A

Thesis
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the
Degree of
Master of Technology
in
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
on
"RE-APPROPRIATION OF INTERSECTIONS: A CASE STUDY OF
BHOPAL CITY"
Submitted by
M.M. TRIPATHI
Scholar No: PG/FT/092111502

Guided by:
Prof. Siddhartha Rokade Prof. Kamal Singh
Assistant Professor Assistant Professor

Department of Civil Engineering
MAULANA AZAD NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
BHOPAL-462 051
June 2011
i

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the Thesis titled Re-Appropriation of Intersections: A Case Study
of Bhopal City submitted by M.M.Tripathi in partial fulfilment of the requirement for
the award of the degree of Master of Technology in TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
is a bonafide work carried out by him under our supervision and guidance.





Prof. Siddhartha Rokade Prof. Kamal Singh
Assistant Professor Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering Department of Civil Engineering
M.A.N.I.T., Bhopal M.A.N.I.T., Bhopal








Countersigned by:




Dr. P. K. Jain
Head
Department of Civil Engineering
M.A.N.I.T., Bhopal





ii

CANDIDATES DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the Thesis entitled Re-Appropriation of Intersections: A Case
Study of Bhopal City submitted by me in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the
award of the degree of Master of Technology in Transportation Engineering of
Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology is an authentic record of my own work
carried out under the guidance of Prof. Siddhartha Rokade, Assistant Professor and Prof.
Kamal Singh, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering M.A.N.I.T. Bhopal.



(M.M. Tripathi)


















iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I express my deep sense of gratitude to my guides Prof. Siddhartha Rokade, Assistant
Professor and Prof. Kamal Singh, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology for their invaluable help and guidance. I am
highly thankful to them for their continuous support and encouragement in completing this
work.
I am thankful to Dr. R.P. Singh, Director, Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology,
and Dr. P.K. Jain, Head of Department, Department of Civil Engineering, Maulana Azad
National Institute of Technology, for their continuous support and encouragement in
completing my M.Tech programme. I am also thankful to Dr. Anil Sharma, Professor and
Coordinator, Post Graduate course, Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology.
I especially thanks to Dr. P.K. Agarwal, Associate Professor, Department of Civil
Engineering, Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology, for his guidance and support
during my Post Graduation programme.
Thanks is also extended to Mrs. Ranjana, Programmer, Computer Centre, Mr. Ramanuj
Yadav, Assistant Grade III and Mr. Mahesh Verma, Office Assistant, Department of Civil
Engineering, Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology, I also express deep sense of
appreciation to the staff of Department of Civil Engineering, Maulana Azad National
Institute of Technology, for their cooperation and support throughout the session.
I am also thankful to Dr. M.S. Chouhan, Associate Professor, Department of Civil
Engineering, Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology, for his overall support and
valuable guidance during my Post Graduation Programme.








iv

ABSTRACT
In the field of road transport, the intersections are road junctions where two or more
roads either meet or cross at grade (i.e., they are at the same level). They include not
only the pavement area but the adjacent sidewalks and pedestrian curb cut ramps also.
All the modes of travel e.g., pedestrian, bicycle, motor vehicle and transit are there at a
typical intersection. They are very important elements of road and at grade
intersections are very common on Indian roads. They are generally a major
construction for smooth flow of traffic. It is observed that well over half of the fatal and
serious road accidents occur at junctions. Since an intersection involves conflicts
between traffic in different directions, its scientific design can control accidents and
delay and can lead to orderly movement of traffic. The importance of design of the
intersection stems from the fact that efficiency of operation, safety, speed, cost of
operation and capacity are direct governed by the design. Thus there is a great need to
properly study and subsequently design intersection on the road networks. The safe
and efficient design of the intersection depends on many factors which include human
factors, traffic considerations, road and environmental considerations, economic
factors.
Bhopal, capital city of Madhya Pradesh, like all the major cities of India has very
heterogeneous kind of traffic. There are large numbers of light commercial vehicles
such as motorcycles and cars as well as heavy vehicles like buses, trucks, trailers and
dumpers running across the city According to Regional Transport Office, Bhopal, out of
100% of road traffic, approximately 80 % are two wheelers, 10 % are cars, and rest 10
% are other commercial vehicles including truck, tractor, trailer, bus and other goods
vehicle. Hence due to such vastness of traffic, it is also prone to large number of
accidents. According to the traffic data of Bhopal of year 2009, there is steep increase in
road accidents in this decade. It can be seen from the fact that in year 2002, total
numbers of road accidents were 2001, while in the year 2009, these total step-ups to
massive 3719. Thus, there is an urgent need to reduce the rate of road accidents in
Bhopal city by identifying the significant causes of accidents. Out of them one of the
major cause is improper intersection design, which, in this project, is studied and
subsequent suggestions are being accounted.
v

In this thesis, five main intersection of Bhopal city, having different traffic situation,
conditions, and type of vehicles are taken. The intersections and their prevailing
situations are (i) J. K. road Junction: A three legged intersection situated on a National
Highway and one leg connects the J.K. Road which is having many residential and
commercial establishment and joins Ayodhya bypass. (ii) Piplani Junction: It consists of
two 3-legged intersections, one connects Raisen road to BHEL side and other
connection goes towards the Sonagiri side, both having high volume of traffic flow. (iii)
Jyoti Talkies intersection: A four legged intersection situated in major commercial area
of Bhopal i.e., M.P. Nagar (iv) MANIT Junction; A four legged intersection of which three
legs are having high volume of traffic including lots of motorcycles, cars, trucks and
dumpers. (v) Mangalwara junction: A five legged intersections surrounded by
commercial as well as residential establishment in old Bhopal area. It has high intensity
of traffic due to transport business nearby. To find out real existing situations at the
junctions, total station and traffic volume surveys had been done at all the intersections
and the data thus obtained is analyzed and then in accordance with relevant IRC codal
provisions, redesigning of the intersection is done.














vi

CONTENTS
Certificate i
Candidate declaration ii
Acknowledgement iii
Abstract iv
Contents vi
List of Tables viii
List of Figures ix
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 General
1.2 Objective of the Study
1.3 Need of the Study
1.4 Scope of the Study
1.5 Thesis organisation
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 10
2.1 Review of Research Papers
2.2 Review of IRC Codal Provisions
CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 44
3.1 Review of Relevant Literature
3.2 Selection of Study Area
3.3 Conducting Surveys
3.4 Analysis of Surveyed data and design of Intersections
CHAPTER 4 DEVELOPMENT OF MODIFIED INTERSECTION 45
4.1 Design of J.K. Road Intersection
4.2 Design of Piplani Intersection
4.3 Design of Jyoti Talkies Intersection
4.4 Design of MANIT Intersection
4.5 Design of Mangalwara Intersection
vii

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATIONS 65
5.1 Conclusions and Recommendations
REFERENCES 67


viii

LIST OF TABLES
Table No. Name of Table Page No.
1.1 Rate of road accidental deaths in India during 2004 to 2008 7
1.2 Motor Vehicle Population in Bhopal 8
2.1 Intersection Design Data 25
2.2 Design Speed in Urban Areas 27
2.3 Conditions for Design of Intersection according to their situation 28
2.4 Dimensions and Turning Radii of Some of the Typical Indian
Vehicles
29
2.5 Dimensions and Turning Radii of Design Vehicles 29
2.6 Length of Right Turning Lane 34


ix

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure No. Name of Figure Page No.
1.1 A Typical Four Legged Intersection 4
1.2 Various Types of Intersection 6
2.1 General Type of At-Grade Intersection 19
2.2 Potential Conflict Point at Different Types of
intersection
21
2.3 Channelisation Technique Illustrating Basic Intersection
Design Principle
22
2.4 Staggering of the Intersections 23
2.5 Analysis of Accident at Three armed Intersections 24
2.6 Method of Transition Curves at points of Additional
Lane
30
2.7 Provisions of Turning Lanes at Intersections 31
2.8 Method of Widening of Intersections 32
2.9 Method of Widening for Turning Lanes at Intersections 33
2.10 Typical Dimension of Road Intersections 34
2.11 General Types and Shapes of Islands 36
2.12 Details of Triangular Island Design 37
2.13 Progressive Layouts of T-Intersections for use on main
Highways
38
2.14 Rotary Elements 39
2.15 Circular Shaped Rotary 40
x

