1. Tropes: metapor! meto"#m#!

a"to"omas$a
The term trope denotes words and word combinations that are used in
figurative meaning and perform expressive function. Among the most frequent
tropes are metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, play on words, irony, epithet,
hyperbole, oxymoron, antonomasia, personification, simile, periphrasis,
euphemism, allegory, etc.
Modern linguistics tend to regard tropes as a special system of stylistic
devices based on the complex mechanisms of semantic shifts, combinations and
transformations that generate new senses or new aspects of old meanings.
erbal poetic images represent a perculiar author!s worldview and are
predetermined by dominating social and cultural paradigms of the epoch.
"rom semasiological point of view tropes are stylistically mar#ed secondary
nominations with the complex semantic structure$ expressive elements that
occurred as a result of operations of association, similarity, comparison, contiguity,
contrast are imposed on the denotative meaning.
%$&'res o( s')st$t't$o" are subdivided into the figures of quality % metaphor,
antonomasia, personification, allegory, epithet, metonymy, synecdoche,
periphrasis, euphemism and irony& and figures of quantity % hyperbole, meiosis,
litotes.
1. %$&'res o( *'a+$t#
Metaphor is the transference of the name of one ob'ect into another ob'ect
based on the similarity of the ob'ects. "rom the times of ancient (ree# and )oman
rhetorics, the term was #nown to denote the transference of meaning from one
word to another. Metaphor becomes a stylistic device when two different
phenomena *things, events, ideas, actions+ are simultaneously brought to mind by
the imposition of some or all of the inherent properties of one ob'ect on the other
which by nature is deprived of these properties. The creator of the metaphor finds
in the two corresponding ob'ects certain features which to his eye have something
in common. ,t is the creator of the metaphor who ta#es the responsibility for
transplantation of the features of one ob'ect into another as if he wants to cross
over the logical boundaries in order to provide a deep insight into the nature of the
ob'ect and to create images. -hen -. .ha#espeare in one of his sonnets said$ I
never say that I was false of heart/Though absence seemed my flame to qualify he
used the word flame metaphorically to denote love and to highlight its ardour and
passion. Metaphoric lines of /ina 0osten#o 1! "#$#% & '&#!() *+"#
are the most economic and condensed way to create the visual image of petals
blown with the wind, their movement, colour, odour.
Metaphor can be represented by any notional part of speech$
,- (./+ 0)1%(!+ 2***( 34. 5"#/(26.
7*"#/)8*9 :1$ (*" ;*(($, < 2*1!(* 2 #*2* 8&"#* 3=. >#&"6.
The leaves were falling sorrowfully.
?e all want a little patching and repairing from time to time.
.imple metaphor that expresses indiscrete notion may comprise a word, word
combination or sentence. 2rolonged or sustained metaphor is metaphor that
consists of a number of sentences or even a paragraph. ,n this case the word that
has been used metaphorically ma#es other words of the sentence or paragraph to
reali3e their figurative meaning and unfold the meaning of the first, initial
metaphor. 4elow there are examples of sustained metaphors that create visual
landscape images$
There is a patch of old snow in a corner
That I should have guessed
?as a blow away paper the rain
@ad brought to rest
It is specAled with grime as if
Bmall print overspread it,
The news of the day ICve forgotten D
If I ever read it 3E. Frost6.
G& (/:*1!+ 0/+;*H
;*I&(#*( (*(,
#)1%2! 2&#.2& ;*1!-/( .(8 0"*.
=.* 8&1$1* ;!J*
); K!8*(*J! 0C$(!J!,
"/ 0L)1!1*
) L1&:!#% #/0/ (/L/"*' 3M. 5!-#*1%"%2!+6.
Metaphor that unfolds within the boundaries of the whole text or the whole
literary wor# is #nown under the term compositional metaphor 32J0;!K)+(* *L
"NH/#(* J/#*O*6. 5aving being raised to the symbolic status these
metaphors designate #ey notions for the development of the plot and idea of the
literary wor#. "or example, the bridge in 5emingway!s novel For whom the bell
tolls means not only special installations but also a military mission, threat,
human character, obligation& PfogQ in 6. (alsworthy!s Ran of property is a symbol
of misfortune and disaster.
The nature of metaphors is versatile. According to the pragmatic effect
produced upon the addressee metaphors are subdivided into dead or trite and
genuine or original. 7riginal metaphors always have a definite author and are fresh
and unpredictable. They may describe not only the ob'ects of real or unreal world
but represent such complex notions as time, love, feeling and emotions or even life
itself$
They walAed along, two continents of experience and feeling, unable to
communicate 3?.B. Silbert6.
Ry life had been a poem I should have writ
Tut I could not both live and utter it 3T. Thoreau6.
U)1%2! ) !J!- P")(%VQ D 21! ):&.! ##&*J,
=#J1/() .) ;/:/- (* L1/#)1!+ 2*-#*(.
U*2 & 0)"() 01/#$#% (*-) :() ) 1)#* 0("!1),
, ;*.()9 :&-) "#*"#) 81/ 8)11$ 3W. 7/6.
Xead metaphors are metaphors that have become sub'ected to the process of
lexicali3ation& they have lost their novelty and vigour due to the long and frequent
usage. ,n the sentences @e is still green for this Yob the metaphor to be green
means to be too young and inexperienced& she was bright, learned languages
quicAly and sailed through her exams the metaphor to sail through means to avoid
difficulties, to cope with the tas# easily. All these metaphors are perceived
automatically as clich8. Most of the trite metaphors are registered in special
dictionaries and have become ran# and file members of idiomatic languageZ to
picA up oneCs ears, the apple of oneCs eye, floods of tears, (*--!#! &'*,
;)(!K$ 2*, 0#)2 "1); #<. ,t is this very part of the stylistic resources of any
language that is of great importance for contrastive study because they specify the
national % cultural peculiarities of communication.
ery often metaphoric associations connected with the same words in both
languages do not coincide, i.e. are quite unpredictable for the representatives of the
other culture. "or example yellow colour is associated in 9nglish culture with the
notion of timidity D yellow streaA, yellow[bellied, yellow[livered D or with the
notion of Yealousy D to wear yellow hose/stocAings D whereas in :#rainian this
colour is associated with young age and lacA of experience D H##!+.
9nglish word cat can mean a malignant woman thus highlighting psychological
and behavioral aspects of the notion while :#rainian 2)-2* % movement and
flexibility or independence. More examples of this #ind are$
guinea pig D 0)::"1):(!+ 21!2\ D L/;L)1/#(!+ 0*"*H!
shark D -*'*+\ *2&1! L);(/"&, *2&1! 0/*
cuckoo D LH/)1%(!+\ D J*#!, < 02!:*9 :)#/+
chicken D hearted D L$;1!!+;
ear gar!en [ L*1*8*(
o"#ish D 0!:&2&*#!+\ $ D "!J1 J&:"#)
%ackere# sk& D (/L L**(.!2*'
re! herring D ):1)2*N.!+ J*(/
According to the degree of their stylistic potential metaphors are classified
into nominational, cognitive, conceptual and imaginative.
]ominational metaphor does not render any stylistic value& it is a purely
technical device to name new ob'ects by means of old vocabulary$ the arm of the
chair, the foot of the hill, ()H2* "#1&, 2!1 L&:!(2&, :)(!2! *#JL)1$.
;ominational metaphor is an efficient tool to create scientific terms % flood of
neutrons, stream of consciousness, #.2* 2!0)(($, "!1* 1)()$ #<.
ery close to the function of nominative metaphor is conceptual metaphor.
4ut the latter is created to denote highly abstract notions or concepts of human life
which cannot be expressed in any but metaphoric way. "or example % generation
gap, field of activity, a shadow of a smile, a grain of truth, 01)O().(!+ J*(,
1)()$ :1), '!1$ 8()&, 2(!8* H!##$. 4eing in fact trite *or lexicali3ed+
conceptual metaphors still retain their imaginative ground and are sometimes
in'ected with new vigour, i.e. their primary meaning is re<established alongside a
new *derivative+ one. This is done by supplying the central image created by the
metaphor with additional words which bear some reference to the main word. "or
example$
Rr. ^icAwicA ott#e! up his vengeance and corke! it !o"n 3_h. XicAens6.
The metaphor in the expression to bottle up can hardly be felt. 4ut it is
revived by the direct meaning of the verb to corA down. This context refreshes the
almost dead metaphor and gives it a second life. 5ere is another example of the
same #ind$
Rr. Xombey`s cup o' satis'action was so full at this moment, however, that he
felt he could afford a drop or two of its contents, even to sprinAle on the dust in the
by[path of his little daughter.a 3_h. XicAens6.
-hen an ob'ect obtains qualities characteristic of another ob'ect *inanimate
ob'ects or things % the characteristic of living beings+ cognitive metaphor is
formed.
9.g. a witty idea came to me.
The road leads bacA there.
c8 0//"1):&*1! "08*:! ; J!(&18.
4eing a source of lexical polysemy, cognitive metaphor has lost its stylistic
value. This type of metaphors is frequently used in everyday speech, political,
economic and scientific discourses. ,t is also worth mentioning that utterances
based on the cognitive metaphors are more characteristic for 9nglish than for
:#rainian. /et us compare$
d J*+L&#(%J& #*2) ;!.() ):("!(! JH&#% ;J)(!#!"$.
(he 'uture %a& change this customary relationship.
7*:$2! K%J& 0!*#!;*K)+(* *#)"#% 2J0*()e ;L)1%-!#%"$.
(his "i## raise the company privatifation value.
d(*"1):2 0!L&##$ ;(*.(e 2)1%2"#) (/L)1!' 8J*:$(, &#!1*"%
8&0*, $2* 0J)#( ):);($1*"% ): /-#! L!#*("%28 "&"0)1%"#*.
(he arri)a# of the substantional number of coloured emigrants intro!uce! a
group of people that were visibly different from the rest of the Tritish community.
Imaginative metaphor is the most expressive type of metaphor. ,t ma#es a
much bigger demand on our imagination and on our willingness to step outside the
rational thin#ing$ The sun is a big yellow duster\ polishing the blue, blue sAy. ,n
this utterance the sun is being compared to a duster. This idea is interesting
because dusters are usually yellow li#e the sun. "urther, li#e the sun appears to
move in the s#y, removing gray clouds, a duster moves to polish a surface and
clear it of dust.
Metaphor is one of the oldest and the most powerful way to create images and
to represent different concepts or ideas most vividly and poetically.
