create electricity. The thermodynamic efficiency of this
process has been improved over time. Simple cycle steam turbines have topped out with some of
the most advanced reaching about 35% thermodynamic efficiency for the entire process.
Increasing the combustion temperature can boost this efficiency even further.
[
Old coal power
plants, especially "grandfathered" plants, are significantly less efficient and produce higher levels
of waste heat. At least 40% of the world's electricity comes from coal, and in 2012, about one-
third of the United States' electricity came from coal, down from approximately 49% in 2008. As
of 2012 in the United States, use of coal to generate electricity was declining, as plentiful
supplies of natural gas obtained by hydraulic fracturing of tight shale formations became
available at low prices. The emergence of the supercritical turbine concept envisions running a
boiler at extremely high temperatures and pressures with projected efficiencies of 46%, with
further theorized increases in temperature and pressure perhaps resulting in even higher
efficiencies.
In Denmark, a net electric efficiency of > 47% has been obtained at the coal-fired
Nordjyllandsvrket CHP Plant and an overall plant efficiency of up to 91% with cogeneration of
electricity and district heating.
[43]
The multifuel-fired Avedrevrket CHP Plant just outside
Copenhagen can achieve a net electric efficiency as high as 49%. The overall plant efficiency
with cogeneration of electricity and district heating can reach as much as 94%.
An experimental way of coal combustion is in the form of coal-water slurry fuel (CWS), which
was well-developed in Russia since the days of the Soviet Union. CWS significantly reduces
emissions, improving the heating value of coal. Other ways to use coal are combined heat and
power cogeneration and an MHD topping cycle.
The total known deposits recoverable by current technologies, including highly polluting, low-
energy content types of coal (i.e., lignite, bituminous), is sufficient for many years. However,
consumption is increasing and maximal production could be reached within decades (see world
coal reserves, below).
Coking coal and use of coke
Coke is a solid carbonaceous residue derived from low-ash, low-sulfur bituminous coal from
which the volatile constituents are driven off by baking in an oven without oxygen at
temperatures as high as 1,000C (1,832F), so the fixed carbon and residual ash are fused
together. Metallurgical coke is used as a fuel and as a reducing agent in smelting iron ore in
a blast furnace. The result is pig iron, and is too rich in dissolved carbon, so it must be treated
further to make steel. The coking coal should be low in sulfur and phosphorus, so they do not
migrate to the metal.
The coke must be strong enough to resist the weight of overburden in the blast furnace, which is
why coking coal is so important in making steel using the conventional route. However, the
alternative route is direct reduced iron, where any carbonaceous fuel can be used to make sponge
or pelletised iron. Coke from coal is grey, hard, and porous and has a heating value of 24.8
million Btu/ton (29.6 MJ/kg). Some cokemaking processes produce valuable byproducts,
including coal tar, ammonia, light oils, and coal gas.
Petroleum coke is the solid residue obtained in oil refining, which resembles coke, but contains
too many impurities to be useful in metallurgical applications.
Gasification
Coal gasification can be used to produce syngas, a mixture of carbon monoxide (CO) and
hydrogen (H
2
) gas. This syngas can then be converted into transportation fuels, such as gasoline
and diesel, through the Fischer-Tropsch process. This technology is currently used by
the Sasol chemical company of South Africa to make motor vehicle fuels from coal and natural
gas. Alternatively, the hydrogen obtained from gasification can be used for various purposes,
such as powering a hydrogen economy, making ammonia, or upgrading fossil fuels.
During gasification, the coal is mixed with oxygen and steam while also being heated and
pressurized. During the reaction, oxygen and water molecules oxidize the coal into carbon
monoxide (CO), while also releasing hydrogen gas (H
2
). This process has been conducted in both
underground coal mines and in the production of town gas.
C (as Coal) + O
2
+ H
2
O H
2
+ CO
If the refiner wants to produce gasoline, the syngas is collected at this state and routed into a
Fischer-Tropsch reaction. If hydrogen is the desired end-product, however, the syngas is fed
into thewater gas shift reaction, where more hydrogen is liberated.
CO + H
2
O CO
2
+ H
2

In the past, coal was converted to make coal gas (town gas), which was piped to
customers to burn for illumination, heating, and cooking.
Liquefaction
Coal can also be converted into synthetic fuels equivalent to gasoline or diesel by several
different processes. In the direct liquefaction processes, the coal is
either hydrogenated or carbonized. Hydrogenation processes are the Bergius process,
[46]
the
SRC-I and SRC-II (Solvent Refined Coal) processes and the NUS Corporation hydrogenation
process. In the process of low-temperature carbonization, coal is coked at temperatures between
360 and 750C (680 and 1,380F). These temperatures optimize the production of coal tars richer
in lighter hydrocarbons than normal coal tar. The coal tar is then further processed into fuels.
Alternatively, coal can be converted into a gas first, and then into a liquid, by using the Fischer-
Tropsch process. An overview of coal liquefaction and its future potential is available
Coal liquefaction methods involve carbon dioxide (CO
2
) emissions in the conversion process. If
coal liquefaction is done without employing either carbon capture and storage (CCS)
technologies or biomass blending, the result is lifecycle greenhouse gas footprints that are
generally greater than those released in the extraction and refinement of liquid fuel production
from crude oil. If CCS technologies are employed, reductions of 512% can be achieved in Coal
to Liquid (CTL) plants and up to a 75% reduction is achievable when co-gasifying coal with
commercially demonstrated levels of biomass (30% biomass by weight) in coal/bomass-to-
liquids plants.For future synthetic fuel projects, carbon dioxide sequestration is proposed to
avoid releasing CO
2
into the atmosphere. Sequestration adds to the cost of production. Currently,
all US and at least one Chinese synthetic fuel projects, include sequestration in their process
designs
Refined coal
Refined coal is the product of a coal-upgrading technology that removes moisture and certain
pollutants from lower-rank coals such as sub-bituminous and lignite (brown) coals. It is one form
of several precombustion treatments and processes for coal that alter coal's characteristics before
it is burned. The goals of precombustion coal technologies are to increase efficiency and reduce
emissions when the coal is burned. Depending on the situation, precombustion technology can be
used in place of or as a supplement to postcombustion technologies to control emissions from
coal-fueled boilers.
Industrial processes
Finely ground bituminous coal, known in this application as sea coal, is a constituent of foundry
sand. While the molten metal is in the mould, the coal burns slowly, releasing reducing gases at
pressure, and so preventing the metal from penetrating the pores of the sand. It is also contained
in 'mould wash', a paste or liquid with the same function applied to the mould before casting.
]
Sea
coal can be mixed with the clay lining (the "bod") used for the bottom of a cupola furnace. When
heated, the coal decomposes and the bod becomes slightly friable, easing the process of breaking
open holes for tapping the molten metal.