2.16 Squarish rotary with rounded edge 41
2.17 Elliptical Rotary 42
2.18 Rectangular shape 42
2.19 Layout of Complex Rotary 43
4.1 Existing Details of J.K. Road Intersection 47
4.2 Overlap of Existing and Proposed Details of J.K. Road
Intersection
48
4.3 Details of Proposed J.K. Road Intersection 49
4.4 Details of Existing Piplani Intersection 51
4.5 Overlap of Details of Existing and Proposed Piplani
Intersection
52
4.6 Details of Proposed Piplani Intersection 53
4.7 Details of Existing Jyoti Talkies Intersection 55
4.8 Overlap of Details of Existing and Proposed Jyoti Talkies
Intersection
56
4.9 Details of Proposed Jyoti Talkies Intersection 57
4.10 Existing Details of Manit Intersection 59
4.11 Proposed details of Manit Intersection 60
4.12 Existing Details of Mangalwara Intersection 62
4.13 Overlap of Existing and Proposed Mangalwara
Intersection
63
4.14 Details of Proposed Mangalwara Intersection 64

1

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1. General
An intersection is the area where two or more streets join or cross at-grade. The intersection
includes the areas needed for all modes of travel: pedestrian, bicycle, motor vehicle, and
transit. Thus, the intersection includes not only the pavement area, but typically the adjacent
sidewalks and pedestrian ramps. The intersection is defined as encompassing all alterations
(for example, turning lanes) to the otherwise typical cross sections of the intersecting streets.
Intersections are a key feature of street design in four respects:
i. Focus of activity
The land near intersections often contains a concentration of travel destinations.
ii. Conflicting movements
Pedestrian crossings and motor vehicle and bicycle turning and crossing movements
concentrated at intersections.
iii. Traffic control
At intersections, movement of users is assigned, through traffic control devices such
as yield signs, stop signs, and traffic signals. Traffic control often results in delay to
users travelling along the intersecting roadways.
iv. Capacity
In many cases, traffic control at intersections limits the capacity of the intersecting
roadways, defined as number of users that can be accommodated within a given time
period.

1.1.1. Intersection Users
All roadway users are affected by intersection design such as:
i. Pedestrians.
Key elements affecting intersection performance for pedestrians are: (a) the amount of
right-of-way provided for the pedestrian including both sidewalk and crosswalk
width; (b) the crossing distance and resulting duration of exposure to motor vehicle
2

and bicycle traffic; (c) the volume of conflicting traffic; and (d) the speed and
visibility of approaching traffic.
ii. Bicyclists.
Key elements affecting intersection performance for bicycles are: (a) the degree to
which pavement is shared or used exclusively by bicycles; (b) the relationship
between turning and through movements for motor vehicles and bicycles, (c) traffic
control for bicycles; and (d) the differential in speed between motor vehicle and
bicycle traffic.
iii. Motor vehicles.
Key elements affecting intersection performance for motor vehicles are: (a) the type
of traffic control, (b) the vehicular capacity of the intersection, determined primarily
from the number of lanes and traffic control; (c) the ability to make turning
movements; (d) the visibility of approaching and crossing pedestrians and bicycles;
and (e) the speed and visibility of approaching and crossing motor vehicles.
iv. Transit.
Transit operations usually involve the operation of motor vehicles (buses), and
therefore share the same key characteristics as vehicles as outlined above. In addition,
transit operations may sometimes involve a transit stop in an intersection area, thereby
influencing pedestrian, bicycle, and motor vehicle flow and safety. Additionally, in
some cases, the unique characteristics of light-rail transit must be taken into account.
In addition to the users of the street and intersections, owners and users of adjacent land often
have a direct interest in intersection design. This interest can be particularly sensitive where
the intersection is surrounded by retail, commercial, historic or institutional land uses. The
primary concerns include: maintenance of vehicular access to private property; turn
restrictions; consumption of private property for right-of-way; and provision of safe,
convenient pedestrian access.

1.1.2. Definitions and Key Elements
The major street is typically the intersecting street with greater traffic volume, larger cross
section, and higher functional class. The minor street is the intersecting street likely to have
less traffic volume, smaller cross section and lower functional classification than the major
street.
3

The term intersection encompasses not only the area of pavement jointly used by the
intersecting streets, but also those segments of the intersecting streets affected by the design.
Thus, those segments of streets adjacent to the intersection for which the cross section or
grade has been modified from their typical design are considered part of the intersection.
Definitions, summarizes the extent and terminology used to define an intersection.
Two geometric features are common to all intersections, regardless of their level of
complexity. The angle of intersection is formed by the intersecting streets centrelines. Where
the angle of intersection departs significantly (more than approximately 20 degrees) from
right angles, the intersection is referred to as a skewed intersection.
Intersection legs are those segments of roadway adjacent to the intersection. The side of the
leg used by traffic approaching the intersection is the approach leg, or simply approach, and
the side used by traffic leaving is referenced to as the departure leg.
Sidewalks, crosswalks and wheelchair ramps are considered to be within the intersection. The
pavement corner is the curve connecting the edges of pavement of the intersecting streets.
Auxiliary lanes are lanes of traffic added at the intersection. These lanes are added
accommodate left-turning motor vehicles. Less often, they are added for right-turning motor
vehicles. They may also be used to add through lanes through an intersection.
Channelizing islands may be added to an intersection, to help delineate the area in which
vehicles can operate. Islands can also provide for pedestrian refuge.
A turning roadway is a short segment of roadway accommodating a right turn, delineated by
channelizing islands. Turning roadways are used where right-turn volumes are very high, and
where skewed intersections would otherwise create a very large pavement area.
Traffic control devices assign right-of-way, to both motorized and non-motorized traffic and
include traffic signals, STOP signs, and YIELD signs.

4



Fig 1.1: A Typical Four legged intersection
1.1.3. Intersection Types and Configurations
Intersections can be categorized into four major types, depending on their basic
configuration:
i. Simple Intersections
Simple intersections maintain the streets typical cross section and number of lanes
throughout the intersection, on both the main and minor streets. Simple intersections
are best-suited to locations auxiliary (turning) lanes are not necessary to achieve the
desired level-of-service, or are infeasible due to nearby constraints.

ii. Flared Intersections
The characteristic feature of flared intersections is an expansion of the typical cross
section of the street (main, cross or both). The flaring is often done to accommodate a
5

left-turn lane, so that left-turning bicycles and motor vehicles are removed from the
through-traffic stream for reasons of capacity at high-volume locations, and safety on
higher speed streets. Right-turn lanes, less frequently used than left-turn lanes, are
usually a response to large volumes of right turns.
iii. Channelized Intersections
Channelized intersections use raised islands to designate the intended vehicle path.
The most frequent use is for right turns, particularly when accompanied by an
auxiliary right-turn lane. At skewed intersections, channelization islands are often
used to delineate right turns, even in the absence of auxiliary right turn lanes. At
intersections located on a curve, channelization islands can help direct drivers to and
through the intersection. At large intersections, short median islands can be used
effectively for pedestrian refuge.
iv. Roundabouts
The roundabout is a channelized intersection with one-way traffic flow circulating
around a central island. All traffic through as well as turning enters this one-way flow.
Although usually circular in shape, the central island of a roundabout can be oval, or
irregularly shaped. Roundabouts can be an appropriate design alternative to both stop-
controlled and signal-controlled intersections. At intersections of two-lane streets,
roundabouts can usually function with a single circulating lane, making it possible to
fit them into most settings.








6

1.1.4. Intersection Types


Fig 1.2: Various Types of Intersections


7

1.2. Objective of the study
The objectives of the study are as follow:
(i) Study of relevant literature.
(ii) Study of the existing scenario of the intersections in Bhopal City.
(iii) Re-appropriation of intersections in Bhopal City.