*ntono%asia
gntonomasia 3or renaming D 0//+J/(&*(($6 is a lexical stylistic device
that lies in the interplay between the logical and nominal meanings of a word. ,n
other words antonomasia is a #ind of metaphor in which the nominal meaning of a
proper noun is suppressed by its logical meaning or the logical meaning of a
common noun acquires the new nominal component.
As most stylistic devices antonomasia may assume different shapes.
The first type of antonomasia is the usage of proper noun in the function of a
common one. ,n the following sentence a proper noun Mary has lost its nominal
meaning and turned into a common noun denoting any female$
h.g. @e tooA little satisfaction in telling each Rary shortly after she arrived
somethingi 3Th. Xreiser6.
Another type of antonomasia we meet when a common noun serves as an
individuali3ing name. ,n this case a certain concept that is associated with this
common noun is transferred on the person or phenomenon named. The role of the
common noun is to name and to qualify$
9.g. ,n the moon[landing year what choice is there for Rr. and Rrs. gverage
D the programme against poverty or the ambitious ]gBg proYect from a
newspaper6.
There are three doctors in the illness liAe yours. I donCt mean only myself, my
partner or the radiologist who does your j[rays, the three I am referring to are
Xr. Eest, Xr. Xiet and Xr. Fresh gir 3X. _usacA6.
This type of antonomasia can be encountered both in literary writing and in
everyday speech. 2oets and writers resort to it in order to create vivid, precise and
memorable names for their personages$ as kady Teafle, Rr. Burface, Riss
kanguish, Rr. _redulous, Rr. BnaAe, l&;!, 5*1!#2*, m*"(!2, W*2
n/;"J/#(!+, U**" U$"!1, U!(:!01$-2*, oL)K$+1 or location$ "/1
G/2*.), p/:8*2!, 7*:!0*+1)2*. ,n everyday speech this type of antonomasia
is the basis of different nic#names, pet<names, pseudonyms, aliases, pen<names
etc.
I havenCt seen the ^imple of late.
]ow let me introduce you [ thatCs Rr. ?hatCs[his[name, you remember him,
donCt youq gnd over there in the corner, thatCs the RaYor, and thereCs Rr. ?hat[
dCyou[call[him, and thatCs an gmerican 3h. ?augh6.
4*;* (/(*!:) #N/J(8 "J#!#/1$, $2J& #NJ* :*1* 0);!</
W:*.
7ne more type of antonomasia is the usage of well<#nown names of literary,
fol#, mythological personages or famous personalities to characteri3e different
people. "or example a loving couple can be named )omeo and 6uliet, a 'ealous
husband % 7thello, an ambitious person % ;apoleon, as in Bam is the ]apoleon of
crime.
Meton&%&
Metonymy is transference of the name of one ob'ect into another ob'ect,
based on the principle of contiguity of the two ob'ects. 4oth associated ob'ects do
not necessarily posses common semantic features but should have common ground
of existence in reality. The word press stands for all printed or broadcasted
information as well as people wor#ing in this sphere, the word crown substitutes
the notion of royal power, because crown is its symbol, the word cradle is
associated with infancy, earliest stages or place of origin because cradle is an
indaspebsable attribute of these notions& the bench is used as a generic term for
`magistrates and Yustices`, a hand is used for a worAer.
Metonymy used in speech or in literary texts is genuine metonymy and
reveals a quite unexpected substitution of one word for another, or one concept for
another, on the ground of some strong impression produced by a chance feature of
the thing, for example$
Riss Tox`s hand trembled as she slipped it through Rr. Xombey`s arm, and
felt herself escorted up the steps, preceded by a cocAed hat and a Tabylonian
collar 3_h. XicAens6.
`g cocAed hat and a Tabylonian collar` stand for the wearer of the articles
in question. The function of these examples of genuine metonymy is to point out
the insignificance of the wearer rather than his importance, for his personality is
reduced to his externally conspicuous features, the hat and red collar.
The scope of transference in metonymy is rather limited and can be described
as follows$
=. A concrete thing used instead of an abstract notion. ,n this case the thing
becomes a symbol of the notion, as in The camp, the pulpit and the law For rich
men`s sons are free 3^. T. Bhelley6.
>. The container instead of the thing contained$ The hall applauded.
7)L*1*"$ "$ -21*.
?. The relation of proximity, as in$ The round game table was boisterous and
happy 3_h. XicAens6.
@. The material instead of the thing made of it, as in$ The marble spoAe.
71# & &'*', 2!-#*1% (* "#1).
A. The instrument which the doer uses in performing the action instead of the
action or the doer himself, as in$ ?ell, Rr. ?eller, says the gentleman, you`re a
very good whip, and can do what you liAe with your horses, we Anow 3_h.
XicAens6.
B. The relation between the part and the whole. This special type of
metonymy is referred to as s&nec!oche+ to live under the same roof *where roof
means the whole house+, "N:! </ (/ "#&0*1* 1N:"%2* (8* 3(8* means people6.
The list is in no way complete. There are many other types of relations which
may serve as a basis for metonymy, as in the following :#rainian expressions$
;*L1$#! 20)+2!, (/J*#! + 2!'#! #), :)1!#!"$ -J*#2J '1)L*, $;!2
: 5!9* :/:/, .!#*#! r/./(2* etc.
As a rule metonymy is expressed by nouns *less frequently by substantivi3ed
numerals+ and performs the syntactic function of sub'ect, ob'ect and predicative.
,. Tropes: ep$tet! o-#moro"! a"t$tes$s
,pithet
hpithet is a figurative, expressive attribute that emphasi3es the most
prominent, leading feature of a thing or phenomenon. The term epithet originated
from the Cree# phrase Pepiteton onomaQ which meant an additional name,
borrowed, artificial, extra or supplementary nomination, for indeed the function of
epithet is not only to describe the ob'ect but also to add new features to it.
9pithet has remained over the centuries the most widely used stylistic device,
that offers ample opportunities to qualify the ob'ect from the spea#er!s partial or
sub'ective point of view and is indispensable in creative prose, publicistic style and
everyday speech.
The structure and semantics of epithets are extremely variable.
"rom semantic point of view epithets are fixed 3or associated6, effective 3or
emotional proper6 and figurative 3transferred or unassociated6.
Fixed epithets are epithets which due to the long and frequent usage have
become inseparable unities, fusions that are deeply rooted in fol# poetic traditions
and that remain in modern language unchanged$ darA forest, deep ocean, true love,
merry _hristmas, dead silence, a trembling maiden, fairy lady, L&+(!+ )#/,
)(*$ :&H!((%2*, 2)(% (/(%2!+, .!"#/ 01/, 8)2* :1$, ;1#!+
)(/K%, ")L(/ /"/1%K/, H!* :*, .(!+ :/(% #<.
hmotional epithets are qualifying words that convey the emotional evaluation
of the ob'ect$ gorgeous, nasty, magnificent, atrocious, -*1/(!+, "#*-/((!+
.&:!+.
snassociated epithets are attributes used to characteri3e the ob'ect by adding
a feature not inherent in it, i.e. a feature which may be so unexpected as to stri#e
the reader by its novelty, as, for instance, voiceless sands, comfortable mind,
furnished souls, )#! "0*(#/1!./(), 2!-#*1/* J&;!2*, "1() "&#)(2! etc.
The ad'ectives here do not indicate any property inherent in the ob'ects in question.
They impose, as it were, a property on them which is fitting only in the given
circumstances. ,t may seem strange, unusual, or even accidental.
A special structural and semantic type of epithet is so called transferred
epithet 3;J)</(!+ /0)#/#6. Transferred epithets are ordinary logical attributes
generally describing the state of a human being, but made to refer to an inanimate
ob'ect, for example$ sicA chamber, sleepless pillow, restless pace, breathless
eagerness, unbreaAfasted morning, merry hours, a disapproving finger, Isabel
shrugged an indifferent shoulder\ or cases of attributive constructions in which
semantic relations do not coincide with the syntactic relations$
9.g. I will maAe a palace fit for you and me
tf green days in forest and blue days at sea 3E. k. Btevenson6.
,f we reconstruct the logical norms in the last line of the above<cited example
we will get the meaning % days in green forest, days at blue sea instead of blue
days and green days.
.tructurally, epithets can be viewed from the angle of a+ composition and b6
distribution.
As to the structural composition of epithets they are divided into simple,
compound, phrasal and clausal. .imple epithets are expressed by a single
ad'ective or adverb. Compound epithets are expressed by a compound ad'ective, as
in turned[nosed peacocA, L1*2!#([")L(!+ "(. 2hrasal and clausal epithets are
expressed by a phrase or a sentence the sunshine[in[the[breaAfast[room smile, do[
it[yourself command, #/J([")) ; 8;N ) K)#J .), .&#2* :(* L*L*
"2*;*1*, J$ '*#* ; 2*N 0):'):. An interesting structural detail of phrase and
sentence epithets is that they are generally followed by the words expression, air,
attitude and others that describe behaviour or facial expression. 5ere is an example
of clausal epithet$
There is a sort of `th[what[a[wicAed[world[this[is[and[how[I[wish[I[could[
do[something[to[maAe[it[better[and[nobler` expression about Rontmorency that
has been Anown to bring the tears into the eyes of pious old ladies and gentlemen.
3berome u. berome6.
Another structural variety of the epithet *characteristic only for 9nglish+ is the
one which we shall term reversed 3or inverted6. The reversed epithet is composed
of two nouns lin#ed in an of<phrase. The sub'ective, evaluating, emotional element
is embodied not in the noun attribute but in the noun structurally described, for
example$ athe shadow of a smilea\ aa devil of a Yoba 3Raugham6\ a...he smiled
brightly, neatly, efficiently, a military abbreviation of a smilea 3Sraham Sreen6\
ag devil of a sea rolls in that baya 3Tyron6\ ag little Flying Xutchman of a caba
3Salsworthy6\ a...a dog of a fellowa 3XicAens6\ aher brute of a brothera
3Salsworthy6\ a...a long nightshirt of a macAintosh...a 3_ronin6
,t will be observed that such epithets are metaphorical. The noun to be
assessed is contained in the of<phrase and the noun it qualifies is a metaphor
*shadow, devil, military abbreviation, "lying Dutchman, dog+. All reversed
epithets are easily transformed into epithets of a more habitual structure$ the giant
of a men % the gigantic man& the prude of a woman % the prudish woman, etc+.