OVERVIEW
Demand and supply
The overall long-term demand of coal is closely linked to the performance of the end-use
sectors. In India, the end-use sectors of coal mainly include electricity, iron and steel and
cement. Demand from the unorganised small scale sector comprising primarily of the
brick and ceramic industry is relatively large though infirm as users switch between coal,
firewood and biomass depending on their relative prices. Other industries using coal
have only a marginal impact on the long-term demand for coal.
The charts show the projected sector-wise coal consumption in India by the end of the
12th Plan and 15th Plan. The report of the Working Group of Coal and Lignite for the 12th Five
Year Plan projects the coal demand in India to grow at a CARG of 7.1% till 2016-17 and reach
980.5 MT annually under realistic demand. At a CAGR of 7.0%, the demand is expected to reach
1,373 MT by 2021-22.

Coal demand in India
Estimated sector-wise coal consumption
in India (2016-17)
Estimated sector-wise coal consumption
in India in 2031-32

Source: The report of the Working Group for Coal and Lignite for 12th Five Year Plan
Outlook
Electricity- 59%
Iron& Steel- 7%
Cement- 4%
Others- 10%
Non-elect- 20%
Electricity- 60%
Iron& Steel- 5%
Cement- 5%
Others- 10%
Non-elect- 20%

Source: India Energy Book 2012, (World Energy Council, Indian Member Committee)12 PwC
Further, the Ministry of Steel (MoS) projected to build steel production capacities of
200 MT by 2020 to meet the rising demand. Out of this, almost 70% of the steel might
be based on basic oxygen furnaces (BOF) technology. Different scenarios for coking
coal requirement are also proposed under different studies, and their projections are
as follows:

The current shortage of coal stands at 84 MT and the same is expected to rise to 300
MTPA in medium-term if all the letters of assurance issued by the state-owned coal
companies materialise. Some of this shortfall will be met by supplies from captive coal
blocks and rest through imports. Also, the choice between the supplies from domestic
and imported coal is mainly driven by timely availability of coal from domestic sources,
quality requirements and the economics of landed cost of coal at the end-use plant.
Captive coal mining in India was, gradually, being permitted by amending the Coal
Mines Nationalisation Act, primarily in iron and steel making, power generation and
cement production. However, the capacity augmentation from captive coal blocks was
dismal as only 30 mines could come online as compared to a targeted 76 mines. Hence,
it became important for India to secure coal through imports from international market
to meet their significantly rising coal demand. However, import is mainly dependent on
availability of coal in global market, increasing competitive scenario and affordability.
Coking coal demand for steel

Coal availability in India
2016-17 2021-2022
CIL SCCL Captive mining
SCN-I: Business as usual, SCN-II: Optimistic scenario

In the global market, China, India and Indonesia are expected to account for nearly 80%
of the total incremental growth in demand for coal. As per projections, by 2035, China
will remain the worlds largest consumer of coal, followed by India, US and Indonesia.
Coal-based thermal power projects will be the main drivers of demand in China and
India. The projected coal fired generation capacity in Asia will rise to 1,464,000 MW
in 2020 up from 918,000 MW this year, while for India it will rise from 95,000 MW to
294,000 MW over the next 11 years (a 300% increase).
Asia Pacific is expected to account for 70.8% of the global coal production and 71.3%
of the global consumption in 2015 with China and India being two largest consumers.
The demand and supply gap is expected to widen in 2030 as Asia Pacific is expected
to produce 73.8% of the global coal production but consume 77.7% of the total
consumption. The negative coal balance will have significant impact on coal prices.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF THE COAL INDUSTRY

The environmental impact of the coal industry includes the consideration of issues such
as land use, waste management, and water and air pollution caused by the coal mining,
processing and the use of its products. In addition to atmospheric pollution, coal burning
produces hundreds of millions of tons of solid waste products annually, including fly ash, bottom
ash, and flue-gas desulfurization sludge, that contain mercury, uranium,thorium, arsenic, and
other heavy metals
There are severe health effects caused by burning coal. According to the reports issued by
the World Health Organization in 2008 and by environmental groups in 2004, coal particulates
pollution are estimated to shorten approximately 1,000,000 lives annually worldwide, including
nearly 24,000 lives a year in the United States. Coal mining generates significant additional
independent adverse environmental health impacts, among them the polluted water flowing
from mountaintop removal mining.
A major EU funded research study known as ExternE, or Externalities of Energy, undertaken
over the period of 1995 to 2005 found that the cost of producing electricity from coal would
double over its present value, if external costs such as damage to the environment and to human
health, from theairborne particulate matter, nitrogen oxides, chromium VI and arsenic emissions
produced by coal, were taken into account. It was estimated in the study that external,
downstream, fossil fuel costs amount up to 12% of the EUs entire Gross Domestic Product
(GDP), with coal the main fossil fuel accountable for this, and this was before the external cost
of global warming from these sources was even included. The study also found that the
environmental and health costs of coal alone were 0.06/kWh, or 6 cents/kWh, with the energy
sources of the lowest external costs associated with them being nuclear power 0.0019/kWh,
and wind power at 0.0009/kWh.