1.3. Need of the Study
Rapid growth rate (GDP) of India from the past 2 decades had lead to increase in per capita
income henceforth increasing their capacity to buy more vehicle or to use the intermediate
transport systems like taxies etc. But, on the other hand, the design of the Indian roads and
intersection had not been improved up to such extent to bear such a huge traffic. This has
placed a great stress on the road traffic particularly in the cities and urban areas, as compared
to the rural areas. And along with this rapid increase in traffic, number of accidents and the
number of people killed and injured in traffic crashes has been steadily increasing.
The severeness of the problem can be seen from the accident data provided by National
Crime Bureau, from the year 2004 to 2008.
Table 1.1 Rate of road accidental deaths in India during 2004 to 2008
S.No. Year Total no. of
deaths
Estimated mid- year
population (in
lakhs)
Rate of accidental deaths
(col.3/col.4)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
1. 2004 277263 10856 25.5
2. 2005 294175 11028 26.7
3. 2006 314704 11197.75 28.1
4. 2007 340794 11365.53 30.0
5. 2008 342309 11531.3 29.7
(Source: National Crime Records Bureau, 2008)

8

In the Bhopal city, the traffic scenario can be observed from the table provided by the
Regional Transport Office (RTO), Bhopal. The table presents the motor vehicle population
from the year 1999 to 2009.
Table 1.2 Motor vehicle population in Bhopal
Year 1999 2003 2006 2009
Truck 3489 4241 4889 5435
Other goods
vehicle
1967 4109 6147 8170
Bus 2325 2637 2939 3233
Taxi 3206 6107 8998 11,918
Auto-rickshaw 8582 9566 10,954 12,451
Two-wheeler 2,10,218 2,92,522 3,87,308 4,50,291
Car 15,945 24,916 37,015 45,370
Jeep 2621 3044 3417 3949
Tractor 8993 9512 10,132 10,765
Trailer 2829 3548 4110 4720
Others 710 651 396 415
Total 2,60,885 3,60,853 4,76,305 5,56,717
(Source: Regional Transport Office, Bhopal, 2009)
From the above table, it can be seen that the overall motor vehicle population is increased by
more than 2 times in this decade. Hence by considering the future perspective too, it becomes
very important to design the roads and intersections in according to the future needs.
It is observed that well over half of the fatal and serious road accidents occur at intersection.
The intersections in these roads are the bottleneck for them because the efficiency safety,
speed, cost of operation and capacity of the facility depends on the intersection design to a
great extent. Each intersection involves through or cross traffic movement on one or more of
the highways and may involve turning movements between these highways. Such movements
can be facilitates by various geometric design and traffic controls, depending on the type of
intersection. Hence there is an urgent need for the proper designing of the various important
intersections on the basis of current real time information as well as future predictions and
also satisfying various codal provisions setup by IRC.
9

1.4. Scope of the Study
The Scope of this study is limited to re-appropriation of five intersections of the Bhopal city
which are chosen according to variance in their traffic and their situation in the Bhopal area,
viz Mangalwara Junction is located in old Bhopal city, where there are large number of
pedestrians as well as 2-wheelers, and also heavy commercial vehicles due to transport
business near, while on the other hand Jyoti Talkies Intersection is situated in New Bhopal
city in commercial area of M P Nagar which has a huge number of 2-wheelers as well cars
and small buses of city transport. The Piplani Junction and J.K, Road Junction are having
large numbers of heavy commercial vehicles like trucks and dumpers flowing through them,
MANIT Intersection has large number of 2-wheelers due to its connection with MANIT
college, and also it has huge traffic flowing from the kolar road to new market and Nehru
nagar and vice-versa.
1.5. Thesis Organisation
This thesis is divided in to 6 different chapters. Chapter 1 provides the general introduction of
intersections, objective of this thesis, its need as well as scope of work done in this thesis. In
chapter 2, literature review of various research papers has been done, as well as the analysis
of the codal provisions in this regard has been exercised. Chapter 3 gives the brief idea of the
methodology followed for designing the intersections in Bhopal city. In chapter 4 the
improved design of the junctions under consideration is rendered and at last in chapter 5 the
conclusion of the whole operation is given and future recommendation are furnished for the
intersection design.








10

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Review of Research Papers
Study of the various research papers in this arena is done and some of important findings are
summarised below:

NCHRP Report 650 (2010), describes common safety issues at median intersections on rural
divided highways and presents innovative geometric and operational treatments for
addressing those issues. It includes recommendations for modifications to the AASHTO A
Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets (Green Book) and the Manual on
Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD). According to this report, Median-separated
highways provide distinct benefits over undivided roadways (two-lane or multilane roads
without medians). Medians separate opposing traffic, provide a recovery area for out-of-
control vehicles, provide a stopping area in case of emergencies, allow space for speed
changes and storage of left-turning and U-turning vehicles, minimize headlight glare, and
provide width for future lanes.
Research has shown that the percentage of total expressway crashes which occur at two-way
stop-controlled (TWSC) intersections increases as the mainline traffic volumes increase and
that all intersection crashes increase and become more severe as minor roadway volumes
increase. The majority of crashes at TWSC expressway intersections tend to be right-angle
crashes. The most problematic of these (with respect to severity) tend to be those occurring in
the far-side intersection (i.e., after the minor road driver has travelled through the median).
After addressing potential design issues such as insufficient sight distance, the traditional
approach to addressing safety problems at expressway intersections is to improve the traffic-
control devices, implement traffic signal control, and eventually construct an overpass or
interchange. However, traffic signals do not always improve safety: they may only change
the crash type distribution. In general, traffic signals in rural areas are discouraged for several
reasons including violation of driver expectations and difficulty in servicing and maintaining
signals in remote locations. The final alternative is to build an interchange at the intersection.
The construction of an reduces the cost advantage of building an expressway as compared
with building a freeway, and the mix of at-grade intersections and interchanges tends to
violate driver expectations.
11

Although this report identifies many issues, most must be solved by others in the future. For
example, although thorough reviews of the Green Book and the MUTCD were conducted
with many resulting recommendations, these are meant for the consideration for groups
themselves, and it is ultimately their responsibility to actually modify the contents of those
manuals. Furthermore, the safety effectiveness of the rural expressway intersection treatments
examined in the case studies can only be determined if state transporting agencies (STAs) are
willing to deploy and to evaluate them rigorously. While the recommendations that follow are
specific, others must implement them to positively impact rural expressway inter-section
design and safety.
Kent J. Fugal et al (2008), emphasis on the Design for Single-Lane to Dual-Lane
Roundabout Expandability. Roundabout planners and designers are often faced with
situations where a multi-lane roundabout will be required to handle the design-year traffic
volumes, but where a single-lane roundabout would be sufficient for a number of years. Due
to issues of safety, complexity, driver familiarity, and sometimes cost, it may be desirable to
construct a single-lane roundabout that can be expanded in the future. Two alternatives for
the initial single-lane layout are presented, including advantages and disadvantages of each.
One alternative involves building the full outside footprint and widening inward, while the
other involves building the central island and splitter islands in the ultimate configuration and
widening outward. The paper also includes a case study of the Amity Avenue/Happy Valley
Road Roundabout in Nampa, Idaho.
According to author, an expandable design should always begin with a good dual-lane layout.
Dual-lane operation and design are much more complex than single-lane. While single-lane
roundabout operations can be forgiving, to an extent, of shortfalls in the design, the safety
and efficiency of dual-lane roundabouts generally suffer significantly from even small
design problems. Expanding a good single-lane design does not necessarily result in a
good dual-lane design. However, a good single-lane, initial-build layout can often be
readily developed as a first phase of the development of a dual-lane roundabout. The designer
must fully check the dual-lane layout to ensure that it will function with the intended safety
and efficiency as he or she would do if a dual-lane roundabout were being constructed right
from the start. For example, the geometry should be checked for proper entering and
circulating speed control (fastest path analysis). It should also be checked for potential
entering and exiting lane path overlap issues and proper handling of pedestrians and bicycles.
12

This paper explores the characteristics of a good expandable roundabout design, including
basic procedures that should be followed. However, it does not discuss roundabout design in
its entirety. Rather, it focuses on the additional steps that are required to design an
expandable roundabout. Those steps include:
1. Development of the proposed dual-lane roundabout geometry,
2. Development of an initial-build, single-lane layout consistent with the proposed dual-
lane geometry, and
3. Development of the detailed construction drawings for the initial-build layout.
The author accentuated the fact that it would be undesirable to construct a dual-lane
roundabout initially when a single-lane roundabout would adequately handle the traffic for
many years. Roundabouts should not be overbuilt for a number of reasons. These include
concerns with operational simplicity, safety, and cost.
Ragnhild Davidse (2007) is concerned with the possibilities offered by road design and
driver assistance systems to improve older adults safe and independent mobility by
compensating for their age-related functional limitations. The authors aim is to identify those
characteristics of intersections that may contribute to the over-representation of crashes that
older drivers are considered legally responsible for. These characteristics were traced by
looking at the functional limitations of older people and the demands they make on
intersection design. It was assumed that if the design elements of an intersection allow for the
functional limitations of older people, the crash involvement of older drivers will be low and
vice-versa. The validity of these assumptions was tested by the inspections of the
intersections that have different shares of crashes involving older drivers.
The intersection inspections indicated that priority regulation is a predator of the crash
involvement of older drivers. Crashes involving older drivers occur more often at yielding-
controlled intersections than at the intersections with traffic lights. It reveals that the
following intersection design elements appear to allow for the older drivers functional
limitations: a positive offset of opposite left-turn lanes, roundabouts, and a high in service
contrast level for road markings, background plates for traffic lights, long sight distances,
advance warning signs, and protected-only operations of traffic lights. However, the actual
effect that they have on the safety of older drivers has hardly been tested yet.
In this research paper, two strategies were followed to look for intersection design elements
that play a role in the difficulties that older drivers encounter in traffic: 1) inspections of
13