-hen meeting an inverted epithet we should not mix it up with an ordinary of<
phrase. 5ere the article with the second noun will help in doubtful cases$ the toy of
the girl D the toy belonging to the girl\ the toy of a girl D a small, toyliAe girl.
"rom the point of view of the distribution of the epithets in the sentence,
epithets are used singly, in pairs, in chains, in two[step structures. ^airs are
represented by two epithets 'oined by a con'unction or asyndetically$ wonderful
and incomparable beauty, a tired old town. The next model to be pointed out is the
string of epithets$ a plump, rosy[cheeAed, wholesome apple[faced young woman
3_h. XicAens6\ a well[matched, fairly[balanced give[and[taAe couple 3_h.
XicAens6.
As in any enumeration, the string of epithets gives a many<sided depiction of
the ob'ect. 4ut in this many<sidedness there is always a suggestion of an ascending
order of emotive elements.
,n the overwhelming ma'ority of examples epithets in 9nglish and :#rainian
are expressed by ad'ectives, participles or adverbs in pre< or postposition, by nouns
*the brightness of the sun, the deepness of her eyes, -1$' ;(/)!6 and predicative
structures$
Bhe was a faded white rabbit of a woman 3g. _ronin6.
G&-* J$ D :( L/; :H//1%(/ + "&'/3o. o1/"%6.
4/82) ) 0;) "#*1! 0/.*1) + #&L#! 3o. o1/"%6.
9pithet is a direct and straightforward way of showing the authorEs attitude
towards the things described, whereas other stylistic devices, even image<bearing
ones, will reveal the authorEs evaluation of the ob'ect only indirectly. Alongside
with its expressive function it also contributes to our perception of the world, to the
development of our #nowledge of the things described and opens new sides of
well<#nown ob'ects and phenomena.
%$&'res o( .o"trast
-.&%oron
7xymoron is a combination of words which are semantically different. As a
result of such combination the ob'ect under description obtains characteristics
contrary to its nature. "or example the famous and much often quoted
.ha#espearian definition of love, being syntactically perfectly correct attributive
combinations, presents a strong semantic discrepancy between its members$ t
brawling loveV t loving hateV t heavy lightnessV Berious vanityV Feather of lead,
bright smoAe, cold fire, sicA healthV These lines that represent the strong
confrontations of notions impress the reader *hearer+ by the great power of tension
and vibration between the components of the poetic image. Thus, the cited chain of
oxymorons represents one of the brightest examples of deep penetration into the
complexity of the notion of love ever #nown in 9uropean )enaissance literature.
7xymoron as a combination of semantically different notions helps to
emphasi3e contradictory qualities simultaneously existing in the described
phenomenon as a dialectal unity. As a rule one of the two members of oxymoron
illuminates the feature which is universally observed and ac#nowledged, while the
other one offers a purely sub'ective, individual perception of the ob'ect. 7xymoron
ma#es the reader or hearer to reinterpret the sense of the utterance which is at the
same time stri#ing, unpredictable and truthful, revealing the essence of the ob'ect
in question and pointing out its complicated nature.
The main structural pattern of oxymoron is Ad'ective F ;oun, Adverb F
Ad'ective or erb F Adverb, so it easy to believe that the sub'ective part of the
oxymoron is embodied in the epithet<attribute. Thus the oxymoron is very often
associated with epithet, because the latter also proceeds from the foregrounding of
emotive meaning.
9.g. hot snow, pleasantly ugly, to cry silently, to shout mutely, "1:2!+ "&J,
'1:(!+ H*, etc.
gnd faith unfaithful Aept him falsely true 3g. Tennyson6.
n/;0<*:(!+ L1!"2 #9e :! 1*8):( :&-) Je+ ")$ 3G.l*1!.26.
4ut there are some other structural types of this stylistic device represented by
predicative relations or free syntactic patterns$
Bilence was louder than thunder 3b. spdiAe6.
Bara was a menace and a tonic, my best enemy\ Eosy was a disease, my worst
friend 3b. _ary6.
7xymoron is the sort of playful and witty effect of language usage, it seldom
becomes trite. A few frequently used oxymorons, all of them showing a high
degree of the spea#er!s emotional involvement in the situation, as in damn nice,
awfully pretty, H*'1! 8*(!+, "#*-/(( K)2*!+, are the rare examples of
speech oxymoron.
7xymoron is a figure of poetic language, a device much loved by poets and
writers in all periods of the development of national literature, because it enables
them to express complex ideas in a very compressed form$
gnd painful pleasure turns to pleasing pain 3h. Bpenser6.
?here grey[bearded mirth and smiling toil retired
The toiling pleasure sicAens into pain 3t. Soldsmith6.
p* (*-)+ "1*()+ d2*e(),
p* (*-)+ (/ "e+ ;/J1) 3U. r/./(26.
p), $ L&:& 2);% "1%;! "J)$#!"%,
>//: 1!'* "0)*#! 0)"() 34/"$ d2*e(2*6.
>*J $ "((!+ ':! ;/J1/N,
M1/ #!, $2 /"($(!+ K)#,
>#*1* ")"#N ) :&-/N,
, <*"1!!J (/<*"#$J JeJ 3=. >!J(/(26.
7xymoron is a powerful means of humour and satire$
...:!2* 2*.2* 1NL!#% &L!*#!"$ #!'!J! /.*J! 3o.=!-($6.
There were some booAcases of superbly unreadable booAs 3h. ?augh6.
Authors sometimes use oxymoron in titles in order to catch readers! attention
and to emphasi3e the complexity of the described notion$ W/#) :&-)
3W.v81%6, d2*:/(/ <*"#$ 3,.w*(26, l/2*"() 2*#*"#O!
3x.>J1!.6, y"#2/ J!1"/:$ 3x.W&-2/#!26, >*: (/#*(&.!' "2&1%0#&
34.5"#/(26.
*ntithesis an! /ara!o.
Antithesis is another figure of contrast that stands close to oxymoron. The
ma'or difference between them is structural$ oxymoron is reali3ed through a single
word combination or a sentence, while antithesis is a confrontation of at least two
separate phrases or sentences semantically opposite$
oxymoron D wise foolishness
antithesis 0 the age of wisdom, the age of foolishness.
The essence of antithesis lies in the intentional emphasi3ing of two
contradictory but logically and emotionally closely connected notions, phenomena,
ob'ects, situations, events, ideas, images. Antithesis ma#es the reader!s or hearer!s
impression stronger and the utterance more convincing and may be used alongside
with the comparison.
9.g. I had walAed into that reading[room a happy, healthy man. I crawled out
a decrepit wrecA 3b.u. berome6.
>*J)+ (/ :8 ;L!#!"$ ; 0&#), #* #&:( ; (/e ;L!#!"% & 8&#)
3=.>#&"6.
U*2!+ L1!;%2!+ #!, 2*N J)+, ) L/;(*:)+( #*2 :*1/2!+ 3=.>#&"6.
.yntactic structures that express the meaning of antithesis are quite various$
< a single extended sentence&
< a composite sentence&
< a paragraph or even chain of paragraphs.
The main lexical means of antithesis formation are antonyms which represent
complex and contradictory nature of the world *heaven % hell, s#y % earth, light %
dar#, up % down, good % evil, 'oy % sorrow, etc+.
Antithesis is one of the oldest stylistic devices. Antithetic worldview
penetrated the structure of myths, fol#lore and ancient literature of different
nations. The stylistic device of antithesis nowadays is men<of<letters! favourite
tools to express complex logical and emotional notions, moral concepts and even
common truth$
Bome people have much to live on, and little to live for 3t. ?ild6.
It is safer to be married to the man you can be happy with that to the man you
cannot be happy without 3z. hsar6.
{ )-) D 2)#!.
=)-) D :&L!.
{ )8*-2! )-),
{ [ *(!.
{ 0/1!#/1) + *L!.
, )-) 9 2*#H*(! 34.5"#/(26.

The principle of antithetic organi3ation of a literary text is aimed at a
description of changeable surrounding, minute and eternity, reason and sensibility,
motion and stagnation, harmony and chaos, at brea#ing the constrains of everyday
thin#ing and at exploration of new space of human cognition.
2aradox is one more type of utterance based on semantic and syntactic
opposition. 2aradox is a statement that appears to be self<contradictory but
contains something of a truth$
9.g.$ The child is father to the man.
_owards die many times before their death.
2aradox and antithesis are the oldest of the stylistic devices #nown from the
time of ancient rhetorics. Their main communicative function was *and remains+ to
stri#e the readers or hearers, to influence their believes, to convince them by the
power of the arguments the utterance contains and to force them to see the world
differently. The following lines of .ha#espearian immortal play are the bright
example of paradox in )enaissance poetry$
The earth thatCs natureCs mother is her tomb,
?hat is her burring grave that is her wombq 3?. BhaAespeare. Eomeo and
buliet6.
GG<th century poetry and emotive prose *the epoch of postmodernism+
feature paradox and antithesis as the leading instruments of creating imagery and
conceptual space of the text. 2aradox in modern literature is the most powerful
way to describe the many<dimensional and many<sided world by the least number
of language resources$
9.g.$ kife is a stage, dev[ill, d[evil, [dia[3e6vil
^laying tricAs with you
keading up the stairs
going
down 3X. kevertov6.

/"% ")# J)<*9#%"$
& 2!-/(%2J& 1N"#/2&
& $2/ 2H(J& :;1/( ;*;!(&#!
:(*2 1!-/ !L*(!J
:*9#%"$ 0L*.!#! (%J& "/L/ 3=. >1*0.&26.
/. Te pro)+em o( .o"te-t $" st#+$st$.s. T#pes o( .o"te-t. 0o"te-t'a+
mea"$"&
(he notion o' conte.t
The basis of the theory of context constitutes the thesis that text is not a
simple linear arrangement of words. Text is a highly organi3ed structure the
elements of which have value not only as separate entities but also in their
interrelations with other elements both inside and outside the text. ,n general sense
conte.t can be defined as an environment of a linguistic unit that facilitates the
reali3ation of certain properties of this unit. Two types of context are generally
differentiated$ linguistic and extra linguistic, the latter being understood as a
situation of communication. .ituational context can be
=. .ingle$ some utterances are meaningful only in one single context and
meaningless in all the other, e.g.$
^ooh`s found the ]orth ^ole, said _hristopher Eobin. Isn`t that lovelyi They
stucA the pole in the ground and _hristopher Eobin tied a massage on to itZ a]orth
^ole discovered by ^ooha3g. Riln6.