WATER MINING

Open-pit mining requires large amounts of water for coal preparation plants and dust
suppression. To meet this requirement mines acquire (and remove) surface or groundwater
supplies from nearby agricultural or domestic users, which reduces the productivity of these
operations or halts them. These water resources (once separated from their original environment)
are rarely returned after mining, creating a permanent degradation in agricultural productivity.
Underground mining has a similar (but lesser) effect, due to a lower need for dust-suppression
water; however, it still requires sufficient water for coal-washing.
Groundwater supplies may be adversely affected by surface mining. These impacts include
drainage of usable water from shallow aquifers; lowering of water levels in adjacent areas and
changes in flow direction within aquifers; contamination of usable aquifers below mining
operations due to infiltration (percolation) of poor-quality mine water; and increased infiltration
of precipitation on spoil piles. Where coal (or carbonaceous shale) is present, increased
infiltration may result in:
Increased runoff of poor-quality water and erosion from spoil piles
Recharge of poor-quality water to shallow groundwater aquifers
Poor-quality water flow to nearby streams
This may contaminate both groundwater and nearby streams for long periods. Deterioration of
stream quality results from acid mine drainage, toxic trace elements, high content of dissolved
solids in mine drainage water, and increased sediment loads discharged to streams. When coal
surfaces are exposed, pyrite comes in contact with water and air and forms sulfuric acid. As
water drains from the mine, the acid moves into the waterways; as long as rain falls on the
mine tailings the sulfuric-acid production continues, whether the mine is still operating or
not. Also waste piles and coal storage piles can yield sediment to streams. Leached water from
these piles can be acid and contain toxic trace elements. Surface waters may be rendered unfit for
agriculture, human consumption, bathing, or other household uses.
To mitigate these problems, water is monitored at coal mines. The five principal technologies
used to control water flow at mine sites are:
Diversion systems
Containment ponds
Groundwater pumping systems
Subsurface drainage systems
Subsurface barriers

Land Management

Impact to land and surroundings

Strip mining severely alters the landscape, which reduces the value of the natural environment in
the surrounding land.
[10]
The land surface is dedicated to mining activities until it can be
reshaped and reclaimed. If mining is allowed, resident human populations must be resettled off
the mine site; economic activities, such as agriculture or hunting and gathering food and
medicinal plants are interrupted. What becomes of the land surface after mining is determined by
the manner in which the mining is conducted. Usually reclamation of disturbed lands to a land
use condition is not equal to the original use. Existing land uses (such as livestock grazing, crop
and timber production) are temporarily eliminated from the mining area. High-value, intensive-
land-use areas like urban and transportation systems are not usually affected by mining
operations. If mineral values are sufficient, these improvements may be removed to an adjacent
area.
Strip mining eliminates existing vegetation, destroys the genetic soil profile, displaces or
destroys wildlife and habitat, alters current land uses, and to some extent permanently changes
the general topography of the area mined.
[11]
Adverse impacts on geological features of human
interest may occur in a coal strip mine. Geomorphic and geophysical features and outstanding
scenic resources may be sacrificed by indiscriminate mining. Paleontological, cultural, and other
historic values may be endangered due to the disruptive activities of blasting, ripping, and
excavating coal. Stripping of overburden eliminates and destroys archeological and historic
features, unless they are removed beforehand.
The removal of vegetative cover and activities associated with the construction of haul roads,
stockpiling of topsoil, displacement of overburden and hauling of soil and coal increase the
quantity of dust around mining operations. Dust degrades air quality in the immediate area, has
an adverse impact on vegetative life, and constitutes health and safety hazards for mine workers
and nearby residents.
Surface mining disrupts virtually all aesthetic elements of the landscape. Alteration of landforms
often imposes unfamiliar and discontinuous configurations. New linear patterns appear as
material is extracted and waste piles are developed. Different colors and textures are exposed as
vegetative cover is removed and overburden dumped to the side. Dust, vibration, and diesel
exhaust odors are created (affecting sight, sound, and smell). Residents of local communities
often find such impacts disturbing or unpleasant. In case of mountaintop removal, tops are
removed from mountains or hills to expose thick coal seams underneath. The soil and rock
removed is deposited in nearby valleys, hollows and depressions, resulting in blocked (and
contaminated) waterways.
Removal of soil and rock overburden covering the coal resource may cause burial and loss of
topsoil, exposes parent material, and creates large infertile wastelands. Soil disturbance and
associated compaction result in conditions conducive to erosion. Soil removal from the area to be
surface-mined alters or destroys many natural soil characteristics, and reduces its biodiversity
and productivity for agriculture. Soil structure may be disturbed by pulverization or aggregate
breakdown.
Mine collapses (or mine subsidences) have the potential to produce major effects above ground,
which are especially devastating in developed areas. German underground coal-mining
(especially in North Rhine-Westphalia) has damaged thousands of houses, and the coal-mining
industries have set aside large sums in funding for future subsidence damages as part of their
insurance and state-subsidy schemes. In a particularly spectacular case in the
German Saar region (another historical coal-mining area), a suspected mine collapse in 2008
created an earthquake measuring 4.0 on the Richter magnitude scale, causing some damage to
houses. Previously, smaller earthquakes had become increasingly common and coal mining was
temporarily suspended in the area.
[14]

In response to negative land effects of coal mining and the abundance of abandoned mines in the
US the federal government enacted the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977,
which requires reclamation plans for future coal mining sites. These plans must be approved by
federal or state authorities before mining begins.

Waste management

The burning of coal leads to substantial fly ash sludge-storage ponds. In the low-coal-content
areas waste forms spoil tip. The Environmental Protection Agency classified the 44 sites as
potential hazards to communities (which means the waste sites could cause death and significant
property damage if an event such as a storm, a terrorist attack or a structural failure caused a
spill). They estimate that about 300 dry landfills and wet storage ponds are used around the
country to store ash from coal-fired power plants. The storage facilities hold the noncombustible
ingredients of coal and the ash trapped by equipment designed to reduce air pollution.