intersections that have different shares of crashes involving older drivers, and 2) a review of
the literature on intersection design elements that appear to take the functional limitations of
older drivers into account.
The intersection inspections were guided by the concept of task difficulty. It was expected
that the crash risk of older drivers would increase with the complexity of the traffic situation,
provided that drivers have to make decisions with regard to road users that are about to cross
their path, and provided that drivers cannot use their experience to make these decisions.
These expectations were only confirmed for one of the intersection characteristics that were
expected to determine the need for decision making with regard to other road users:
implementation of right of way. It turned out that at intersections at which no crashes
occurred in which older drivers were involved, traffic was more often regulated by means of
traffic lights than it was at intersections at which relatively many crashes occurred in which
older drivers were involved. At the latter intersections, traffic was more often regulated by
means of yield signs.
The intersection inspections that were carried out within the scope of this thesis had a rather
exploratory character and the number of intersections that were inspected was relatively
small. However, the concept of task difficulty and its application to the difficulty of passing
intersections deserve it to be studied in a more systematic way. They evaluated the effects of
a positive offset of opposite left-turn lanes and protected only operations of lights on driving
behaviour in a driving simulator and instrumented car respectively. Neither of the
adjustments had a significant effect on driving behaviour.
Kay Fitzpatrick et al (2002) emphasizes on the issues to be considered in developing an
Intersection design guide. He throws light on the fact that safe and efficient operation of an
intersection is directly related to its design, and decisions made during the design of an
intersection occur after examining a series of tradeoffs. The resources available to designers
can limit effective intersection design. The wealth of information published in the past years
demonstrates that there are several new ideas on how to better design intersections.
Unfortunately, if these ideas are not readily available or included in the reference materials
used by designers, they will not become generally accepted or used. So he accentuated on the
importance of the use of past data for the design purpose. The prime objective of author is to
produce a reference document for the Texas Department of Transportation (TxDOT), that
14

provides information on each of the design elements associated with an intersection and
discusses related geometric and operational issues involved in urban intersection design.
The project is a three-year effort and is structured into two phases. The first phase (Phase I)
took place during the initial 12 months of the project, and this report summarizes the first-
year activities. A wide variety of issues were raised in the discussions. Issues that received
repeated interest among the engineers and designers interviewed included:
o Pedestrian issues: curb cuts, crosswalks, and protrusions.
o Drainage: ponding and flow across the intersection.
o ROW: conflicting or unknown locations for utilities, utility access, utilities clearance,
obtaining ROW, establishing requirements, and customary practice.
o Traffic control device issues: wide medians, islands and pedestrians, mast arm length,
number of signal heads, internally illuminated street signs, protected/permissive
operations, marked crosswalks, illumination, and use of span wire.
o Intersection layout: dual lefts, turn bays, turn priorities, bicycles, sight distance, skew
angle, traffic counts, cost estimates, driveways, pavement design, and acceleration lanes.
This research is designed to provide TxDOT and other interested parties with useful and
practical information on operations and design for intersections. This includes chapters on
Intersection Function, Design Control and Criteria, Design Elements, Cross Section,
Roadside, Drainage, Street Crossing, Signals, Marking, Signs, Influences from Other
Intersections.
Synthesis of Highway Practice 264 (1998), provides information on current practices with
respect to the planning, design, and operation of modern roundabouts in the United States.
Administrators, engineers, and researchers are continually faced with highway problems on
which much information exists, either in the form of reports or in terms of undocumented
experience and practice. In an effort to correct this situation, a continuing NCHRP project,
carried out by the Transportation Research Board as the research agency, has the objective of
reporting on common highway problems and synthesizing available information. The
synthesis reports from this endeavour constitute an NCHRP publication series in which
various forms of relevant information are assembled into single, concise documents
pertaining to specific highway problems or sets of closely related problems.
15

The concept of the modern roundabout to move traffic more efficiently through un-signalized
intersections has evolved from conventional traffic circles. This report of the Transportation
Research Board presents a discussion of modern roundabout applications in the United
States, based on a survey of state and local transportation agencies, which provided
information on 38 individual roundabouts. The synthesis demos information on the design
guidelines used in the United States as well as those of other countries. Other major areas of
interest with regard to roundabouts include safety issues; traffic capacities and delays; issues
related to pedestrians, bicyclists, and the visually impaired; costs; and location criteria to be
considered for roundabouts.
Modern roundabouts have become a subject of great interest and attention over the last few
years in the United States. This interest is partially based on the great success of roundabouts
in Europe and Australia, where intersection design practice has changed substantially as the
result of the good performance of roundabouts and their acceptance by the public. The public
reaction to roundabouts has been positive in general. This is substantiated by the survey
respondents, by opinion surveys, and by reporting in the press.
Some concerns were raised regarding pedestrians at roundabouts, especially with regard to
the absence of clear right-of-way control. This perceived problem is related to some degree to
the belief by the general public that signalized intersections bring the greatest safety to
pedestrians. These concerns tend to disappear after the pedestrians have an opportunity to use
the roundabout.
For bicyclists, the preferred arrangement in the case of single-lane and low-speed
roundabouts is to stop bicycle lanes before they reach the roundabout and to let bicycles
circulate in mixed traffic through the circle. For larger, multi-lane roundabouts, it appears
preferable to provide separate bike paths, or to provide for mixed bicycle/pedestrian paths, or
reroute bicyclists.
To conclude, roundabouts can have significant benefits in terms of safety, delays, and
capacity. Another major new benefit is related to the aesthetic and urban design
improvements resulting from the landscaping and sculptural elements in the central island.
This synthesis has portrayed the roundabouts starting from its history and evolution to the
modern use in United States. It has summarized the design guidelines that are being used in
16

the United States and in other countries. It also throws light on the safety of roundabouts. It
also talks about the issues related to pedestrians, bicyclist, and the visually impaired.
Bruce Hellinga et al had given Signalized Intersection Analysis and Design and its
implications of day-to-day variability in Peak. This paper presents findings of a study that
quantifies the impact of day-to-day variability of intersection peak hour approach volumes on
intersection delay and demonstrates that this impact is not insignificant and therefore should
not be ignored. Finally, the study explores the number of days for which intersection
approach volumes should be counted in order to establish intersection delay within a desired
level of confidence.
Intersection performance as measured by delay is a function of many factors including, signal
timing plan, turning movement traffic demands, traffic stream composition, pedestrian
volumes, intersection geometry, temporal variation in traffic demands, the headway
distribution of each traffic stream, driver characteristics, weather and road surface conditions
and visibility. Some of these factors are invariant for a given intersection operating under a
defined signal control strategy (e.g. geometry and signal timing plan) while others vary (e.g.
weather, traffic demands, etc.). This paper seeks to address the following specific questions:
1. What degree of day to day variability exists in the peak hour traffic volume and to what
extent are traffic volumes on different intersection approaches statistically correlated?
2. What impact does the day to day variation in the peak hour volume have on intersection
performance as measured by delay?
3. For how many days are turning movement counts required in order to estimate the
intersection performance with a given level of confidence?
In this paper the answers of these questions were given using empirical data to quantify the
distribution of day-to-day peak hour traffic volumes and the degree of statistical correlation
between approach volumes. On the basis of these observations and conclusions, the following
recommendations are made:
1. Additional field data should be obtained from another region to confirm the findings of
this study.
2. The impact on intersection performance of day-to-day variability of other factors such as
the PHF and turning movement proportions should be examined.
17