>. Typical$ some utterances that may even violate the norms of the literary
language can be meaningful only under certain conditions.
?. .ocial and historic.
/inguistic context is a set of conditions in which the meaning of language unit
is unambiguously reali3ed$ e.g. the hand of the clocA, a piece for four hands, a
farm hand. The main function of the linguistic context is to eliminate the polysemy
of the word. .ometimes the linguistic context causes the phenomenon of
desemantisation *taAe offence, taAe charge, taAe medicine, taAe notice6.
5owever in certain contexts the reverse process can be observed % so called
hypersemantisation, the enrichment of the language unit meaning, so that the word
acquires alongside with its direct meaning a transferred one. The context that
extends the meaning of the language unit is called st&#istic conte.t.
-e distinguish between stylistic micro context % a sentence or utterance.
.tylistic macro context % super phrasal unity$
tnce upon a time ago, about last Friday, ?innie the ^ooh lived in a forest
all by himself under the name of Banders. ?hat does aunder the name meanqa
asAed _hristopher Eobin. aIt means he has the name over the door in gold letters
and lived under ita.
.tylistic mega context that coincides with the whole literary wor#. The usage
of one and the same word or phrase in the text in various speech situations changes
and enriches its meaning. Thus the word gains the status of image or symbol of a
certain idea. "or example the :#rainian word ;/J1$ is polysemantic and is used in
all functional styles. 4ut within the domain of stylistic contexts of a great number
of wor#s of :#rainian writers and poets it is transformed into a system of complex
images$ ;/J1$ D n*#%2)<!(*, d2*e(*, ):(!+ 2*+, :J)2*, 01/, (!*, 1*(,
8&(# ) "*J/ H!##$.
h.g. o( ) W*#)+ ")+ .(!+ 1*( ;*, [ -!#*, :H)(%V 4*(V
m#!(*:K$#% :/"$#!(. WC$;!, (/!, 2. p). c8 ().8 (/ L1!#%. |/
1!- 0':!#% '/L#J K)(* ;/J1) D "9e, 1&:$(e "(K/J, 1!#e 0#J )
L1N.e, $2 ) #+ '/L/#...3d. >*J.&2. =1!(%6.
The notion of stylistic context is closely connected with the effect of
unexpectedness and anticlimax. An unpredicted language unit appearing within
the stylistic context against reader!s expectations brea#s the even flow of the
text, attracts reader!s attention and becomes foregrounded.
9.g. ]o sun D no moonV
]o morn D no noon D
]o dawn D no dusA D no proper time of day D
]o sAy D no earthly view D
]o distance looAing blue D
]o road[ no street[ no PtCother side the wayQ
]o end to any Eow
]o indications where the _rescents go D
]o top to any steeple
]o recognition of familiar peopleV
]o warmth[ no cheerfulness, no healthful ease,
]o comfortable feel in any member\
]o shade, no shine, no butterflies, no bees,
]o fruits, no flowers, no leaves, no birds.
]ovemberV 3T. Sood6.
>#**, "#*/(%2*.
n"), 0#)"2*() (8!,
= :()+ &K) 2"#&,
d :&8)+ &K) 2-!2.
l!'!1!1*"% 1!K/J : K/2(8 J&&
, (*./ ;*J/1*.
U/J(*. p) "!(%8 (/L*,
p) ")H8 1!"#$ (/ L*.!#%.
oL($-! ee 0'1:(!J ;*#)(($J,
r/0./ (*: (/N ;0*-!"#* 1!0*.
>0/2*. l):/(% 8J(!#%, </L/./, "0)*9...
= "*:& (*: /'*J! ://
l(!;1! 0$.&#% (!.
>1:2 0*'(&#% *2*K)e L)1).
l)-1*...
} ;(*N H!#1 ee L):(/Z
G8/, &;/(%2/ 0:)C$,
7&+(*(!+ :)J 81!L!()
, 2*+ (%8 J*1* 1)0($(2*.
l2)1$ 08(!1*, 08(&1!"$ "#)(!,
~&#2 0*1!#%"$ ;")J...
}2 0*'(&#% *2*K)e L)1)V 3=. >):;!("%2!+6.
. 1t#+$st$.a++# .o+o're2 3or2s a"2 .o"te-t
All lexical units that belong to the special literary and special colloquial
layers of vocabulary are considered stylistically coloured because they have
definite functional stylistic connotations and in most cases *li#e for example
slang or poetic words+ are charged with bright emotionality and expressiveness.
All units of stylistically coloured vocabulary, as it have already been shown,
perform a definite stylistic function within a certain functional style or can
acquire additional stylistic functions in other functional styles. After the general
discussion of the nature and function of the words that belong to different
stylistic strata the question of their correlation with the context is undoubtedly
worth considering.
/iterary text is a complex unity of interrelated elements, where each element
is correlated with other elements of the text and of its micro and macro context.
This correlation always results, on the one hand, in additional stylistic meanings
that this element may acquire, on the other % in the so<called irradiation of the
stylistic function of this element on the surrounding elements of the text.
"or example, in .t. 4. 4arstow!s novel Buch is the love the main character
uses slangy words bint, bird, chicA, baby, tart while spea#ing about his girl<friends
and the neutral word girl relating to his sister. Consequently being contrasted with
the colloquial elements of the context the latter neutral word becomes forgrounded,
is charged with emotive and expressive connotations and mirrors the spea#er!s
positive attitude. ,n Mac ,nnes novel gbsolute beginners the archaic word
brethren which denotes the representatives of the old generation and is used
against the bac#ground of the abundance of slangy words and 'argonisms loses its
poetic nature, sounds ironic *even with a 'eer+ and disrespectfully.
9ven a single poetic word included into the neutral context may change the
modality of the whole paragraph. 7r on the contrary % a colloquial element against
the bac#ground of poetic text ma#es it sound hush and unceremonious.
9.g. ICve no great cause to love that plot of earth,
?hich holds what might have been the noblest nationZ
Tut though I owe it little but my birth,
I feel a mixed regret and veneration
For its decaying fame and former worth
Beven years 3the usual term of transportation6
tf absence lay oneCs old resentments level,
?hen a manCs countryCs going to the devil 3S. S. Tyron6.
The cited lines describe the author!s contemporary reality and represent his
attitude towards his country and people. A vulgar expression go to the devil
intensifies his 'udgment and ma#es the stan3a low<colloquial and bitter<ironic.
The role of dissemination of the elements that belong to one stylistic layer
into the elements of the other stylistic layer is very important for stylistic
analysis. "or example, in ). 0ipling poem RcgndrewCs @ymn there are three
interwoven lexical groups$ a group of terms, a group of religious expressions
with the corresponding archaic grammatical forms and a group of vernacular
words and phonetic patterns. As the result of this device a complex metaphor is
created$ an ignorant and uneducated ship mechanic recites a peculiar hymn to
the ship engine that is the essence of his life and wor#$
kord, Thou hast made this world below the shadow of a dream,
gnC, taught by time, I taACit so[exceptinC always Bteam.
From coupler[flange to spindle[guide, I see Thy @and, t god D
^redestination in the stride oCyon connectinC[rod 3E. uipling6.
A :#rainian poet ,.Drach imbues his verse with the colloquial vocabulary
*that in this case reflect the author!s sympathy to the people described+ in order
to create the atmosphere of deep intimacy and confidence. The stri#ing contrast
between the colloquial vocabulary and bright original metaphors supports the
idea of contrast between the platitude of life and beauty of nature.
G) "/"#!, #(/(%2) ) "&'/(%2),
41$#% ")(% 0/1/(! (*: "#*J.
7 8"0:*"#* 1!(/ #!'!+ .!"#!+ :;/(%2)#,
d :) 001N"2&9 (/L*J.
=)"0* 0$L!1* 1!K$ H#),
GL#! & "/K) (/ ;Ce1*.
l1&JC$(/ 1!"#$ "!01/ H#/(%,
U&H*)9 (!* ;*:&L)1*.
v&"! L)1), !1!;*(), #1&"#),
v/18#$#%, L "2 L&:&#% L!#),
, 2*1!(* & ./()+ '&"#K)
5CN "':!#% 0 "#/01)1)J 1)#).
G) "/"#! "#*/(%2) (* 0#*-*()
4&"2*N#% (*")(($ 8*L&;/,
, :!H*#% e' &2! (/;&8*(),
m(),;*2KNL1/(), :&L).
5&!, 8&"! D "/ H!##$ & 0)Ce.
{ 8: J*1/(%2!+ 21 '*#!.
m(L!K) "0)N#% (* 0:)Ce.
{ 2;*, <L J12 :**#!.
M )#! :*:K$#8 "#1)##$
W9 "/K/ #&:(/ 0):)+J*N#%.
, "!:$#% "#*/(%2) 2*+ ;*J)#)
d 8() ")((%8 ;J*N 3,, G*.6.
The shift of functional<stylistic characteristics within the structure of
literary texts always conveys significant information$ contributes to the
development of imagery structure of the text, increases the preciseness of
description, creates metaphors and characteri3es literary personalities. ,n most
cases the stylistic effect can be based on the discrepancy between the choice of
lexical units and the situation or the theme of the text which very often leads to
the irony, humour or sarcasm *e.g. when boo#ish, archaic and official
vocabulary is used to describe trivial events+$
The village Raecenas, in petticoats, patronifing art to the extend of two cups
of tea and a slice of plum[caAe 3g.@. @uxley6.
5#* M(:)$(/(2 )::*#! (/ JH/, L 2)# &L)9((!+ 3o. =!-($6.
4. 5ea"$"& (rom a st#+$st$. po$"t o( 6$e3. 1t#+$st$. 2e6$.es )ase2 o" te
po+#sema"t$. e((e.t
7or2 a"2 $ts mea"$"& (rom st#+$st$. po$"t o( 6$e3
-ord can be defined as a unit of language which functions within the
sentence and which by its sound and graphical form expresses a concrete, abstract
or grammatical notion through one of its meanings and which is capable of
enriching its semantic structure by acquiring new meanings and losing old ones.