River water pollution

Coal-fired boilers / power plants when using coal or lignite rich
in limestone produces ash containing calcium oxide (CaO). CaO readily dissolves in water to
form slaked lime / Ca(OH)
2
and carried by rain water to rivers / irrigation water from the ash
dump areas.Lime softening process precipitates Ca and Mg ions / removes temporary hardness in
the water and also converts sodium bicarbonates in river water into sodium carbonate Sodium
carbonate (washing soda) further reacts with the remaining Ca and Mg in the water to remove /
precipitate the total hardness. Also water soluble sodium salts present in the ash enhance the
sodium content in water further. Thus river water is converted into soft water by eliminating Ca
and Mg ions and enhancing Na ions by coal-fired boilers. Soft water application
in irrigation (surface or ground water) converts the fertile soils into alkaline sodic soils. River
water alkalinity and sodicity problem is acute when many coal-fired boilers and power stations
are installed in a river basin. River water sodicity problem aggravates in the downstream of
intensively cultivated river basins located in China, India, Egypt, Pakistan, west Asia, Australia,
western US, etc. due to accumulation of salts in the remaining water after meeting various
transpiration and evaporation losses.

Wildlife

Surface mining of coal causes direct and indirect damage to wildlife. The impact on wildlife
stems primarily from disturbing, removing and redistributing the land surface. Some impacts are
short-term, and confined to the mine site; others have far-reaching, long-term effects.
The most direct effect on wildlife is destruction or displacement of species in areas of excavation
and spoil piling. Pit and spoil areas are not capable of providing food and cover for most species
of wildlife. Mobile wildlife species like game animals, birds, and predators leave these areas.
More sedentary animals like invertebrates, reptiles, burrowing rodents and small mammals may
be destroyed. The community of microorganisms and nutrient-cycling processes are upset by
movement, storage, and redistribution of soil.
Degradation of aquatic habitats is a major impact by surface mining, and may be apparent many
miles from a mining site. Sediment contamination of surface water is common with surface
mining. Sediment yields may increase a thousand times times their former level as a result of
strip mining.
The effects of sediment on aquatic wildlife vary with the species and the amount of
contamination. High sediment levels can kill fish directly, bury spawning beds, reduce light
transmission, alter temperature gradients, fill in pools, spread streamflows over wider, shallower
areas, and reduce production of aquatic organisms used as food by other species. These changes
destroy the habitat of valued species, and may enhance habitat for less-desirable species.
Existing conditions are already marginal for some freshwater fish in the United States, and the
sedimentation of their habitat may result in their extinction. The heaviest sediment pollution of a
drainage normally comes within 5 to 25 years after mining. In some areas, unvegetated spoil
piles continue to erode even 50 to 65 years after mining.
The presence of acid-forming materials exposed as a result of surface mining can affect wildlife
by eliminating habitat and by causing direct destruction of some species. Lesser concentrations
can suppress productivity, growth rate and reproduction of many aquatic species. Acids, dilute
concentrations of heavy metals, and high alkalinity can cause severe damage to wildlife in some
areas. The duration of acidic-waste pollution can be long; estimates of the time required to leach
exposed acidic materials in the Eastern United States range from 800 to 3,000 years

Air Pollution

Air emissions

Coal and coal waste products (including fly ash, bottom ash and boiler slag) releases
approximately 20 toxic-release chemicals,
including arsenic, lead, mercury, nickel, vanadium, beryllium,cadmium, barium, chromium, copp
er, molybdenum, zinc, selenium and radium, which are dangerous if released into the
environment. While these substances are trace impurities, enough coal is burned that significant
amounts of these substances are released.
[20]

