REAL TIME PRODUCTION MONITORING SYSTEM

SIVA KUMAR S/O SUBRAMANIAM

A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of
Master of Science in Electronics Engineering
Faculty of Electronic & Computer Engineering
UNIVERSITI TEKNIKAL MALAYSIA MELAKA
ABSTRACT
A production monitoring system is a system that is used in real time to record
production line problems. It is constructed using programmable logic controller and
sensors to collect data from production lines. The real time production monitoring
system is designed to collect data automatically and display the data on display boards
for the workers to see. Devices in the real time production monitoring system are
capable of working as individual units or working together with multiple terminal links
such as automated machineries, robotic systems and manual process line. The data will
also be relayed to the management for prompt action.
Data on production time, non-production time, targets, rejection rates, planned
stops, and cycle times will be displayed as well as relayed to the management.
Unadulterated data collected from the real time production monitoring system should be
relayed to the management without human intervention. Such data would then be
interpreted accordingly in order to identify the faults at production level and to spur
corrective measures from the management. With the help of this real time production
monitoring system the management will be able to monitor both the workers and
machine performance. Display of data can also prompt instant action from both
workers and line supervisors.
The data collected is in line with the requirements of overall equipment
effectiveness. Overall equipment effectiveness is the tool for improving efficiency.
Efficiency of production lines enables better yield and utilization of the available
resources. The real time production monitoring system together with overall equipment
effectiveness will help companies to generate higher revenue.
ABSTRAK
Sistem pengawasan pengeluaran merupakan sistem yang digunakan di dalam
masa nyata bagi merekodkan sebarang permasalahan yang berkaitan dengan talian
pengeluaran. Ia dibina menggunakan sistem kawalan logik boleh aturcara (PLC) dan
beberapa pengesan bagi mendapatkan data daripada talian pengeluaran. Sistem
pengawasan pengeluaran masa nyata adalah direka untuk memperolehi data secara
automatik dan memaparkan data pada paparan bagi membolehkan ianya dilihat oleh
para pekerja. Alat peranti di dalam sistem ini adalah berkebolehan untuk berkerja sama
ada secara persendirian mahupun bekerjasama dengan beberapa rangkaian pangkalan
seperti mesin berautomatik, sistem robot dan talian pengeluaran secara manual. Data-
data juga akan dialirkan kepada pihak pengurusan bagi tindakan lanjut.
Data-data yang terlibat di dalam masa pengeluaran, masa bukan pengeluaran,
sasaran pengeluaran, kadar tolak, pemberhentian berjadual, dan masa kitaran akan
dipaparkan dan dihantar kepada pihak pengurusan. Data-data asli yang dikumpulkan
melalui sistem pengeluaran masa nyata ini akan diagihkan kepada pihak pengurusan
tanpa campurtangan manusia. Data-data tersebut kemudiannya akan ditafsir bagi
mengenalpasti kelemahan di peringkat pengeluaran dan membolehkan pihak
pengurusan mendapatkan pengukuran yang sepatutnya. Adalah difikirkan sesuai
sekiranya data-data ini disambungkan terus ke dalam sistem komputer. Dengan adanya
bantuan dari sistem pengawasan pengeluaran masa nyata ini, pihak pengurusan mampu
mengawasi kedua-dua pihak, samada pekerja mahupun kemampuan mesin. Melalui
paparan data ini, tindakan segera dari peke rja dan penyelia talian rnampu diperolehi.
Data-data yang terkumpul seharusnya setara dengan syarat-syarat keberkesanan
keseluruhan peralatan. Keberkesanan keseluruhan peralatan merupakan alat atau
medium penarnbahbaikan kecekapan. Kecekapan satu-satu talian pengeluaran
membolehkan hasil yang baik diperolehi dan penggunaan sumber-sumber yang sedia
ada dipertingkatkan. Sistem pengawasan pengeluaran masa nyata digandingkan bersama
dengan keberkesanan keseluruhan peralatan mampu membantu sesebuah syarikat dalam
memacu keuntungan yang lebih tinggi.
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Production line inefficiencies are the main factors that contribute to less yield and hence
less profit to any industry. The aim of this study is to design a real time production
monitoring system for use on these production lines. Such a monitoring system will be
used to automatically gather production line data and distributelsend it to the industry
management or anyone on the shop floor for instant action (Kumar et. al., 2007b). The
availability of these data can help the industry in improving their production yield and
hence profit.
1.1 The production line
A production line is a set of sequential operations established on a factory shop
floor whereby materials are put through a refining process to produce an end product
that is suitable for onward consumption or components are assembled to make finished
goods. In general a production process involves a moving platform or conveyor to move
partially completed products to workers who perform simple repetitive tasks designed
to permit very high rates of production per worker.