Any information embodied in a word is subdivided into the main or
denotative and additional or connotative. ,n other words within the semantic
structure of word two aspects of meaning can be distinguished$ denotative
*ob'ective+ and connotative that expresses sub'ective attitudes, emotions,
evaluations. Most words of any language have only denotative meaning and are
stylistically neutral$ men, women, house, dog, wooden, heavy, red, )#/, "#/1$,
':!#!, L!#!, "%8:(), :*1/2, etc. 4ut there are a lot of words which are
able to render additional information alongside their direct denotative meaning or
to acquire additional connotations within certain contexts. Most of these words are
synonyms to the existing in the language neutral ones$
girl D maiden, less, chicA, baby, young lady, ;&J)#! D &"):J1N*#!,
2&J/2*#!\ 0)#! D !&-!#!, &-!#!"$
lion, dog, pig, dove\ "!($, /:J):%, 1!"!K$, 81&L2*
i gnd I heard hdward call me a poor little rat to the gmerican lady. @e
always called me a little rat in private and I did not mind. Tut if he called me to
her, I thinA he doesnCt love me any more 3F. Ford6.
There are four types of connotative meaning$
=. ,)a#uati)e that embodies positive or negative attitude of
the spea#er towards the phenomenon named. ,n most cases the
evaluative connotative meaning is the matter of tradition$ out[of[date
method D time[tested method, firm D obstinate D pig[headed,
;):(!2 D -0!8&(, 0"#*(($ D ;*21#, ;L! D ;L)8!"%2.
>. ,%oti)e that, besides spea#er!s evaluative attitude,
embodies his emotions towards the phenomenon named$ puppet, chit,
villain, scoundrel, (/8):(!2, H/#!, 2#*#!.
?. 1igurati)e 2i%age earing3 which belongs to the sphere
of sense perception and which reflects the traditional imaginary
connection between the word and the ob'ect it names through other
ob'ects and qualities$ log, "#)(*.
@. 1unctiona# which refers the word to a certain sphere of
its usage, e.g. the language of science, every<day speech, language of
official documents, etc. "or example the words$ foe, realm, &"#*,
:!#$ are poetic& hypothesis, aesthetic, perforation, *#'#((!+,
*:/0#, *:/2*#(!+ etc are boo#ish or scientific& disco, doc,
crammer, 1!J(2*, #.2*, !J*!#! are colloquial.
-ords that possess one, several or all of the above mentioned connotative
components in their semantic structure are stylistically mar#ed. There is no clearly
cut boundary between different types of connotation. A lot of words with
functional stylistic component have evaluative and emotive connotations. /et us
consider the following 9nglish words as an example$
_ad, coward, sneaA, snob, prig, tale[bearer, boor, lout, stooge, busy[body,
svip, double[crosser, whipper[snapper, trash, tripe, "!($, 8*:N2*, "L*2*,
8*(.)2*, L&:, '&:L* etc.
5aving different denotative meanings and belonging to the colloquial sphere
of communication they all possess the same emotional connotative component and
express negative evaluation. The expressiveness inherent in them ma#es it possible
to use these lexical units figuratively.
The variability of word meanings caused by the multifarious practical
application of its basic meaning in speech has engendered the phenomenon of
polysemy. Different concepts may be expressed by one and the same word. The
ability of a word to comprise different lexical meanings has become a crucial issue
for stylistic study. The stylistic approach to the phenomenon in question ta#es into
consideration the fact that every word however rich its semantic structure may be
leaves the door open for the new semantic shades and nuances and even for the
birth of independent meanings.
The greatest potential of polysemy is revealed in the belle<letters and
publicistic styles. 5ere a polysemantic word can perform the stylistic function not
only because of its correlation with other words in a certain context but due to the
author!s will. ery often the writers intentionally ma#e the word actuali3e more
than one of its meanings in context in order to create a complex of associations
between the concepts described$
W/(/ "0!($9 L)1* 0)(* 8/.2, ;*0*-(*, 1/82*, (*./ ;L!#* 2!1*J!
L:H)1 3W. 5KNL!("%2!+6.
="/ !</ + !</ $ ;:)+J*N"% (* 2!1*' J)+ 34/"$ d2*e(2*6.
The stylistic context favours the emergence of new semantic shades or even
new independent meanings in the words which are not necessarily polysemantic in
language. 5ence the problem of direct and figurative meaning arises. The meaning
is figurative when it not only nominates an ob'ect or a concept but also describes
and characteri3es it through its similarity with other ob'ect or concept$
Bhe was a dynamo of activity. Bhe was here, there and everywhere D
admonishing the doctor, slanging the nurses, telling you to do something and then
snatching it away to do it herself 3R. XicAens6.
Sive everyone thy ear and few thy voice 3?. BhaAespeare6.
2olysemy that occurs in stylistic context does not hinder the
understanding of the idea encoded in the word. The direct and figurative meanings
coexist and contribute to the development of the imagery system of the text. The
ambiguity of the interpretation of the following poetic images is caused by the
polysemy of the word sentence, the simultaneous reali3ation of its meanings % as a
linguistic term and as a legal term$
g lexicon contains words as a prison contains men. ?hat sentence
would free themq 3tCTrien6.
kife is a run[on sentence 3Finnegan6.
,n the following sonnet of .ha#espeare the idea of harmony in marriage
compared to the harmony in music is expressed through the simultaneous
reali3ations of two *matrimonial and musical+ meanings of words. "or example the
word concord can be construed as "0);&.()"#% and ;8:*, the word union as
&()"( and -1NL(!+ "N; the word married as ;C$;*(!+ and :&H/(!+ the
word single as (/:&H/(!+ and 2/J!+, the word husband as L&#! .1)2J
and 0):L!*#!$
Rusic to hear, why hearCst thou music sadlyq
Bweets with sweets war not, Yoy delights in Yoy.
?hy lovest thou that which thou receivest not gladly,
tr else receivest with pleasure thine annoyq
If the true concord of the well tuned sounds,
Ty unions married, do offend thine ear,
They do but sweetly chide thee, who confounds
In singleness the parts that thou should bear.
RarA how one string, sweet husband to another,
BtriAes each in each by mutual ordering,
Eesembling sire and child and happy mother
?ho all in one, one pleasing note do singZ
?hose speechless song, being many, seeming one,
Bing this to theeZ thou single wilt prove noneQ 3?. BhaAespeare. Bonnet
III6.
.tylistic phenomenon opposed to the polysemy is called autology or so
called minus<device that consists in the intentional simplification of the description
by means of using the words only in their direct meanings. This manner of writing
is always aimed at ma#ing the text vivid, precise, direct, even cool and reserved$
In the fall the war was always here, but we did not go to it any more. It
was cold in the fall in Rilan and the darA came very early. Then the electric light
came on, and it was pleasant along the streets looAing in the windowsi it was the
cold fall and the wind came down from the mountains 3h. @emingway6.
8. 1#"ta.t$. st#+$st$. 2e6$.es )ase2 o" e-te"s$o" o( se"te".e mo2e+:
repet$t$o"! po+#s#"2eto"
4epetition
)epetition is recurrence of the same word, word combination, phrase for two
or more times in close succession. .#illfully used and 'ustified repetition never
creates the redundancy of information. 7n the contrary, the additional stylistic
meanings that arise as a result of repetition are indispensable elements of
emotional and artistic impact upon the reader or listener. )epetition is powerful
means of emphasis, besides it adds rhythm and balance to the utterance.
According to the place which the repeated word occupies in the sentence or
text, repetition is classified into several groups.
-r!inar& repetition5 ,n ordinary repetition the repeated element has no
definite place in the utterance.
I waAe up and ICm alone and I walA round ?arley and I am alone\ and I talA
with people and I am alone and I looA at his face when ICm home and itCs dead 3b.
Traine6.
The reiterated element of the utterance may be supported by introduction of
other elements which specify and extend its meaning$
I donCt thinA grt heard. ^ain, even slight pain, tends to isolate. ^ain such as
he had to suffer, cuts the last linAs with society 3B. _haplin6.
6uccessi)e repetition5 .uccessive repetition is a string of closely following
each other reiterated units. This is the most emphatic type of repetition, which
signifies the pea# of spea#er!s emotions, or imparts the greatest logical
significance to the repeated element.
Bhe was screaming high a shrill scream that rose in the air incisively liAe a
gullCs shrieA. P^ut it bacA, put it bacA, put it bacAVQ the scream seemed to say 3?.
Bansom6.
I wanted to AnocA over the table and hit him until my arm had no more
strength in it, then give him the boot, give him the boot, give him the boot D I drew
a deep breath 3b. Traine6.
r2:* + ;J!Z "$#e 1NL!
>!1N "/K/ (/ JH(* 1H!#%.
l2! -2) .()#!J&#% L!, [
G*+#/[L H!#% J/(), :*+#/[L H!#% 35. n)1!1"%2!+6.
*naphora5 Anaphora is the repetition of elements at the beginning of each
consecutive syntactic structure$
gnd everywhere were people. ^eople going into gates and coming out of
gates. ^eople staggering and falling. ^eople fighting and cursing 3^. gbrahams6.
G//* J/(/ ./2*N#%.
, 0*:*9 1!"#$ (* "#/H2&,
, 0*:*N#% ;) :1(),
, 0*:*9 "( & #*& 3,. G*.6.
The main stylistic function of anaphora is to create a bac#ground for
nonrepeated units of the utterance or the text, to give it logical andHor emotional
emphasis and to underline its novelty.
,piphora5 9piphora is the repetition of the final elements of each successive
utterance.
Bhe stopped and seemed to catch the distant sound of AnocAing. gbandoning
the traveler, she hurried towards the parlour. In the passage she assuredly did
hear AnocAing, angry and impatient AnocAing, the AnocAing of someone who thinAs
he has AnocAed too long 3g. Tennett6.
The main stylistic function of epiphora is to foreground the final elements of
the utterances.
1ra%ing5 ,n framing the initial element of the utterance is repeated at the end
of the utterance. Thus the syntactic structure resembles a #ind of a frame$
between the repeated words or word combinations there comes a middle part that
explains and clarifies the idea. "raming has several stylistic functions. ,t is capable
of rendering a wide score of human emotions and modal meanings$ doubt, delight,
impatience, worry, irritation, and others, as, for example in such widely used
expressions } #*2 ) ;(*, < #! ;*0);(!-"$, $ #*2 ) ;(*V and the li#e.
,n most cases framing is aimed at foregrounding *logically or emotionally+ of
the repeated element, so by the time it is used the second time its semantics is
concreti3ed and specified$
]othing ever happened in that little town, left behind by the advance of
civilifation, nothing 3B. Raugham6.