During combustion, the reaction between coal and the air produces oxides of carbon, including
carbon dioxide (CO
2
, an important greenhouse gas), oxides of sulfur (mainly sulfur dioxide)
(SO
2
), and various oxides of nitrogen (NO
x
). Because of the hydrogenous and nitrogenous
components of coal, hydrides and nitrides of carbon and sulfur are also produced during the
combustion of coal in air. These include hydrogen cyanide (HCN), sulfur nitrate (SNO
3
) and
other toxic substances.
The wet cooling towers used in coal-fired power stations, etc. emit drift and fog which are also
environmental concern. The drift from the cooling towers is containing Respirable suspended
particulate matter. In case of cooling towers with sea water makeup, sodium salts are deposited
on nearby lands which would convert the land into alkali soil by reducing the fertility of
vegetative lands and also cause corrosion of nearby structures.
Fires sometimes occur in coal beds underground. When coal beds are exposed, the fire risk is
increased. Weathered coal can also increase ground temperatures if it is left on the surface.
Almost all fires in solid coal are ignited by surface fires caused by people or lightning.
Spontaneous combustion is caused when coal oxidizes and airflow is insufficient to dissipate
heat; this more commonly occurs in stockpiles and waste piles, rarely in bedded coal
underground. Where coal fires occur, there is attendant air pollution from emission of smoke and
noxious fumes into the atmosphere. Coal seam fires may burn underground for decades,
threatening destruction of forests, homes, roadways and other valuable infrastructure. The best-
known coal-seam fire may be the one which led to the permanent evacuation of Centralia,
Pennsylvania, United States.
Approximately 75 Tg/S per year of Sulfur Dioxide (SO
2
) is released from burning coal. After
release, the Sulfur Dioxide is oxidized to gaseous H
2
SO
2
which scatters solar radiation, hence
their increase in the atmosphere exerts a cooling effect on climate that masks some of the
warming caused by increased greenhouse gases. Release of SO
2
also contributes to the
widespread acidification of ecosystems.
Mercury emissions
Mercury emission from coal burning are concentrated as they work their way up the food chain
and are converted into methylmercury, a toxic compound which harms both wildlife and people
who consume freshwater fish. Coal burning is a key source of methylmercury in the
environment. "Power plants... are responsible for half of... the mercury emissions in the United
States.
In New York State winds bring mercury from the coal-fired power plants of the Midwest,
contaminating the waters of the Catskill Mountains. The mercury is consumed by worms, which
are eaten by fish, which are eaten by birds (including bald eagles). As of 2008, mercury levels in
bald eagles in the Catskills had reached new heights. "People are exposed to methylmercury
almost entirely by eating contaminated fish and wildlife that are at the top of aquatic food
chains."
[30]
Ocean fish account for the majority of human exposure to methylmercury; the full
range of sources of methylmercury in ocean fish is not well understood.
The United States Environmental Protection Agency has proposed the Mercury and Air Toxics
Standards (MATS) regulations,
]
which require all coal plants use the technology which is
available to substantially reduce mercury emissions. "Today, more than half of all coal-fired
power plants already deploy pollution control technologies that will help them meet these
achievable standards. Once final, these standards will level the playing field by ensuring the
remaining plants about 40 percent of all coal-fired power plants - take similar steps to decrease
dangerous pollutants.
Annual excess deaths In 2008 the World Health Organization (WHO) and other organizations
calculated that coal particulates pollution cause approximately one million deaths annually
across the world, which is approximately one third of all premature deaths related to all air
pollution sources.
Pollutants emitted by burning coal include fine particulates (PM2.5) and ground level ozone.
Every year, the burning of coal without the use of available pollution control technology causes
thousands of preventable deaths in the United States. A study commissioned by the Maryland
nurses association in 2006 found that emissions from just six of Maryland's coal-burning plants
caused 700 deaths per year nationwide, including 100 in Maryland. Since installation of
pollution abatement equipment on one of these six, the Brandon Shores plant, now "produces 90
percent less nitrogen oxide, an ingredient of smog; 95 percent less sulfur, which causes acid rain;
and vastly lower fractions of other pollutants.
According to a report published in 2004, coal-fired power plants shorten nearly 24,000 lives a
year in the United States (2,800 from lung cancer). In the United States alone, the United States
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) estimates that a range of 13,000 to 34,000 preventable
premature deaths will be avoided by the reductions in PM2.5 and ozone expected by the end of
the several-years time needed to complete implementation of the coal plant cleanup provisions of
the Final Cross-State Air Pollution Rule (CSAPR).
In addition to preventing avoidable premature deaths, the Final Cross-State rule is estimated to
prevent 15,000 additional (non-fatal) heart attacks, 19,000 attacks of acute bronchitis; 420,000
upper and lower respiratory symptoms, 400,000 aggravated asthma attacks; and 19,000 hospital
and ER trips (e.g., for asthma attacks triggered by soot from coal burning). By reducing the
health detriments that arise from burning coal without using available pollution controls,
implementation of the Final Cross-State Air Pollution Rule is expected to reduce days when
people must miss work or school by 1.8 million.
The Cross-State Air Pollution Rule requires significant reductions in sulfur dioxide (SO
2
)
and nitrogen oxide (NO) emissions that cross state lines. These pollutants react in the atmosphere
to form fine particles and ground-level ozone and are transported long distances, making it
difficult for other states to achieve healthy levels of pollution control. The benefits of the
emission reductions expected from EPA's recently proposed Mercury and Air Toxics Standards
(MATS) are not included in the above estimated emission reductions from the Cross-State Air
Pollution Rule; once the Mercury and Air Toxics Standards
[
are implemented, death and disease
from coal burning are likely to be reduced even further, both directly by reducing mercury
poisoning, and by reducing sulfur dioxide emissions.

Green House Emissions

The combustion of coal is the largest contributor to the human-made increase of CO
2
in
the atmosphere. Electric generation using coal burning produces approximately twice
the greenhouse gasses per kilowatt compared to generation using natural gas.
Coal mining produces methane, a potent greenhouse gas. Methane is the naturally occurring
product of the decay of organic matter as coal deposits are formed with increasing depths of
burial, rising temperatures, and rising pressure over geological time. A portion of the methane
produced is absorbed by the coal and later released from the coal seam (and surrounding
disturbed strata) during the mining process. Methane accounts for 10.5 percent of greenhouse-
gas emissions created through human activity. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change, methane has a global warming potential 21 times greater than that of carbon
dioxide over a 100-year timeline. The process of mining can release pockets of methane. These
gases may pose a threat to coal miners, as well as a source of air pollution. This is due to the
relaxation of pressure and fracturing of the strata during mining activity, which gives rise to
safety concerns for the coal miners if not managed properly. The buildup of pressure in the strata
can lead to explosions during (or after) the mining process if prevention methods, such as
"methane draining", are not taken.
In 2008 James E. Hansen and Pushker Kharecha published a peer-reviewed scientific study
analyzing the effect of a coal phase-out on atmospheric CO
2
levels. Their baseline mitigation
scenario was a phaseout of global coal emissions by 2050. Under the Business as Usual scenario,
atmospheric CO
2
peaks at 563 parts per million (ppm) in the year 2100. Under the four coal
phase-out scenarios, atmospheric CO
2
peaks at 422446 ppm between 2045 and 2060 and
declines thereafter.

Radiation Exposure

Coal also contains low levels of uranium, thorium, and other naturally occurring radioactive
isotopes whose release into the environment may lead to radioactive contamination.
[20][44]
Coal
plants emit radiation in the form of radioactive fly ash which is inhaled and ingested by
neighbours, and incorporated into crops. A 1978 paper from Oak Ridge National
Laboratory estimated that coal-fired power plants of that time may contribute a whole-body
committed dose of 19 Sv/yr to their immediate neighbours in a 500 m radius.
[45]
The United
Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation's 1988 report estimated the
committed dose 1 km away to be 20 Sv/yr for older plants or 1Sv/yr for newer plants with
improved fly ash capture, but was unable to confirm these numbers by test.
[46]
A
single PWR spent fuel bundle, after 10 years cooldown, with no shielding, emits 2.3 MSv/yr, a
trillion times more than coal.
[47]
However, if we exclude contained waste and ignore
unintentional releases from nuclear plants, coal-plants carry more radioactive wastes into the
environment than nuclear plants producing the same amount of energy. Plant-emitted radiation
carried by coal-derived fly ash delivers 100 times more radiation to the surrounding environment
than does the normal operation of a similarly productive nuclear plant.
[48]
This comparison does
not consider the rest of the fuel cycle, i.e., coal and uranium mining and refining and waste
disposal.