Typically a production line system in industries can be classified into three
which are robot and automated machines, semi automated machines (human &
machines) and manual/work bench (human).
Production process using automated machineries or robots as shown in Figure
1.1 are capital intensive as it uses a high proportion of machinery in relation to workers.
Capital is increased with fewer workers and faster rate of production. Machineries for
automated production process such as robots have high installation costs. Thus, mass
production is ideally suited to serve large, relatively homogeneous populations of
consumers, whose demand would satis@ the long production runs required by this
method of manufacturing.
Figure 1.1 : Automated production lines
Semi-automated production lines as shown in Figure 1.2 consist of human and
machineries working together to accomplish certain task. Such production lines are
practiced for moderate production output. The production process involves repetitive
task for both the humans and machineries to establish products within definite
standards.
Figure 1.2: Semi automated production lines
Most of the work stations have their craftsman in the workbench. Skilled
workers are required to follow procedures in producing parts. Such production lines are
practiced for small scale production and manual assembly process. A manual
production line is shown in Figure 1.3.
Figure 1.3: Manuallwork bench production lines
1.2 Factors contributing to inefficiency of production lines
Analysis are carried out by the management on production line problems almost
daily and counter measures are brought to light to further strengthen the performance of
this production line. Analysis is made easy when data is translated into various
categories base on critical factors which affects the production lines. The factors
affecting production lines can be categorized into three as shown in Figure 1.4. Each of
these factors will results in various consequences towards the production lines.
Figure 1.4: Factors affecting production lines
1.2.1 Machine efficiency
Machine efficiency is one of the factors that are overlooked by the management
and this can lead towards losses which reduces the yield (Werner, 2004). Improper
maintenance of machines will result in low standards of production output and will
increase the maintenance of machineries (Liker & Jeffrey, 2004). Machines are meant
to work efficiently but in some circumstances, machines can be less productive due to
improper preventive maintenance. Preventive maintenance is a key factor which keeps
the machine running efficiently. The maintenance activity on machineries needs extra
attention by the management to ensure the optimum usage of machineries and to
eliminate unwanted wastages due to machine stoppages.
1.2.2 Man power utilization
Human performance varies from time to time depending on their capability and
duration of work. When the performance of a worker drops, the production output also
drops. Improper monitoring of workers will result in low standards of production output
and will increase the maintenance of machineries. A major factor contributing to this is
the attitude of the workers themselves. Most of the workers tend to perform in an
average manner and for most of the time they will be less productive and resulting
towards wastage of the production time. The only solution for this problem is to have
better supervision on them during working hours.
1.2.3 Other factors affecting production line efficiency
The amount of time taken to solve faults on production line plays an important
role in maximizing the production output. On the race to meet the targets there will be
unwanted breaks caused by machines that will delay the production. In addition, time is
also wasted in the calling process and due to the department's unavailability to correct
faults.
In general, manpower capitalize most of the process on industries from the
management to the layman (operators). An industrial environment is one in which there
are a large number of people from various departments working together to meet set
goals. When it comes to unmet goals, fingers also should be pointed to the supporting
department which will be discussed in Chapter 3. The support department plays a role
in maintaining the consistent pace of work on the industrial shop floor.
There are three basic departments in industries which are the Total Quality
Management (TQM), Production Planning and Control (PPC) and maintenance. The
TQM involves all the quality matters of the parts produced. The PPC involves in
planning the production process and supplies based on orders. The maintenance
department is responsible on all the technical matters on the industrial shop floor. Most
of the industries face problem due to unforeseen damages that the company will face if
a task is not done on scheduled basis.
1.3 Existing Production Monitoring System
Production monitoring is not new to the industry. Industries use it to improve
their daily production output and at the same time to monitor their production line
outcome.
The following methods are used in industries to provide information on the
status of each work station, machineries or a production line. The devices and methods
such as the Andon lights, etc will be discussed below. Each of the system has its own
benefits and limitations.
1.3.1 Andon Lights
Generally Andon lights are used to provide visual indication on the production
line status. Green light indicates that the production is running smoothly. Yellow light
indicates various warnings such as material is required for on-going process or
supervisor attention is needed, etc. and red light indicates that the production is down
(not in operation). These indicators can shorten the downtime by providing a faster
signal to supervision. Unfortunately, they do little to improve the productivity. The real
time production monitoring system incorporates this Andon lights as a downtime
indicator. The Andon light system is shown in Figure 1.5.