@e ran away from the battle. @e was an ordinary human being that didnCt
want to Aill or to be Ailled. Bo he ran away from the battle 3Bt. @eym6.
7atch repetition 2ana!ip#osis3 0 289:;$<35 ,n catch repetition the end of one
clause or sentence is repeated at the beginning of the following one.
7hain repetition 2=>?$@A 8$<35 Chain repetition presents several
anadiploses$
Failure meant poverty, poverty meant squalor, squalor led, in final stages, to
the smells and stagnation to T. Inn glley 3X. du Raurier6.
The stylistic function of anadiplosis and chain repetition is to specify the
semantics of the repeated elements and to create the effect of logical reasoning.
Thus, as it has already been pointed out, repetition is an expressive means of
language used for different purposes.
"rom the functional point of view, repetition, first of all, is one of the devices
having its origin in the emotive language. )epetition in this respect is to be seen as
the exposition of excitement, the expression of a feeling being brought to its
highest tension. .econdly, when used as a stylistic device of logical language,
repetition acquires quite different functions. ,t does not aim at ma#ing a direct
emotional impact. 7n the contrary, the stylistic device of repetition aims at logical
emphasis, an emphasis necessary to fix the attention of the reader on the E#ey<word
of the utteranceE. And thirdly, repetition is rhythmical and intonation device having
a purely aesthetic aim.
"rom the semantic point of view, any repetition of a language unit will
inevitably cause some slight modification of meaning.
.ometimes a writer may use different compositional patterns of repetition in
one utterance.
/o#&s&n!eton
The arrangement of sentence members, the completeness of its structure
necessarily involves various types of connection between sentence components
and between sentences. 2olysyndeton is stylistically motivated deliberate
repetition of con'unctions or prepositions$
The raisins and almonds and figs and apples and oranges and chocolates
and sweets were now passed about the table 3b. boyce6.
2olysyndeton performs both formal and semantic function in the utterance.
"irst of all, it shapes the rhythmical contour of the utterance and has a definite
aesthetic impact on the reader or listener. Consequently it is the most frequent
way to secure melody and rhyme in poetry or to impart rhythm, emotional
tension and solemnity to emotive prose$
gnd then you came with those mournful lips.
gnd with you came the whole of the worldCs tears,
gnd all the trouble of her labouring ships,
gnd all the trouble of her myriad years 3b. zeats6.
@e no longer dreamed of storms, nor of women, nor of great occurrences, nor
of great fish, nor fights, nor contests of strength, nor of his wife 3h.
@emingway6.
.econdly, polysyndeton imparts syntactic independence and logical
significance to the sentence components 'oined by the common con'unction$ the
repetition of the con'unction unites these components and simultaneously
singles out each of them and actuali3es their meanings.
p/ J!(*+ ; 08:N
, (/ "J)+"% :!#$V
WH/ #)J "J)$()J
>/(" #8 H!##$.
WH/ #)J ;(/*H/()J
U8 <*"#$ 2*L,
WH/ #)J 08:H/()J
{ 1NL) "2*L.
WH/ "J)' #)+ (!()-()+,
>)L(!+ #* :;)(2!+,
>#*(/ #e+ 0*JC$#)
7* :2) 8)2!+ 3,. w*(26.
Thus polysyndeton is one of the efficient means of logical and
communicative allocation of the most important information.
9. 1#"ta.t$. st#+$st$. 2e6$.es: para++e+$sm! .$asm's! $"6ers$o". :etor$.
*'est$o"s.
1#"ta.t$. st#+$st$. 2e6$.es )ase2 o" te .a"&e o( 3or2 or2er
Bn)ersion
,nversion is a syntactic phenomenon of the deliberate changing of word order
in the initial sentence model. -ord order is a crucial syntactical problem in many
languages. ,n 9nglish it has peculiarities which have been caused by the concrete
and specific way the language has developed. The 9nglish language has developed
a fixed word order which in the great ma'ority of cases shows without fails what is
the .ub'ect of the sentence. This fixed word order is .ub'ectI erb *2redicate+ I
7b'ect *.I2I7+.
This predominance of fixed word order ma#es conspicuous any change in the
structure of the sentence and inevitably calls forth a modification in the stylistic
meanings.
There are two types of inversion$ grammatical and stylistic. (rammatical
inversion is aimed at the change of the communicative type of sentence and has no
stylistic value.
.tylistic inversion is aimed at logical or emotional intensification of a certain
sentence element. ,t attaches the additional emotional colouring to the surface
meaning of the utterance. ,t is always semantically and stylistically motivated$
Talent Rr. Ricawber has\ capital Rr. Ricawber has not 3_h. XicAens6.
Eude am I in my speech... 3 ?.BhaAespeare6.
tf his own class he saw nothing 3b. kondon6.
n/;LH(!+ K*N, #./ ;1*,
l*:! 8(!#/1N H/"#2!+ 3U. r/./(26.
1#"ta.t$. st#+$st$. 2e6$.es )ase2 o" spe.$a+ t#pes o( (orma+ a"2 sema"t$.
.orre+at$o" o( s#"ta.t$. .o"str'.t$o"s 3$t$" a te-t
The analysis of types of sentence coonection within the text constitutes a
special trend of syntactic stylistics. The arrangement of sentence members, the
completeness of the sentence structure and the ways sentences are combined
within the structure of a suprasyntactic unit impart additional emotional and
expressive meanings to the text as a whole and to each separate sentence.
Moreover, most of the syntactic stylistic devices are reali3ed not in a single
utterance but within the context of a group of successive utterances, a paragraph or
even an extract consisting of two or more paragraphs. /ogical and formal
correlation between sentences are achieved by means of different lexical and
syntactic media, such as repetition, the definite article, the demonstrative pronouns,
the personal pronouns, the use of adverbial words and phrases, synonymic
substitutions and a number of other means. These correlations can also be reali3ed
through certain structural patterns % the repetition of similar syntactic structures,
their parallel arrangement, as in the following example$
@er manner altered. @er expression changed. @er very appearance seemed
different D she seemed more alive 3X. _usacA6.
2roducing of two or more syntactic structures according to the same
syntactic pattern is #nown under the term para##e#is%. ,n parallelism either the
whole sentence or its part can be built according to the similar structural pattern$
Rarried men have wives and donCt seem to want them. Bingle fellows have no
wives and do itch to obtain them.
The wind blew faster. It dragged now at his coat, it blew its space about him, it
echoed silently a lonely spaciousness 3?. Bansom6.
.yntactic parallelism is widely spread in poetry and emotive prose. ,t
creates special rhythmical contour of the text, reinforces the semantic ties
between the utterances, increases the communicative, expressive and aesthetic
value of the successive utterances. .yntactic parallelism unites semantically
different utterances into a close semantic unity creating a many<sided
description of the event.
.yntactic parallelism is one of the most favoured means of logical and
emotional intensification of the idea embodied in an utterance. ,t ma#es speech
persuasive, solemn and elevated and is a common feature of the publicistic and
oratory style.
7hias%us
Chiasmus belongs to the group of stylistic devices based on the similarity of a
syntactical pattern in two successive sentences or coordinate parts of a sentence,
but it has a cross order of words and phrases. The structure of two successive
sentences or parts of a sentence may be described as reversed parallel construction,
the word order of one of the sentences being inverted as compared with that of the
other, as in$
Sentlemen, a court is no better than each man of you sitting before me on the
Yury. g court is only as sound as its Yury, and a Yury is onlyy as sound as the men
who maAe it up 3@. kee6.
d"0)' (/"/ *:)"#%. *:)"#% (/"/ &"0)'.
p/ 8!, < ;(*9-, * ;(*+, < 8!-.
/i#e parallel construction, chiasmus contributes to the rhythmical quality of
the utterance. ,t is sometimes used to brea# the monotony of parallel constructions.
4ut whatever the purpose of chiasmus, it will always bring in some new shade of
meaning or additional emphasis on some portion of the second part. ,t always aims
at the redistribution of the information of the utterance in such a way that the
second part of chiasmus leads to the reinterpretation of the first part meaning$
In Ralta the news reached us D or, rather, we reached the news D that the
Toers have invaded ]atal, and that hngland is at war 3T. Bhow6.
1#"ta.t$. st#+$st$. 2e6$.es )ase2 o" te tra"spos$t$o" o(
se"te".e mea"$"&
4hetoric Cuestion
)hetoric question is an emotional statement or negation expressed in the
form of a question. )hetoric question does not require any answer or demand any
information but is used to emphasi3e the idea, to render spea#er!s emotions or to
call the attention of the listener *reader+ to the focus of the utterance. ,n fact the
communicative function of a rhetoric question is not to as# for un#nown but to
involve the readers into the discussion or emotional experience, give them a clue
and ma#e them to arrive at the conclusion themselves.
@ow can what an hnglishmen believes be a heresyq It is a contradiction in
terms 3T. Bhow6.

Teing your slave, what should I do but tend
spon the hours and times of your desire 3?. BhaAespeare6.
)hetoric questions ma#e an indispensable part of emotive prose, poetry and
oratorical and publicistic style. They elevate the style of the utterance, serve as
powerful means of emotional inducement, or on the contrary are effective tools of
irony, sarcasm and derision$
~# JH/ !0!#! G()0,
~# 1*"#/( !01/"2*#! J/,
~# (*-/ ;1#["//L
l1&8*J! 2!:! 0///,
~# "/K$ .!"#8 :L
71LN .(N 0L/q 3W. !1%"%2!+6
Tut who bothers to sort out the conflicting economic, social and other
motives here and to mitigate accordinglyq tr to study the economics of the social
arrangement by which they are so sharply checAedq tr cares whether such young
fellows become embitteredq 3Th. Xreiser6.
Alongside with rhetoric questions there are other types of the sentence
meaning transposition. ,n colloquial style exclamations, orders, requests, etc. can
be shaped as emphatic questions. Thus such utterances as
grenCt you ashamed of yourselfV
UL) (/ "J(q
?asnCt it a marvelous tripV
I wonder whether you would mind opening the doorq
?hat on earth are you doingq
}2 $ #J!"$V
gnd thatCs supposed to be culturedq
are considered stylistically mar#ed because they render the same meaning
more expressively than the neutral utterances do. ,n some cases the syntactic
transposition can be reinforced by lexical or morphological transposition *often
with ironic, sarcastic or humorous connotations+ as in the following examples$
Pkower it gently, itCs worA of artQ D PICll worA[of[art youVQ 3g. ?esAer6.