3. The presence of significant auto-correlation in the intersection peak hour traffic volumes
could impact the number of observations required to estimate intersection performance
within a specified tolerance. Consequently, an analysis should be conducted to quantify
the extent of auto-correlation and the impact that this has.
4. Criteria should be established to incorporate the day-to-day variability of volume within
existing signalized intersection evaluation and analysis methodologies.
2.2. Review of IRC Codal Provisions
IRC-SP-41, Guidelines for the Design of At-grade Intersection in Rural and Urban Areas
and IRC-SP-65, Recommended Practice for Traffic Rotaries has been reviewed in this
regard and some main codal provisions are depicted below:
2.2.1. Factors covering design
Road intersections are critical element of a road section. They are normally a major
bottleneck to smooth flow of traffic and a major accident spot. The general principles off
design in both rural and urban areas are the same. The basic difference lies in the design
speeds, restriction on available land, sight distance available and the presence of larger
volume of pedestrians and cyclists in urban areas. Design of a safe intersection depends on
many factors. The major factors can be classified as under.
A. Human Factors.
a) Driving habits,
b) Ability to make decisions,
c) Driver expectancy,
d) Decision and reaction time,
e) Conformance to natural paths of movement,
f) Pedestrian use and habits.
B. Traffic considerations
a) Design and actual capacities,
b) Design hour turning movements,
c) Size and operating characteristics of vehicle,
d) Type of movement (diverging, merging weaving, and crossing),
e) Vehicle speeds,
18

f) Transit involvement,
g) Accident experience,
h) Traffic Mix i.e., proportion of heavy and light vehicles, slow moving vehicles,
cyclists etc.
C. Road and Environmental considerations
a) Character and use of abutting property,
b) Vertical and horizontal alignment at the intersection,
c) Sight distance,
d) Angle of the intersection
e) Conflict area,
f) Speed-change lanes,
g) Geometric features,
h) Traffic control devices,
i) Lighting equipment,
j) Safety features,
k) Environmental features,
l) Need for future upgrading of the at-grade intersection to a grade separated
intersection.
D. Economic factors
a) Cost of Improvements,
b) An effect of controlling of limiting right-of-way on abutting residential or
commercial properties where channelization restricts of prohibits vehicular
movements.

2.2.2. Basic Design Principles
In the design of an intersection the primary considerations are safety, smooth and efficient
flow of traffic. To achieve this, the following basic principles must be followed.
2.2.3. Uniformity and Simplicity
Intersections must be designed and operated for simplicity and uniformity. The design must
keep the capabilities and limitation of drivers, pedestrians and vehicles using intersection. It
should be based on the knowledge of what a driver will do rather than what he should do.
19

Further all the traffic information on road signs and markings should be considered in the
design stage, prior to taking up construction work. All the intersection movements should be
obvious to the drivers, even if he is a unfamiliar to the area. Complex design which required
complicated decision-making by drivers should be avoided. There should be no confusion
and the path to be taken by the drivers should be obvious. Undesirable short cuts should be
blocked. Further, on an average trip route, all the intersections should have uniform design
standards so that even a newcomer to the area anticipates what to expect at an intersection.
Some of the major design elements in which uniformity is required are design speed,
intersection curves, vehicle turning paths, super-elevations, level shoulder width, speed
change lane lengths, channelization, types of curves and type of signs and markings.


Fig 2.1: general types of At-grade Intersections


20

2.2.4. Minimise Conflict Points
Any location having merging, diverging or crossing manoeuvres of two vehicles is a potential
conflict point. Fig. 2.2 shows the potential conflict points for different types of intersections.
The main objective of the intersection design is to minimise the number and severity of
potential conflicts between cars, buses, trucks, bicycles and pedestrians and whenever
possible, these should be separated. This can be done by:
i. Space separation : by access control islands through channelising
ii. Time separation : by traffic signals on waiting lanes.
Some of the common methods used to reduce conflict points are:
a) Convert a 4-armed intersection having 32 conflict points to a roundabout having only
12 conflict points. Round-about treatment may not, however, be warranted at most of
rural locations except those close to the urban areas.
b) Signalise intersection. As Fig. 2.2 shows introduction of a two-phase signal reduces
the conflict points at 4 armed intersections from 32 to 16. If more phases are
introduced and separate lanes provided for turning traffic, conflict points can be
virtually eliminated. (Provisions of signals may however, be justified only at a few
rural locations carrying heavy traffic). Research abroad has shown that signals
increase accidents at simple intersections with low volumes but reduce them at
complex and/or high volume intersections.
c) Channelising the directional traffic by selective use of channelising islands and
medians. Some of these techniques are shown in Fig. 2.3 shows how the conflict
points can be reduced on a 3-armed intersection by introducing combinations of
channelising islands.
d) Changing priority of crossing by introducing the GIVE WAY or STOP signs for
traffic entering the junctions from minor road, By this, traffic causing the conflict is
restrained.
e) Staggering a 4-armed junction by flexing the two opposing arms of the side road to
create two T-junctions. When staggering is employed, it should be ensured that
minimum distance between two junctions is 45 m and desirably right-left staggers are
created. (Fig. 2.4).
21


Fig 2.2: Potential Conflict Points at Different Types of Intersection



22


Fig 2.3: Channelisation Technique Illustrating Basic Intersection Design Principles

23


Fig 2.4: Staggering of the Intersections
A study of conflict points and accidents records by classifying accidents according to the
types of conflicts would greatly help in adopting appropriate engineering measures for
intersection design. For illustration, an example of a 3-armed intersection as shown in Fig.
2.5 may be considered. The Figures (a) to (i) show the various left turning & right turning
movements, and the percentage of accidents classified according to types of collision.
Following measures can be considered for improving safety:
24

i. The accident situations in Figs. 2.5 (c), (d) and (h) involving right turning vehicles in high
percentage of accidents can be prevented by controlling traffic movement either manually
or by traffic signals.
ii. Provisions of acceleration lane on the major road for the left turning traffic flow from the
minor road could prevent traffic situation, Fig. 2.5 (f).
iii. A separate right turning lane on the major road could minimise or prevent rear and
collision at Fig. 2.5 (g).

Fig 2.5: Analysis of Accident types at Three-armed Intersections

iv. Channelizing islands at the minor road could be useful in situation at Fig. 2.5 (i).
v. Deceleration lanes for left turning traffic from major road would also ensure better safety
for situations at Fig. 2.5 (e).
25

Table 2.1 Intersection Design Data
Intersection Design Data Peak Hour _____________ Hrs. To ____________ Hrs.
Peak Hour Design Traffic
Name & Location of Intersection __________________________________________
From Leg A*
Entering Leg B* Leg C* Leg D* Remarks
Type Nos PCU
Equi-
valency
PCU Nos PCU
Equi
valency
Nos PCU
Equi
valency

1 2 3=1x2 1 2 1 2
Fast Vehicles
1. Passenger cars,
tempos, auto
rickshaw,
tractors, pickup
vans
1.00
2. Motor cycle.
scooters
0.50
3. Agricultural
tractor Light
Commercial
Vehicles
1.50
4. Trucks, Buses 3.00
5. Tractor-Trailer,
Truck Trailer
Units
4.50
TOTAL FAST
Slow Vehicles
6. Cycles 0.50
7. Cycle
Rickshaws
1.50
8. Hand Cart 3.00
9. Horse Drawn 4.00
10. Bullock-Carts 8.00
TOTAL SLOW
PEDESTIAN NOS.
* Specify the name of an important place or land on this leg such as Market leg, Temple leg,
etc.
26

Separate report sheets will be needed for the other legs of the intersection. The volume of the
above traffic in terms of number of vehicles and in PCU should then be reflected in the
diagrams. If the numbers of legs in the intersection are 3 or more than 4, these figures should
be suitably modified.
vi. In the urban/sub-urban areas and intersection near villages with substantial pedestrian
movements, the peak hour data on persons crossing the intersecting road arms should
be collected for the design of a well planned pedestrian crossing facility at the
intersection.
2.2.5. Parameters of Intersection Design
2.2.5.1. General
Intersections are designed having regarded to flow speed, composition, distribution and
future growth of traffic. Design has to be specified for each site with due regard to physical
conditions of the site, the amount and cost of land, cost of construction and the effect of
proposal on the neighbourhood. Allowances have to be made for space needed for traffic
signs, lighting columns, drainage, public utilities etc. The preparations of alternative designs
and comparison of their cost and benefits is desirable for all major intersections.
2.2.5.2. Design Speed
Three types of design speeds are relevant for intersection element design:
i. Open highway or "approach" speeds.
ii. Design speed for various intersection elements. This is generally 40 percent of
approach speed in built up areas and 60 percent in open areas.
iii. Transition speeds for design of speed change elements i.e. changing from entry/exit
speed at the intersection to merging/diverging speed.
In rural areas ruling design speed should be used, but minimum can be adopted in sections
where site conditions and costs dictate lower speeds. In urban areas a lower or higher value of
design speed can be adopted depending on the pressure of physical controls, road side
developments and other related factors. A lower value is appropriate for central business
areas and higher in sub-urban areas.