Coal Imports:

New Delhi: India, the worlds third-largest coal consumer, imported 43% more of the fuel than a
year ago on increased demand from power stations and steelmakers, according to shipping data.
Adani Enterprises Ltd, Tata Group, JSW Group and Steel Authority of India Ltd were
among buyers who received 16.77 million tonnes of coal, from 11.75 million in the same month
last year, according to Interocean Group, a New Delhi- based shipper. This included 13.39
million tonnes of steam coal and 3.38 million of coking coal at 23 ports.
India, where 59% of electricity generation is coal-fired, added 1,570 megawatts of thermal power
in May to boost its total installed capacity to 225,133 megawatts, according to the Central
Electricity Authority. The nations steel production expanded by 1.5% in May, slowing from
3.5% in April, the Economic Times reported on 24 June.
The port of Mundra, operated by Adani Group, Indias biggest importer of the fuel, received the
highest volume at 3.48 million tonnes, according to Interoceans data. The eastern ports of
Krishnapatnam, Paradip and Gangavaram took in 1.71 million, 1.31 million and 1.12 million
tonnes, respectively.
Indonesia was the biggest source of coal imports with 11.76 million tonnes, the data show.
Australia supplied 2.85 million tonnes and South Africa exported 1.73 million. Imports from the
US totalled 289,183 tonnes. New Zealand, Russia and Mozambique shipped 74,076 tonnes,
35,000 tonnes and 30,416 tonnes, respectively.
Power-station coal at Australias port of Newcastle, the Asian benchmark price, fell 2.1% to
$81.20 a tonne in the week ended 21 June, according to data from IHS McCloskey. That was a
fourth weekly decline.
Coal Production
India has some of the largest reserves of coal in the world (approx. 267 billion tonnes [3] ). The
energy derived from coal in India is about twice that of energy derived from oil, whereas
worldwide, energy derived from coal is about 30% less than energy derived from oil.
The top producing states are:
Orissa - Talcher in Angul district
Chhattisgarh
Jharkhand
Other notable coal-mining areas include:
Singareni collieries in Khammam district, Andhra Pradesh
Jharia mines in Dhanbad district, Jharkhand
Orissa
Nagpur & Chandrapur district, Maharashtra
Raniganj in Bardhaman district, West Bengal
Neyveli lignite mines in Cuddalore district, Tamil Nadu
Singrauli Coalfield and Umaria Coalfield in Madhya Pradesh
Orissa
Nagpur & Chandrapur district, Maharashtra
Raniganj in Bardhaman district, West Bengal
Neyveli lignite mines in Cuddalore district, Tamil Nadu
Singrauli Coalfield and Umaria Coalfield in Madhya Pradesh

INDUSTRY FORECAST

The Indian coal industry, one of the largest in terms of reserve base and production level, has
gained significant momentum in the past few years. Mainly dominated by PSUs like Coal India
Ltd, which contributes over 75% of the countrys total coal production, the industry has attracted
government concern and investments. However, India has not been able to minimize its coal
deficit despite huge resource base, and still depends on imports. As per our latest estimations,
carried out in recent research report, the overall coal imports are anticipated to cross the 100
Million Metric Tons-mark in near future.
According to our research report Indian Coal Industry Forecast to 2013, the coal demand
has been rising constantly in India on back of high demand from major coal consuming sectors,
including power, cement and steel. Our study also analyzed that plentiful coal reserves in
Jharkhand, growing industry demand mainly by power sector, and the increasing government
support will boost the coal production in the country. We estimate that coal production will grow
at a CAGR of around 9% during 2011-12 to 2013-14. It is also anticipated that the demand for
thermal coal and coking coal by power and steel sectors, respectively, will gain momentum in
near future.
We also observed that the Indian coal industry is set to witness a great boost in near future on
back of strong government support and rising mergers and acquisitions of coal mines in overseas
market. The presence of vast opportunities in coal washeries is also encouraging players to
infuse money in them. Recently, de-allocation of coal blocks and stake sales in PSUs were
among the major steps taken by the government to boost production and investment in the coal
industry.
While analyzing the pricing mechanism, we found that Coal Indias latest pricing system,
adopting Gross Calorific Value (GCV) method, would have a minimal impact on power
consumers, while non-power consumers would be affected the most. On distribution front, we
observed that under-developed infrastructure has been creating problems for transportation of
coal to various power plants across the country. The situation is expected to get worse if
railways, roads and ports are not developed in pace with the capacity addition program.
Moreover, detailed information on key market players and government initiatives has been
included in the comprehensive study to present a balanced outlook of the Indian coal industry to
clients.

Total Installed Capacity (December 2012)
Source Total Capacity (MW) Percentage
Coal 120,873.38 57.29
Hydroelectricity 39,339.40 18.64
Renewable energy source 25,856.14 12.25
Gas 18,903.05 8.96
Nuclear 4780 2.26
Oil 1,199.75 0.56
Total 2,10,951.72

Sector Total Capacity (MW) Percentage
State Sector 86,405.85 40.96
Central Sector 62,886.63 29.81
Private Sector 61,659.24 29.22
Total
2,10,951.72



Coal Reserves and Resources of CIL

As of April 1, 2010, we had total coal resources of 64,786 million tons, comprising, pursuant of
ISP classifications, Proved Geological Reserves of 52,546 million tons, Indicated Geological
Reserves of 10,298 million tons and Inferred Geological Reserves of 1,942 million tons. As of
April 1, 2010, from our total coal resources of 64,786 million tons, 30,356 million tons had been
considered for mining studies (mine planning and feasibility studies), and the remaining coal
resources of 34,430 million tons had not yet been considered for such mining studies. From the
30,356 million tons of coal resources that had been considered for mining studies as of April 1,
2010, 21,754 million tons has been estimated as our Extractable Reserves.