There is a point of no return unremarAed at the time in most men lives 3Sr.
Sreene. The _omedians6.
The variety of syntactic transposition able to increase the expressiveness of
an utterance is practically unlimited. Most men of letters use syntactic
transposition as a potential tool to create the lively atmosphere of speech, to
express humour, irony, satire, to expose their own worldview or attitude towards
the characters and situation of speech, etc.
;. <rap$.a+ a"2 po"et$. st#+$st$. 2e6$.es.
<rap$.a+ e-press$6e mea"s a"2 st#+$st$. 2e6$.es
.pea#ing about the inseparable unity of form and meaning of literary wor# it
is worth mentioning that its aesthetic impact depends on phonetic and graphical
arrangement of text elements and text as a whole. To create additional information
in a literary discourse sound instrumentation is often used alongside the specific
graphical representation. 7ne of the most favoured graphical stylistic device in
contemporary advertising, mass media, and, above all, creative prose is graphon.
Draphon is intentional violation of graphical shape of a word or word
combination.
The main function of graphon is to supply information about the spea#er!s
origin, social and educational bac#ground, physical or emotional condition,
author!s sarcastic attitude to his character, etc.
36 butler zellowplush D 3impresses his listeners with the
learned words pronouncing them as PsellybratedQ instead of
celebrated\ QbenyviolentQ 3benevolent6\ illygitmitQ 3illegitimate 6
3ThacAeray6
36 v*"/#* :1$ ')8&! (/ 0:+:%#%q3o. =!-($6
36 The b[b[b[b[bastud D he seen me c[c[c[coming3E.^.
?arren6
36 r-----!2*(!+ """"""L2* M2&1)(!
5&;%J)()----(! 3o. =!-($6
36 o"#*0/, L);! "N:!, ""% );2*;&3o. =!-($6
(raphon, thus, individuali3ing the character!s speech, adds to his plausibility,
vividness, memorability. ,t is a very good device for conveying the atmosphere of
authentic live communication, of the informality of the speech act.
This flavour of informality and authenticity brought grahon popularity with
advertisers$
36 Booper _lass Rodel D ad of car
36 ?oA[in Fast Food Eestaurant
(raphical changes may reflect not only peculiarities of pronunciation but are
also used to convey the intensity of stress, emphasi3ing and foregrounding the #ey
words$
36Test Yeans for this beaneration
36p*-* *#* D (* WC}2)"#%
The graphical means of text imagery also include$
all changes of the type *italics, capitali3ation+,
spacing or graphemes *hyphenation, multiplication+ ,
graphical representation of a line, etc.

36 @elpV @elpV@hk^V
36 gdieu you, old man, grey. I pity you, and I de[spise you 3_h.
XicAens6.
(raphical imagery is one of the most resourceful means to intensify the idea
of a text both prose and poetic$
36^iglet, sitting in the running uangaCs pocAet, substituting the Aidnapped
Eoo, thinAsZ
this shall taAe
If is I never to
flying really it 3g. Rilne6
=o"et$. mea"s o( st#+$st$.s
-no%atopoeia
7nomatopoeia is a combination of speech sounds which aims at imitating
sounds produced in nature. Combination of speech sounds of this type will
inevitably be associated with whatever produces the natural sound.
Eirect -no%atopoeia is contained in words that imitate natural sounds$ ding[
dong, buff, bang, cucAoo, :;)(%, L$;%, ././2, '10, L)J[LJ .
h.g. ICm getting married in the morningV
Xing dongV The bells are gonna chime.
5&9 ;;&1$ Z nC9 J1#.2J & 2!-#*1/!+ :;)( D 2&[2&V 2&[2&V D ) ")9
#!-& 0 #**'\ +J& (*)#% 0.&1"$, < (*: 81N ;*"2/8#*1*
"2*Z ./[./[./V.. ;*K))(%2* 8L/K%Z K))(%V K))(%V..
3W.5KNL!("%2!+6
7nomatopoetic words can be used in a transferred meaning, as for instance,
ding[dong, which represents the sound of bells rung continuously, may mean 6
noisy, 6 strenuously contested. hxamples areZ
a ding[dong struggle, a ding[dong go at something, etc.
Bn!irect ono%atopoeia is a combination of sounds the aim of which is to
ma#e the sound of the utterance an echo of its sense. ,t is sometimes called Jecho<
writingJ. An example is$
`gnd the silAen, sad, uncertain rustling of each purple curtain` 3h. g. ^oe6,
where the repetition of the sound KsL actually produces the sound of the
rustling of the curtain.
,ndirect onomatopoeia demands some mention of what ma#es the sound, as
rustling 3of curtains6 in the line above. The same can be said of the sound KwL if it
aims at reproducing, let us say, the sound of wind. The word wind must be
mentioned, as in$
a?henever the moon and stars are set,
?henever the wind is high,
gll night long in the darA and wet
g man goes riding by.a 3E. B. Btevenson6.
The repetition of :#rainian p and c sounds reproduceM the roar of the sea
and the blowing of the wind$
W/, J/, 2)# 8$,
l"!"#! 0&"#/1% 3l. U!.!(*6.
,ndirect onomatopoeia is sometimes very effectively used by repeating words
which themselves are not onomatopoetic, as in 2oeEs poem JThe 4ellsJ where the
words tinAle and bells are distributed in the following manner$
aBilver bells... how they tinAle, tinAle, tinAlea and further
aTo the tintinnabulation that so musically wells
From the bells, bells, bells, bells,
Tells, bells, bells[
From the Yingling and the tinAling of the bells.a
Alongside obviously onomatopoetic words as tinAle, tintinnabulation and
Yingling the word bells is drawn into the general music of the poem and begins to
display onomatopoetic properties through the repetition.
5ere is another example$
P>0*#% 0):/J, "0*#% 0):/JVQ D 2!.* :/"% (* "#/0& 0//0/1 3v.
UN#N((!26.
G/(% ;J)(N*"$ ()..N, * 0e;: "/ 8&2#), 2!:*N.! #!H(!+ 8&:2
& "#/0!Z Q,[):&[&[&VQ 3,. |N0*6.
*##iteration
Alliteration is a phonetic stylistic device which aims at imparting a melodic
effect to the utterance. The essence of this device lies in the repetition of similar
sounds, in particular, consonant sounds, in close succession, usually at the
beginning of successive words$
The possessive instinct never stands still. Through florescence and feud,
frosts and fires it follows the laws of progression. 3b. Salsworthy6\
or$
Xeep into the darAness peering, long I stood there wondering, fearing,
Xoubting, dreaming dreams no mortals ever dared to dream before 3h. g.
^oe6.
...G 0!.*1& 8(:1* .*1!#%.
l() "(K/J 8&L!.
, ;8&L!, ) ;8&L1/("#) 3,. G*.6.
Alliteration, li#e most phonetic expressive means, does not bear any lexical or
other meaning unless we agree that a sound meaning exists as such. 4ut even so
we may not be able to specify clearly the character of this meaning, and the term
will merely suggest that a certain amount of information is contained in the
repetition of sounds, as is the case with the repetition of lexical units.
5owever, certain sounds, if repeated, may produce an effect that can be
specified.
"or example, the sound KmL is frequently used by Tennyson in the poem The
kotus haters to give a somnolent effect.
@ow sweet it were...
To lend our hearts and spirits wholly
To the music of mild[minded melancholy\
To muse and brood and live again in memory.
To intensify the idea of weeping and mourning the sound is repeated in
the following lines$
=!N#% "L*2! ) )<&N#% (/:1N, ) (/L/"() 0#!K) 1)#*N#% (*: "/1J )
)<&N#% (/:1N. , // '&:L* (.) ) )<&9 (/:1N 3o. GH/(26.
Therefore alliteration is generally regarded as a musical accompaniment of
the authorEs idea, supporting it with some vague emotional atmosphere which each
reader interprets for himself. Thus the repetition of the sound KdL in the lines
quoted from 2oeEs poem JThe )avenJ prompts the feeling of anxiety, fear, horror,
anguish or all these feelings simultaneously.
Alliteration is deeply rooted in the traditions of 9nglish and :#rainian
fol#lore. The laws of phonetic arrangement in Anglo<.axon poetry differed greatly
from those of present<day 9nglish poetry. ,n 7ld 9nglish poetry alliteration was
one of the basic principles of verse and considered, alongside rhythm, to be its
main characteristic. 9ach stressed meaningful word in a line had to begin with the
same sound or combination of sounds.
The traditions of fol#lore are exceptionally stable and alliteration as a
structural device of 7ld 9nglish poems and songs has shown remar#able
continuity. ,t is frequently used as a well<tested means not only in verse but in
emotive prose, in newspaper headlines, in the titles of boo#s, in proverbs and
sayings, advertising, etc., as, for example, in the following$
Tit for tat\ blind as a bat, betwixt and between\ it is necA or nothing\ to rob
^eter to pay ^aul\
or in the titles of boo#sZ Bense and Bensibilitya 3bane gustin6\ a^ride and
^reYudicea 3bane gustin6\ aThe Bchool for Bcandala 3Bheridan6\ ag TooA of ^hrase
and Fablea 3Trewer6.
:#rainian alliteration, according to D.Chy3hevs#y, has much in common with
the Celtic one. The most frequent sounds that create the effect of alliteration in
:#rainian are sonorant and plosive consonants. Alliteration moulds the emotive
and imagery pattern of most :#rainian songs and proverbs and is greatly favoured
by modern authors.
*ssonance
*ssonance is a stylistically motivated repetition of stressed vowels. The
repeated sounds stand close together to create a euphonious effect and rhyme5
The rain in Bpain falls mainly on the plain.
y/(/ ; 8) L&/1J , 2#!#% *1&(!, )2* 81&' 8&2./, 0//J/1NN.!
"/ 81!L!() (* 2*JC$(!' "e' H(*'. >//: L&:(!', 0)($!' L&&() 01!/
:// ;/1/(/, 8)11$"#/...n&&(!, 0):8)L*N#% 0): "/L/ L&&(!, :* "*J*
"/L/ (/ 0#01N9#%"$...3o. v(.*6.
6ust li#e alliteration, assonance ma#es text easy to memori3e. ,t is also
popular in advertising for the same reason. Assonance is seldom met as an
independent stylistic device. ,t is usually combined with alliteration, rhythm,
rhyme and other devices.