27

2.2.5.3. Design Traffic Volumes
Intersections are normally designed for peak hour flows. Estimation of future traffic and its
distribution at peak hours is done on the basis of past trends and by accounting for factors
like new development of land, socio-economic changes etc. Where it is not possible to predict
traffic for longer period, intersection should be designed for stage development for design
period in steps of 10 years. Where peak hour flows are not available they may be assumed to
be 8 to 10 percent of the daily flow allocated in the ratio of 60:40 directionally.
2.2.5.4. Radius of Curves of Intersection
The radii of intersections curves depend on the turning characteristics of design vehicles their
numbers and the speed at which vehicles enter to exit the intersection area. The design curve
is developed by plotting the path of the design vehicles on the sharpest turn and fitting curves
or combination of curves to the path of inner rear wheels. Generally four types of curves are
possible to fit in with the wheel paths of a turning vehicle.
Table 2.2 Design Speeds in Urban Areas
S.No. Road Classifications Design Speed
(Km/h)
1. Arterial 80
2. Sub-arterial 60
3. Collection street 50
4. Local street 30

2.2.5.5. Design Vehicle
IRC: 3 1983 recognises three types of roads design vehicles namely single unit truck, semi
trailer and truck trailer combination. Passenger cars are not considered as design vehicles in
rural areas as savings in construction using this vehicle cannot be justified on economic basis.
As such nearly all intersection curves in rural areas should be designed for either single unit
trucks/buses of 11/12 m length, or semi-trailer combination of 16 m length or truck trailer
combination of 18m length. On most rural highways semi trailer combination would be used
for design, whereas in non arterial urban areas a single unit truck or bus can form the basis
for design. In purely residential areas, alone a car forms the basis of design.
28

There are five common situations in design of intersections and each one has to be generally
designed for following conditions:

Table 2.3 Conditions for Design of Intersection according to their Situation
S.No. Location of
Intersection
Curve Design
1. Rural Section Design for single unit truck is preferred for intersection
with local minor roads. Semi-trailer design is preferred
for major road intersection where large paved areas
result, channelization also becomes essential.
2. Suburban Arterial
Section
Designed for semi-trailer with speed change lanes and
channelisation. Three-centred compound curves are
preferred.
3. Urban Arterial &
sub Arterials
Designed for single unit truck.
4. Urban Central
Business District
Designed for single unit trucks for minimum curve radii
with allowance for turning vehicles encroaching on
other lances.
5. Residential area Designed for cars only with encroachment of tracks
into other lanes.

Table 2.4 Dimensions and Turning Radii of Some of the Typical Indian Vehicles
S.No. Make of Vehicle Length
(m)
Width
(m)
Turning
Radius (m)
1. Ambassador 4.343 1.651 -
2. Maruti Car 3.300 1.405 4.400
3. TATA (LPT 2416)
3-axled truck
9.010 2.440 -
4. TATA (LPO 1210)
Full forward control Bus Chassis
9.885 2.434 10.030
5. TATA (LPO 1616)
Bus Chassis
11.170 2.450 -
6. Leyland Hippo Haulage 9.128 2.434 10.925
7. Leyland (18746)
Taurus
8.614 2.394 11.202
29

8. Leyland
Beaver Multi Drive
12.000 2.500 -
9. Mahindra Nissan
Allwyn Cabstar
5.895 1.870 6.608
10. Swaraj Mazda Truck (WT 49) 5.974 2.170 6.400
11. DCM Toyota (Bus) 6.440 1.995 6.900

Table 2.5 Dimensions & Turning Radii of Design Vehicles
S.No. Vehicle Type
Overall
Width
(m)
Overall
Length
(m)
Overhang
Front (m)
Minimum Turning
Rear (m) Radius (m)
1. Passenger Car (P) 1.4 2.1 3
5.74
0.9 1.5 7.3
2. Single Unit Truck
(S.U.)
2.58 9 1.2 1.8 12.8
3. Semi Trailer and
Single unit Bus
(WB-12m)
2.58 15.0 1.2 1.8 12.2
4. Large Semi-Trailer
(WB 15m)
2.58 16.7 0.9 0.6 13.71
5. Large Semi-Truck
Trailer (WB-18m)
2.58 19.7 0.6 0.9 18.2







30

2.2.5.6. Auxiliary Lanes
Three types of auxiliary lanes are provided at intersections. These are storage lanes, right
turning lanes, acceleration lanes and deceleration lanes. The last two together are also called
speed change lanes. Provision of these increases the capacity of intersection and improves
safety. The length of these lanes depends on the volume of traffic entering or leaving the side
road. The shape of these can be either parallel lane with sharp taper or a direct taper or with a
transition curve. Fig. 2.6 shows the method of introducing addition lane using transition
curves.

2.2.5.6.1. Storage lanes/right turning lanes
Storage lines are generally more important in urban areas where volume of right turning
traffic is high and if not catered for, blocks the through traffic. Normal design procedure
provides for storage length based on 1.5 times the average number of vehicles (by vehicle
type) that would store in turning lane at peak hour. At the same time the concurrent through
lane storage must also be kept in view, as it may occur that the entry to turning lane may
become inaccessible due to queued vehicles in through lane. Fig. 2.7 shows several methods
of introducing turning lane at intersections. Figs. 2.8 and 2.9 show satisfactory method of
widening at intersections and widening for turning lanes at intersections.






Fig 2.6: Method of Transition Curves at Points of Additional Lane



31








Fig 2.7: Provisions of Turning Lanes at Intersections

32




Fig 2.8: Method of Widening of Intersections






33




Fig 2.9: Method of Widening for Turning Lanes at Intersections




34

In places where not more than one or two vehicles are expected to wait for right turn, such as
in rural areas, the storage lane may be provided as per Table 2.7.
Table 2.6 Length of Right Turning Lane
Design Speed (km/h) Length of storage lane including 30 45
m taper
120 200
100 160
80 130
60 110
50 90

2.2.5.6.2. Speed Change Lanes
Speed change lanes are more important in rural areas. In urban areas such lanes are rarely
required but provision of short lanes to assist merging and diverging manoeuvres are
provided in conjunction with channelising islands. Speed change lanes should are uniformly
tapered and have a setback of 5.4m at the tangent point of curve leading into or out of minor
road. The turning lane should be reduced in width to 4.25m by carriageway marking etc. as
shown in Fig. 2.10.

Fig 2.10: Typical Dimension of Road Intersections





35

2.2.5.7. Channelising Island
The objectives of providing channelising island are to
i. Control speed and path of vehicles at the intersection;
ii. Control angle of conflict;
iii. Separate conflicting traffic streams;
iv. Provide shelter to vehicles waiting to carry out certain manoeuvres;
v. Assist pedestrians to cross;
vi. reduce excessive carriageway areas and thus limit vehicle paths; and
vii. Locate traffic control devices.
The general types of island and their shapes are shown in Fig. 2.10. To ensure proper
functioning of each type of islands, principles given below for each should be adhered to.
2.2.5.7.2. Corner or directed islands
Figures 2.12 illustrate the design features of corner islands and the considerations which
govern their sizes and shapes. Corner or Directional Islands (normally triangular) should
meet the following requirements:
a) Is should be of sufficient size to be readily identified and visible. For an island to be
clearly seen it must have an area of at least 4.5m
2
in urban areas and 7m
2
in rural
areas and should usually be bordered with painted raised kerbs. Smaller areas may be
defined by pavement marking Accordingly triangular islands should not be less than
3.5m and preferably 4.5m on a side after rounding of curves.
b) It should be offset from normal vehicle path by 0.3m to 0.6m. The layout should be
tested using the track diagram for all turning movements.
c) Is should be provided with illuminated sign or a bollard at suitable places e.g. apexes
of islands. It should be of sufficient size to enable placement of such traffic control
devices.
d) It should be accompanied by suitable carriageway marking to show actual vehicle
paths. Marking should be made conspicuous by use of refectories materials.
e) Is should be properly marked for night visibility.



36

2.5.7.3. Centre or divisional islands
Centre islands require careful location and designing. They require careful alignment and are
invariably accompanied by widening of right-of-way. Centre or divisional islands should
meet the following requirements.
a) It should be preceded by a clearly marked or constructed natural area of not less than
1.5 sec. travel time at approach speed.


Fig 2.11: General Types and Shapes of Islands


37


Fig 2.12: Details of Triangular Island Design (kerbed island, no shoulder)
38




Fig 2.13: Progressive Layouts of T-Intersections for use on main Highways.







39

2.2.6. Definitions
(1) At grade intersection An intersection where all roadways join or cross at the
same level.
(2) Diverging The dividing of single stream traffic into separate
streams.
(3) Intersection angles The angle between two intersection legs.
(4) Merging The converging of separate streams of traffic into a
single stream.