Coal Production

(A) We produce non-coking coal and coking coal of various grades for diverse applications. The
following table provides certain information relating to the non-coking coal and coking coal
produced by us in the periods indicated:

Grad
es
Fiscal
2010 2011 2012 2013
2014
Ist QTR
Raw
coal
produ
ction
Mill
Te
% of
Raw
coal
produ
ction
Raw
coal
produ
ction
Mill
Te
% of
Raw
coal
produ
ction
Raw
coal
produ
ction
Mill
Te
% of
Raw
coal
produ
ction
Raw
coal
produ
ction
Mill
Te
% of
Raw
coal
produ
ction
Raw
coal
produ
ction
Mill
Te
% of
Raw
coal
produ
ction

Non
Cok
ing
Coa
l 1
395.1
3
91.6
389.9
7
90.4
392.4
8
90.1
408.5
55
90.3
92.19
1
89.6

Cok
ing
Coa
l 2
36.13 8.4 41.35 9.6 43.36 9.9
43.65
6
9.7
10.70
2
10.4

Tot
al
431.2
6
100.0
431.3
2
100.0
435.8
4
100.0
452.2
11
100.0
102.8
93
100.0


1 Includes NEC(Assam grade) coal.
2 Includes semi-coking coal and weakly coking coal

A significant majority of our non-coking coal is produced by us from mines operated in the
Korba, Singrauli, Talcher, IB Valley and Wardha Valley coalfields, Most of our coking
(metalurgical) coal is produced at the Jharia coalfield.

(B) COMPANYWISE DETAILS 2013-14-Ist QTR

DETAILS
UNIT ECL
BCC
L
CCL NCL WCL SECL MCL NEC CIL
PRODUCTION
UG
OC
Mill
Te
1.683
6.374
0.755
7.208
0.228
9.855
0.000
14.02
1.914
8.264
3.857
25.22
0.353
23.08
0.00
1
8.791
94.102
Mill
Te
3 3 9 0.06
6
TOTAL
Mill
Te
8.057 7.963
10.08
3
14.02
3
10.17
8
29.08
0
23.44
2
0.06
7
102.89
3
OB
MCU
M
19.97
9
21.60
6
15.06
5
51.54
0
34.74
3
32.53
0
22.30
2
1.06
2
198.82
7
OFFTAK
E
Mill
Te
7.898 8.427
13.05
8
17.14
7
10.79
7
29.91
1
28.04
9
0.07
7
115.36
4

Manpower

COMPANY-WISE MANPOWER FOR THE MONTH OF JULY-2013 (i.e. 01.08.2013)
Categor
y
ECL
BCC
L
CCL WCL SECL MCL NCL NEC
CMP
DI
DC
C
CIL(H
Q)
TOTA
L CIL
Executi
ve
2591 2619 2831 2888 3559 1893 1824 122 979 43 390 19739
Supv. 5586 4978 3258 5345 7570 3076 1978 368 642
26
5
48 33114
Workm
en
6461
5
5314
5
4148
1
4545
5
6164
8
1730
7
1316
5
177
6
1552
23
2
506
30088
2
TOTA
L
7279
2
6074
2
4757
0
5368
8
7277
7
2227
6
1696
7
226
6
3173
54
0
944
35373
5


Key Players in Indian Coal Sector

Coal Producing Companies Production(Mtes)
Coal India Ltd (CIL)
( A Govt. of India Enterprise)-324 (85%)
Singareni Collieries Co. Ltd. -(SCCL)
(AP St. Govt. & Govt. of India Jt. Venture)-36 (9%)
Captive Producers (Steel & Power)-22 (6%)
Total (During 2004--05)-382
Coking Coal mines in India were Nationalised in 1971 & Non
Coking Mines in 1973
COAL
LIGNITE
CIL :COAL PRODUCING
SUBSIDIARIES
EASTERN COALFIELDS LTD.
BHARAT COKING COAL LTD.
CENTRAL COALFIELDS LTD.
NORTHERN COALFIELDS LTD.
WESTERN COALFIELDS LTD.
SOUTH EASTERN COALFIELDS LTD.
MAHANADI COALFIELDS LTD.
NORTH EASTERN COALFIELDS.
( A UNIT UNDER CIL(HQ) )
SINGARENI COLLIERIES CO. LTD .
NEYVELI LIGNITE CORPORATION


COAL COMPANIES

Bharat Coking Coal Bharat Coking Coal Limited (BCCL) is a Public Sector Undertaking
engaged in mining of coal and allied activities. It occupies an important place in as much as it
produces bulk of the coking coal mined in the country. BCCL meets almost 50% of the total
prime coking coal requirement of the integrated steel sector. It also supplies substantial quantity
of coal to the pig iron sector and bulk of the coal requirement of the power station in the
Northern region.

Coal India Limited Coal India contributes around 85% of coal production in India.It is the
largest company in the World in terms of coal production and employs nearly 4.25 Lakh persons
and is the largest corporate employer in the country. It is one of the largest Companies in the
country, turnover being around Rs. 386.31 billion in 2007-08.

NCL Northern Coalfields Limited was formed in April 1986 as a subsidiary company of Coal
India Limited. Its headquarter is located at Singrauli, Distt. Sidhi (M.P.).The area of Singrauli
Coalfields is about 2202 Sq.Km. The coalfield can be divided into two basins, viz. Moher sub-
basin (312 Sq.Km.) and Singrauli Main basin (1890 Sq.Km.). The present coal mining activities
and future blocks are concentrated in Moher sub-basin. The exploration carried out by
GSI/NCDC/CMPDI has proved abundant resource of power grade coal in the area. NCL
produces coal through mechanised opencast mines.