/. :#me
4h&%e is the repetition of identical or similar terminal sounds or
combinations of words.
)hyming words are generally placed at a regular distance from each other. ,n
verse they are usually placed at the end of the corresponding lines.
,dentity and particularly similarity of sound combinations may be relative.
"or instance, we distinguish between 'u## rh&%es and inco%p#ete rh&%es. The full
rhyme presupposes identity of the vowel sound and the following consonant
sounds in a stressed syllable, as in might, right\ needless, heedless. -hen there is
identity of the stressed syllable, including the initial consonant of the second
syllable *in polysyllabic words+, we have exact or identical rhymes.
,ncomplete rhymes present a greater variety. They can be divided into two
main groups$ )o"e# rh&%es an! consonant rh&%es. ,n vowel rhymes the vowels
of the syllables in corresponding words are identical, but the consonants may be
different, as in flesh% press. Consonant rhymes, on the contrary, show concordance
in consonants and disparity in vowels, as in worth%forth& treble%trouble& flung%
long.
Modifications in rhyming sometimes go so far as to ma#e one word rhyme
with a combination of words& or two or even three words rhyme with a
corresponding two or three words, as in upon her honour%won her\ bottom%
forgot`em%shot him. .uch rhymes are called co%poun! or roken5 The peculiarity
of rhymes of this type is that the combination of words is made to sound li#e one
word. This device inevitably gives a colloquial and sometimes a humorous touch
to the utterance.
Compound rhyme may be set against what is called e&eFrh&%e, where the
letters and not sounds are identical, as in loveDprove, floodD brood, haveDgrave. ,t
follows therefore that whereas compound rhyme is perceived in reading aloud,
eye<rhyme can only be perceived in the written verse.
Many eye<rhymes are the result of historical changes in the vowel sounds
in certain positions. The continuity of 9nglish verse manifests itself also in
retention of some pairs of what once rhymed words. 4ut on the analogy of these
pairs, new eye<rhymes have been coined and the model now functions alongside
ear<rhymes.
According to the way the rhymes are arranged within the stan3a, certain
models have crystalli3ed, for instance$
=. coup#ets<when the last words of two successive lines are rhymed. This is
commonly mar#ed aa.
>. trip#e rhymes<aaa
?.cross rhymes<abab
@. 'ra%ing or ring rh&%es<abba
There is still another variety of rhyme which is called interna# rh&%e. The
rhyming words are placed not at the ends of the lines but within the line, as in$
I bring fresh showers for the thirsting flowers 3Bhelley6.
tnce upon a midnight dreary while I pondered weaA and weary 3^oe6.
,nternal rhyme brea#s the line into two distinct parts, at the same time more
strongly consolidating the ideas expressed in these two parts.
The function of rhyme is not restricted only to euphonic organi3ation of the
verse. ,n some cases it can be semantically charged especially when the rhyme is
combined with alliteration, assonance and when the rhyming elements lin# the
end of the preceding and the beginning of the following line as in the poem below$
(he sun#ight on the gar!en
The sunlight on the gar!en
Gar!ens and grows co#!H
?e cannot cage the minute
?ithin its nets of go#!H
?hen all is to#!
?e cannot beg for par!on5
tur freedom as free #ances
*!)ances towards its en!;
The earth compels, upon it
6onnets and bids !escen!\
gnd soon my 'rien!H
?e shall have no time for !ances5
The sAy was good for '#&ing
Ee'&ing the church e##s
gnd every evil iron
Biren and what it te##s+
The earth co%pe#s,
?e are dying, hgypt !&ing5
gnd not expecting par!onH
Gar!ene! in heart ane",
Tut glad to have sat un!er
(hun!er and rain "ith &ou,
gnd grateful too
For sunlight on the gar!en 3k. Racniece6.
4. :#tm
)hythm is a flow, movement, procedure, etc., characteri3ed by basically
regular recurrence of elements or features, as beat, or accent, in alternation with
opposite or different elements or features. )hythm has a great significance not only
for the music and poetry but for prose as well. The rhythm of prose is based
predominantly on the repetition of images or themes, repetition and specific
arrangement of the large text elements, parallel constructions, and use of sentences
with homogeneous members, etc.
)hythm is not a mere addition to verse or emotive prose but has its meaning.
)hythm intensifies the emotions. ,t also specifies emotions. The rhythm can
imitate motion or behaviours, it shapes the motion of the thought, it contributes to
the general sense of the text.
)hythm and rhyme are immediately distinguished features of poetic
substyle. ,n verse they both have assumed their compositional patterns. The most
observable and widely recogni3ed compositional patterns of rhythm ma#ing up
classical verse are based on$
=. alteration of stressed and unstressed syllables&
>. an equal number of syllables in a line&
?. a natural pause at the end of each line, the line being
more or less complete semantic unit&
@. identity of stan3a pattern&
A. established patterns of rhyming.
/roso!&
The term proso2# refers to the study of versification. Most prosody begins
with an analysis of metre. 5etre >or meter? is derived from the (ree# word for
Jmeasure.J The metre is the pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in verse.
-hile there may be some variation or substitution, the number of syllables, and the
number of stressedHunstressed syllables remains relatively consistent from line to
line.
The most common metres include$
a"apaest$. < "rom the (ree# word meaning Jbeaten bac#,J the anapaestic
meter consists of two unstressed syllables followed by a stressed syllable. ,t
is used to create the illusion of running, galloping, swiftness or action. Ta#e
for example, 2oeEs gnnabel keeZ a For the moon never beams, without
bringing me dreamsa\
2a.t#+$. < "rom the (ree# word for Jfinger,J the dactylic meter consists of
an stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables. The dactyl
produces a falling rhythm, which is not natural to 9nglish. Therefore, it is
relatively rare, used mostly as a counterpoint to another metric form$
a_annon to right of them,_annon to left of them, _annon in front of
them...a * /ord TennysonEs The _harge of the kight Trigade+&
$am)$. < A two syllable metre, composed of an unstressed syllable followed
by a stressed syllable. The word JdefeatJ is a prime example of iambic
metre. The iambic metre is thought to be closest to the normal human
speech pattern it is also the commonest form of metre because it fits the
9nglish language so well. Thought to have been originated by Archilochus
in the Nth century 4C&
paeo"$. < A metric foot of one stressed and three unstressed syllables.
Common in Classic (ree# poetry, it is rare in 9nglish&
spo"2a$. >spo"2ee? < The spondee is a foot composed of two stressed
syllables. -ords li#e daylight and carpool are spondaic&
tro.a$. >tro.ee? <A trochee is a foot composed of one stressed syllable
followed by an unstressed syllable. The words party and bummer are
trochees&
p#rr$. < Another rare foot *some critics even deny this is a foot+, the
pyrrhic foot is composed of two unstressed syllables.
A metrical unit of a line is called a (oot. A foot consists of one stressed syllable
and one or more unstressed syllables. 9ach type of foot is denoted by a specific
term *line brea#s are indicated by JHJ+$
mo"ometer < indicates one foot per line. An example can be seen in )obert
5erric#Es spon @is Xeparture @ence$ Thus , H 2ass by H and die. H As one H
:n#nown H And gone& H,Em made H A shade, H And laid H ,Eth grave, H There
have HMy cave. H -here tell H , dwell H Farewell\
2$ameter indicates a line that contains two feet. The third and fourth lines
of limeric#s are diameter. "or instance$ a@er position to Titian / suggested
coition/a\
tr$meter @ trimetric wor#s have three feet per line$ +$ ath to be in
hngland / ]ow that gpril`s there./ * ). 4rowningEs @ome Thoughts From
gbroad+&
tetrameter < A line with four feet. "requently seen in 9nglish verse as
$am)$. or tro.a$.. This example is from MiltonEs Jk`gllegroJ$ a@aste
thee nymph, and bring with thee best and youthful bollitya\
pe"tameter < The five foot line is the basic line in most poetry, especially
9nglish verse, blan# verse, and the heroic couplet. ,ts development is
credited to Chaucer. As an 9xample consider the following$ aI saw the spi
ders marching through the air,/ Bwimming from tree to tree that mil
dewed day. . .a *)obert /oewsEs Rr. hdwards and the Bpider+&
e-ameter < the six foot line is very rigidly constructed, being built from
four 2a.t#+s or spo"2ees followed by a dactyl and then a spondee or a
tro.ee: $ PI will arise and go now, and go to Innisfree, gnd a small
cabin build there, of clay and wattels made ...a *Oeats The kaAe Isle
of of Innisfree+&
eptameter < the septenarius or seven foot line$ aI went into a pub
lic[`ouse to get a pint o` beer, The publican `e up an` sef, a?e serve
no red[coats here.a *). 0ipling Tommy +&
o.tameter < a rare eight footed line. The most common example is 2oeEs
The Eaven *see above+.
Meter is usually described as either the dominant foot *which foot is used most
often to the strongest effect in a wor#+, or the dominant number of feet per line.
(enerally, though, critics combine the dominant foot and number of feet to
describe meter. That is where common terms li#e $am)$. pe"tameter and
tro.a$. tetrameter gain their critical meaning.
Classical verse is called syllabo<tonic % it is characteri3ed by a set number of
syllables and certain distribution of stresses. The shortest unit of each metre is
called a foot. ,f we ma#e a careful study of almost any poem, we will find what are
called irregularities or modification of its natural metrical pattern, which are$ a
pyrrhic foot, rhythmical inversion, spondee. These modifications when they occur
inevitably influence the semantic structure of a poem. .pondee is always used to
add emphasis. Two successive syllables both under heavy stress produce a #ind of
clash& the 'uncture between syllables becomes wider ma#ing each of them
conspicuous. A pyrrhic on the contrary smoothes and quic#ens the pace of rhythm.
Another departure from the norms of classical verse is enIa%%ent or the
run<on line. 9n'ambment is a transfer of a part of a syntagma from one line to the
following one$
?hile boyish blood is mantling, who can scape
The fascination of the magic gafeq 3S. Tayron6
erse remains classical when it retains its metrical scheme. There are,
however, types of verse which are not classical.
1ree )erse % a combination of various metrical feet in a line. ,t is
characteri3ed by the absence of equiliniarity, stan3as are of varying length, rhyme
however is generally retained.
*ccente! )erse % a verse where only a number of stresses is ta#en into
consideration. The number of syllables is not constituent& the lines have neither
pattern of metrical feet, nor fixed length. There is no notion of stan3a and there is
no rhyme.