Fig 2.14: Rotary Elements
(5) Rotary Intersection A road junction laid out for movement of traffic in
one direction round a central island.
(6) Rotary Island A traffic island located in the centre of an intersection to
compel movement in a clock-wise direction and thus
substitute weaving of traffic around the island instead of
direct crossing of vehicle pathways.
40

(7) Weaving The combined movement of merging and diverging
of traffic streams moving in the same general
direction.
(8) Weaving length The length of a section of a rotary in which weaving
occurs.
2.2.7. Shape of Rotary Island
The shape of the rotary island depends upon various factors such as the number and
disposition of the intersecting roads and the traffic flow pattern. While finalising the shape of
the rotary island, traffic streams within the rotary should be given dominance over the
streams of traffic entering from different roads. Asymmetric shapes either wholly curved or
with a combination of straight and curves may often provide the only satisfactory solution.
Some of the more common shapes and disposition of the rotary islands are discussed below
2.2.7.1. Circular
A circular shape is suited where roads of equal importance intersect at nearly equal angles
and carry nearly equal volume of traffic, Fig.2.15, under these conditions, with a circular
shape, a constant and regular flow is achieved.

Fig 2.15: Circular Shaped Rotary

41

2.2.7.2. Squarish with rounded edges
This is a modification of the circular shape and is composed of four straights or four large
radii curves roughly forming four sides of a square, Fig 2.16 and four small radii curves at the
corners. The advantage of this layout is that it is suitable for predominantly straight ahead
flows.

Fig 2.16: Squarish rotary with rounded edge

2.2.7.3. Elliptical, elongated, oval or rectangular shapes
The above shapes are provided to favour through traffic, to suit the geometry of the
intersecting legs, or to provide a longer weaving length. Fig 2.17 and 2.18 are illustrative.
42


Fig 2.17: Elliptical Rotary

Fig 2.18: Rectangular shape


43

2.2.7.4. Complex intersection with many approaches
Fig 2.19 gives a layout of a complex intersection whose shape is dictated by the existence of
a large number of approaches.

Fig 2.19: Layout of complex Rotary Intersection











44

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
Major steps of the proposed methodology are as follows:
3.1 Review of relevant literature
The research paper given by various researchers in this arena are reviewed and the
relevant codal provisions in the IRC are being analyzed and their brief summary is being
described in this thesis.
3.2 Selection of study area
a) The study area includes old and new Bhopal, for satisfying heterogeneity of the
problem as different conditions prevails in different junction areas.
b) Following are the junctions that are taken under the scope of this study:
i. J.K. road Intersection
ii. Piplani Intersection
iii. Jyoti Talkies Intersection
iv. MANIT Intersection
v. Mangalwara Intersection
3.3 Conducting Surveys
For the understanding of the existing situations at the site and for getting the required true
data, following surveys are being done:
a) Total Station survey of the Intersections, to find out the existing or available cross
section of all legs of Intersection, existing surroundings structures at that Intersection,
space available and possibilities for modification and construction of all members of
Intersection for future expansion.
b) Traffic volume survey at all legs of Intersection.
3.4 Analysis of the surveyed data and design of intersections
Then the analysis of the surveyed data is done in order to design the junction on the basis
of the real time data and in accordance with the relevant IRC codal provisions.
45

CHAPTER 4: DEVELOPMENT OF MODIFIED INTERSECTIONS
4.1 Design of J.K. Road Intersection
The intersection under consideration is a three legged intersection. The two legs are of Raisen
road which is National Highway. This through route carries high intensity of traffic including
heavy commercial vehicles. The third leg leads to JK Road which passes through many
residential and commercial establishments and joins the Ayodhya By-Pass. At present the
intersection is uncontrolled intersection as there are no pavement markings, physical dividers
like median on through route, channelizing islands, traffic signals and no pedestrian crossing
facilities. The situation is worsened by the encroachments on all three legs of the intersection.
Visibility at night is very poor leading to possibility of conflicts. Therefore to design the
Intersection for the safe and efficient functioning, peak hour traffic volume surveys at the
intersection are carried out. The observations and recommendations for the intersection are as
follows:-
1. The peak hour traffic volume of the three legged Intersection is found out as 6800
PCU per hour. This traffic intensity at the intersection is very high for the safe
operation of traffic at the intersection in its present situation.
2. The intersection in its present situation is unable to handle the high volume of
crossing and turning traffic especially during peak hours. The junction has become
completely incapacitated and present traffic management measures are inadequate to
deal with such a high intensity traffic volume.
3. At present there is no traffic signal at the intersection. It is suggested to provide traffic
signals. This signalization should also have pedestrian timings. (IRC:93-1985).
Traffic signal at the intersection needs to be designed based on real time data.
4. The junction should be signalized with necessary widening on all the legs of the
intersection as shown in the drawing sheet.
5. Encroachment on all the three legs should be removed to enhance the capacity of the
junction.
6. To streamline the vehicular traffic and to provide refuge to the pedestrians crossing
the road channelizing islands are proposed as shown in the drawing sheet.
7. Necessary traffic signs and pavement markings need to be provided at the
intersection. (IRC: 35-1997 and IRC: 67-2001).
46

8. No bus stops should be located within the 75 meter length from the junction.
Therefore all the existing bus stops at the junction which lie within the 75 meter
should be removed. Also the location of the bus stops should be at the farther side of
the junction.
9. To enhance the visibility of the junction at night, it is recommended to provide High
Mast light to lighten the junction area.

47


Fig 4.1: Existing Details of J.K. Road Intersection
48


Fig 4.2: Overlap of Existing and Proposed Details of J.K. Road Intersection
49


Fig 4.3: Details of Proposed J.K. Road Intersection

50

4.2 Design of Piplani Intersection
The peak hour traffic volume survey at the Piplani Petrol Pump intersection was carried out.
The observations and recommendations for the intersection are as follows:-
1. The peak hour traffic volume at the first three legged Intersection Sonagiri side i.e.
considering the three legs is found out as 6000 PCU per hour. The peak hour traffic
volume at the BHEL side i.e. considering the three legs is found out as 6500 PCU per
hour. This traffic intensity at the intersection is very high for the safe operation of
traffic at the intersection.
2. An at grade intersection having traffic volume in excess of 10000 PCU per hour,
warrants for a grade separated intersection (IRC: 92-1985). In this case the total traffic
volume at the staggered junction is 12500 PCU per hour which is very high and it
warrants for a grade separated intersection.
3. The maximum volume that a traffic rotary can handle efficiently is about 3000
vehicles per hour entering from all intersection legs and rotaries are most adaptable
where the volumes entering the different intersection legs are approximately equal.
(IRC: 65-1976, Recommended Practice for Traffic Rotaries)
4. At present intersection gets locked frequently because of high volume of crossing and
turning traffic especially during peak hours. The staggered junction has become
completely incapacitated and present traffic management measures are inadequate to
deal with such a high intensity traffic volume.
5. At present there is no traffic signal at both the intersections. It is suggested to provide
traffic signals.
6. The junction should be signalized with necessary widening on all the legs of the
intersection as shown in the drawing sheet.
7. Encroachment on all the four legs should be removed to enhance the capacity of the
junction.
8. As traffic volume is very high, the available width of carriageway is insufficient to
accommodate the vehicles.
9. To streamline the vehicular traffic and to provide refuge to the pedestrians
channelizing islands are proposed as shown in the drawing sheet.
10. Necessary traffic signs and pavement markings need to be provided at the
intersection.
11. Traffic signal at the intersection needs to be designed based on real time data.
51