Singareni Collieries Company The Singareni Collieries Company Limited (SCCL) is a
Government coal mining company jointly owned by the Government of Andhra Pradesh and
Government of India on a 51:49 equity basis. The Singareni coal reserves stretch across 350 Km
of the Pranahita, Godavari Valley of Andhra Pradesh with a proven geological reserves
aggregating to whopping 8791 million tonnes. SCCL is currently operating 13 opencast and 42
underground mines in 4 districts of Andhra Pradesh with a manpower around 78,000.


COAL ENERGY RESEARCH CENTRES

Central Institute of Mining and Fuel Research (CIMFR) The newly formed national
laboratory, the Central Institute of Mining and Fuel Research (CIMFR) Dhanbad, is a constituent
laboratory of Council of Scientific & Industrial Research (CSIR) and aimed to provide R&D
inputs for the entire coal-energy chain from mining to consumption through integration of the
core competencies of the two (CFRI & CMRI) premier Coal institution of the country.


Coal Demand Projections

Sector--wise Projected Raw Coal Demand in 202425


Power(Utility) Power(Captive) Steel Cement BRK & Others Total Demand



Demand (Mt)
7% GDP Growth 719 102 97 113 116 1147

Share of
Total (%) 62.69 8.89 8.46 9.85 10.11 100

Demand (Mt)
8% GDP Growth 804 112 105 123 123 1267

Share of
Total (%) 63.46 8.84 8.28 9.71 9.71 100


Investment / Cooperation Opportunity in India

-Development of UG projects with Longwall / mass production technology.
-Extraction of Pillars by Longwall / Shortwall tech.
-Manufacturer of spare parts for mining equipment in India
-Technology for deep shaft sinking

CLEAN COAL TECHNOLOGIES:
-UG Coal gasification
- Coal liquefication
-Setting up of washery
-CBM / CMM / AMM exploration & exploitation.
-Quantum jump in production from 400 to 1200 mt in future provides enough opportunities for
US

INVESTMENT.AREAS OF INTEREST FOR INDIAN SIDE

-Coal Bed Methane
-Clean Coal Technology (Coal Washing) and
-Power Generation from Washery Rejects
-Coal Liquefaction Project in India Mine Closure
-Coal Mine Safety Issues
-US Regulatory framework for development & exploitation on CBM & UCG
-Sharing of US Regulatory framework for Environment
-Mine Rescue setup, facilities & Operations


Coal India Profit Beats Estimates on Higher Demand, Lower Wages

Coal India Ltd. (COAL), the worlds biggest miner of the fuel, reported a better-than-expected
35 percent increase in fourth-quarter profit, aided by increased shipments and a decline in wage
costs.
Net income climbed to 54.1 billion rupees ($973 million), or 8.58 rupees a share, in the three
months ended March 31 from 40.13 billion rupees, or 6.41 rupees, a year earlier, the company
said today in a statement. The median of 34 analyst estimates compiled by Bloomberg was a
profit of 49.6 billion rupees. Sales rose 2.5 percent to 199 billion rupees.
Coal India, which accounts for more than 80 percent of the nations production of the fuel, plans
to boost output this year to bridge the gap between demand and local supplies. The company had
a cash reserve of 622.4 billion rupees as of March 31.
Shipments rose to 130 million metric tons in the quarter, while output declined to 143.3 million
tons from 144.6 million tons a year earlier, the company said in the statement. Employee
expenses dropped 21 percent to 74.7 billion rupees.
Coal India shares gained 1.2 percent to 313.80 rupees at the close of trading in Mumbai. The key
S&P BSE Sensex rose 1.7 percent. The earnings were announced after trading ended.

Indias coal production has increased from 431 million tons (MnT) in 2006-07 to 554 MnT in
2011-12 (an increase of 28.5%). On the other hand, demand for coal has grown at a CAGR of
more than 7% in the last decade and has reached around 696 MnT (2011-12) as against the
production growth of 5%. It is further anticipated that coal production will grow at a CAGR of
around 7-9% during 2013-14.
Coal imports to India began as early as 1895 from UK at first. Import has expanded by more than
four times in the past 10 years. India imported 23 MnT in 2002-03 which moved up to 99 MnT
in FY 2012 and crossed 100 MnT in April-December 2012. Imported coal accounts for nearly
15% of the total coal consumption in India. At the termination of 12th five year plan, demand for
thermal coal is estimated at around 913 MnT with an indigenous supply of nearly 760 MnT with
CIL accounting 595 MnT in all. This will create a gap of about 165 MnT. Total Coal imports to
India is estimated to cross 200 MnT in the ongoing Five Year plan (2012-17).



CONCLUSION
Thus Coal is the largest source of energy for the generation of electricity worldwide, as well as
one of the largest worldwide anthropogenic sources of carbon dioxide releases. In 1999 world
gross carbon dioxide emissions from coal usage were 8,666 million tonnes of carbon
dioxide. Coal-fired electric power generation emits around 2,000 pounds of carbon dioxide for
every megawatt-hour generated, which is almost double the approximately 1100 pounds of
carbon dioxide released by a natural gas-fired electric plant per megawatt-hour generated.
Because of this higher carbon efficiency of natural gas generation, as the fuel mix in the United
States has changed to reduce coal and increase natural gas generation, carbon dioxide emissions
have fallen. Those measured in the first quarter of 2012 were the lowest of any recorded for the
first quarter of any year since 1992.
Coal is extracted from the ground by coal mining, either underground by shaft mining, or at
ground level by open pit mining extraction. Since 1983 the world top coal producer has
been China, in 2011 China produced 3,520 millions of tonnes of coal 49.5% of 7,695 millions
tonnes world coal production. In 2011 other large producers were United States (993 millions
tonnes), India (589), European Union (576) and Australia (416). In 2010 largest exporters were
Australia with 328 million tonnes (27.1% of world coal export) and Indonesia with 316 millions
tonnes (26.1%) while largest importers were Japan with 207 million tonnes (17.5% of world coal
import), China with 195 million tonnes (16.6%) and South Korea with 126 million tonnes
(10.7%).