Fig 4.4: Details of Existing Piplani Intersection
52


Fig 4.5: Overlap of Details of Existing and Proposed Piplani Intersection
53


Fig 4.6: Details of Proposed Piplani Intersection

54

4.3 Design of Jyoti Talkies Intersection
The Jyoti Talkies intersection is a four legged intersection. The Board office leg & leg
towards Chetak Bridge are the part of major road; this through route carries very high
intensity of traffic. The third leg goes toward M.P. Nagar Zone-I and fourth leg towards M.P.
Nagar Zone-II which are highly dense commercial areas, so both of these two legs also
having high volume of Domestic Vehicles.
At present the intersection is a Rotary intersection and is not having pavement marking,
channelizing islands, traffic signals, medians for through route and no pedestrian crossing
facilities. Therefore to design to intersection peak hour traffic volume surveys at the
intersection has been carried out. The observations and recommendations are as follows:
1. The peak hour traffic volume of the four legged Intersection is found out as 5500
PCU/hour. The present situation is not fulfilling the safe and efficient operation of
traffic due to high intensity of traffic volume.
2. An at grade Intersection having traffic volume in excess of 10000 PCU per hour,
warrants for a grade separated Intersection (IRC: 92-1985). In this case the total
traffic volume at the rotary Intersection is 5500 PCU per hour which is very high and
it warrants for a grade separated Intersection.
3. The maximum volume that a traffic rotary can handle efficiently is about 3000
vehicles per hour entering from all Intersection legs (IRC: 65-1976).
4. The present Intersection gets locked frequently because of high volume of crossing
and turning traffic especially during peak hours. The rotary junction has become
completely incapacitated and present traffic management measures are inadequate to
deal with such a high intensity traffic volume.
5. The junction should be signalized with necessary widening on all the legs of the
Intersection as shown in the drawing sheet.
6. The channelizing islands should be provided to streamline the vehicular traffic and
refuge for pedestrians crossing the road according to drawings.
7. The pavement marking & traffic signs should be provided at the intersection. (IRC:
35-1997 & IRC: 67-2001)
55


Fig 4.7: Details of Existing Jyoti Talkies Intersection
56


Fig 4.8: Overlap of Details of Existing and Proposed Jyoti Talkies Intersection
57


Fig 4.9: Details of Proposed Jyoti Talkies Intersection
58

4.4 Design of MANIT Intersection
The intersection which is under consideration is a four legged intersection; one is towards
Bittan Market, second is towards New Market, third is towards Nehru Nagar and fourth is
towards MANIT. In this intersection three legs are having (Except MANIT Leg) high volume
of traffic, all these three legs having residential and commercial establishments nearby. The
Nehru Nagar leg is connected to Bhadbhada Road, which is have number of quarries, the
Nehru Nagar leg and Bittan Market leg have traffic including heavy vehicles like trucks and
dumpers. The Intersection is presently uncontrolled Intersection not having channelizing
islands, traffic signals, pedestrian crossing facilities, pavement marking, visibility at night etc.
The observations and recommendations for safe and efficient functioning of that intersection
are as follows:
1. The peak hour traffic volume of the four legged Intersection is found out as 4800
PCU/Hr. The present situation is not fulfilling the safe operation of traffic.
2. Presently the Intersection is unable to handle the crossing and turning traffic at high
volume during peak hours.
3. The capacity of Intersection is inefficient and traffic management measures are
inadequate to deal with such high traffic volume intensity.
4. The existing Rotary diameter is inadequate so minimize the Rotary diameter
according to given drawing, therefore heavy volume of traffic can be accommodate at
the intersection.
5. All the legs should widened according to given drawings with providing channelizing
islands at three major roads to streamline the traffic and provide refuge for pedestrians
crossing the road.
6. The pavement marking & traffic signs should be provided at the intersection. (IRC
835-1997 & IRC: 67-2001)
7. The high mask light should be provided at junction area for better visibility at night.
8. Existing bus stops should be removed and locate it 75 meter away from intersection
that too on the further side of the Intersection.
59


Fig 4.10: Existing Details of Manit Intersection
60


Fig 4.11: Proposed details of Manit Intersection


61

4.5 Design of Mangalwara Intersection
Mangalwara junction is a five legged intersection and all the legs having high volume of
traffic intensity. The intersection is surrounded by dense commercial as well as residential
establishments. One of the leg which is Itwara road carries high intensity of traffic including
heavy commercial vehicles due to transport business nearby, so that lot of commercial
vehicles stand here and there for loading and unloading work, and create congestion of traffic
every time.
Presently the intersection is uncontrolled intersection and not having channelizing islands,
traffic signals, pedestrian crossing facilities, pavement markings and high mask lights for
proper night vision.
Therefore to design the intersection for the safe and efficient functioning, three days peak
hour traffic volume survey at the intersection was conducted. The observations &
recommendation for the intersection are as follows:
1. The peak hour traffic volume of the five legged intersection is found out as 5200
PCU/hour. This traffic intensity is very high for the safe and efficient operation of
traffic at the intersection in its present situation.
2. The cross section of intersection legs is unable to handle the high volume of crossing
and turning traffic during peak hours. The junction become completely in capacitated
such a high volume of traffic intensity.
3. Signals should be provided at the intersection. This signalization should also have
pedestrian timings (IRC: 93-1985). The traffic signals should be designed based on
real time data at that intersection.
4. All the five legs should be widened according to given drawings with providing
channelizing islands to streamline the traffic and provide refuge for pedestrians
crossing the road.
5. The pavement marking & traffic signs should be provided at the intersection (IRC:
35-1997 & IRC: 67-2001).
6. High mask light should be provided at junction area for better visibility at night.

62


Fig 4.12: Existing Details of Mangalwara Intersection
63


Fig 4.13: Overlap of Existing and Proposed Mangalwara Intersection
64


Fig 4.14: Details of Proposed Mangalwara Intersection
65

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Conclusions and Recommendations
1. The increase in road accidents at intersections is one of the burning issues in the
present situation as rapid growth of population coupled with increasing economical
activities, particularly in the urban area play an important role for the tremendous
growth in motor vehicle.
2. The number of fatalities and injuries as a result of accidents at intersection in Bhopal
is serious enough to demand attention of responsible administrative authority. The
total number of fatal accidents as well as related fatality at intersections in the city is
increasing over the year. Persons killed per 100 accidents as high as 33 during the
year 2009.
3. The buses are the most risky, as far as vehicle-wise accidents are concerned. Truck
and three wheelers are the second and third most risky vehicles, respectively.
4. The intersections are redesigned according to IRC recommendations.
5. The intersection is the most important part of the roads and highways to give prime
attention for their proper planning and designing.
6. If the traffic volume will exceeds the 10000 PCU per hour at an at-grade intersection,
a separate grade intersection is suggested.
7. The junction should be free from encroachment on all the legs to enhance the capacity
and proper visibility.
8. To streamline the vehicular traffic and to provide refuge to the pedestrians,
channelising islands should be provided.
9. The necessary traffic signs and pavement markings need to be provided at the
intersections
10. Traffic signals should be provided whenever required and their design should be
based on real time data.
11. A road safety audit at intersections must be carried out by road professionals to
compare existing characteristics of the intersections, that may be related to congestion
66

and accidents (width of carriageway, obstacles at the intersection, signalized or not,
design of signal, visibility, channelising islands, quality of surfacing, traffic sign and
marking etc) to standard characteristics meeting safety requirements.
12. On heavily trafficked intersections, more account should be taken of the needs of the
pedestrians and cyclists.

67

REFERENCES
1) Indian Roads Congress, Guidelines for the Design of At-Grade Intersections in Rural
and Urban Areas, IRC : SP-41-1994.
2) Indian Roads Congress, Recommended Practice for the Traffic Rotaries, IRC : 65-
1976.
3) Indian Roads Congress, Geometric Design Standards for Urban Roads in Plains, IRC
: 86-1983.
4) Indian Roads Congress, Space Standards for Roads in Urban Areas, IRC : 69-1977.
5) Indian Roads Congress, Guidelines for Pedestrian Facilities, IRC : 103-1988.
6) Indian Roads Congress, Dimensions and Weights of Road Design Vehicles, IRC : 3-
1983.
7) National Crime Records Bureau, Accidental Deaths and Suicides in India, Ministry of
Home Affairs, Government of India, New Delhi, 2008.
8) Vehicular Population Data, Regional Transport Office, Bhopal, 2009.
9) Kent J. Fugal, Mayor Tom Dale and Stephen J. Lewis, Design for Single-Lane to
Dual-Lane Roundabout Expandability, May 2008, National Roundabout Conference
2008, Kansas City, Missouri.
10) Kay Fitzpatrick, Angelia H. Parham, and Mark D. Wooldridge, Issues to consider in
developing an Intersection Design Guide, September 2002, Texas Transportation
Institute.
11) Report on Median Intersection Design for Rural High-Speed Divided Highways,
National Cooperative Highway Research Program report 650, 2010.
12) A synthesis of Highway Practice, Modern Roundabouts Practice in the United
States, National Cooperative Highway Research Program Synthesis 264, 1998.
13) Bruce Hellinga Signalized Intersection Analysis and Design Implications of Day-
to-Day Variability in Peak.
14) Ragnhild Davidse, Assisting the Older Driver, 2007.
15) Kadiyali L.R., Traffic Engineering and Transport Planning, Khanna Publications,
New Delhi 2008.
16) Khanna S.K. and Justo C.E.G., Highway Engineering, Nemchand Brothers,
Roorkee, 2005.