Figure 1.5: Industrial Andon lights
1.3.2 Goal and Variance Counters
A goal counter shows the set target for a length of time and a variance counter
shows the difference between the target and the actual output. An internal calculator
multiplies time by a preprograrnmed cycle time (time taken to complete a certain
process) to provide an instantaneous goal and variance. The disadvantage of a typical
goal and variance counters is that they have no provision for entering a schedule which
allows tracking on the actual work times and breaks. When the device is switched ON,
the goal counter increases based on elapsed time multiplied by programmed rate. At the
end of each shift, the system provides only working rate, rather than the performance
toward the necessary goals. These counters are not schedule based therefore workers
generally have to control the start and stop of the system. The proposed counter system
is schedule based and runs automatically at the start of each shift. The production
counters are shown in Figure 1.6.
Figure 1.6: Production counters
1.3.3 Accept and Reject Counters
These counters provide operators or workers on the work station a real time
visual indicator of the actual production outputs. They can be part of an automatic
machine, whereby a seven segment display is used to indicate the numbers of accepted
and rejected parts. Since these counters have no time base, it is difficult for the workers
to determine whether they are on schedule. The accepted counter indicates to the
workers how close they are to the set targets. The number of rejects indicates that
instant action should be taken otherwise set targets will not be achievable. Both these
data are very important to the management. The accepted and rejected counter is also
incorporated into the real time production monitoring system. Figure 1.7 shown below
is an example of some of the rejection and production status counters.
Figure 1.7: Rejection and production status counters
1.3.4 White Board or Tracking Sheets
A typically shop floor white board or tracking sheet is shown in Figure 1.8.
There are many variations of industrial shop floor tracking sheets or boards. Essentially
all these sheets require operators, line leaders and supervisors to mark down how many
parts were made in the past production hour. If a counter at the end of the production
line provides the information, operators must reset this at the beginning of each shift to
get the correct information. In most cases this system is operated without any counters
attached to the production line. Some operations count boxes or use segmented trays to
provide this number. This system takes up valuable time because one operator should
be in charge of doing the counting and writing on the sheets at the same time.
Figure 1.8: Production status indication board
1.3.5 Machine Controllers and Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)
Automated work station or high end machineries often have a real time
production output tracking built right into the control system shown in Figure 1.9. This
production output tracking s o h a r e is custom written for each machine and process so
that it can provide accurate real time information in a desired format. This comes at a
very high initial cost. Generally, the production output tracking systems which uses a
PLC or a computer based controlled machinery can track a limited number of
parameters on a fixed schedule. PLC's are great for collecting data, but not so good in
analyzing and presenting data. This must be done by a data acquisition system that
often does not have the necessary information (such as production schedule and cycle
time) to provide meaningful feedback.
Figure 1.9: PLC control software
9
1.4 Real Time Production Monitoring System
Real time production monitoring system should provide the right information to
the respective personnel at the right time. Presenting too much production information
to the production workers or operators is not essential to their task. With too much
unfocused information thrown at them, workers or operators are not able to digest what
is necessary to modify on their current production outcomes. Whereby presenting too
little information to the supervisors, supporting departments and the managers can be
like watching the production operations through a keyhole. Each level of people in the
industrial shop floor have their role in keeping up to the set goals.
The most important requirements of any data collection and reporting system is
that the system is economical, accurate and easy to set up on a production line.
Supervisors generally have an aversion to computer based systems because of ongoing
headaches with custom made software and other solutions. They are often more
comfortable with a production monitoring system (PMS) which is capable of providing
straightforward connectivity to switches, sensors, PLC outputs and other common
industrial equipments. If a PMS can be easily connected to each work stations and
machineries on a production line, then management needs for this critical data can be
easily satisfied. If the true production data can be automatically captured and presented
in a simple, understandable way to the operators, they will become a more integral part
of the improvement process. An effective system should comprise of the following
three elements:
Firstly a data collection device should be connected to automated, semi
automated or manual production line to count and collect data with minimal or no
human intervention. Secondly there should be a display of the collected data. The
display present relevant production information back to operators, line leaders,
supervisors, the supporting departments and the management. Seven segment display
panels have become popular with many industries because they can combine the
benefits of color with clear numerical values. Lastly the data collected should be
analyzed to provide sufficient production data for the management to conduct relevant
analysis at all level of the shop floor.
The real time production monitoring system consists of a real time display board
for monitoring production line problems as shown in Figure 1.10. The production
monitoring system is useful for displaying the production line targets, acts as a calling
unit and be able to inform the management on production line problems.
INPUT
..............................
i MACHINERIES
..............................
CONT
.......
I
OUTPUT
I
........................................
i DISPLAY PANEL
OF REAL TIME
PRODUCTION
I MONITORING SYSTEM
......................................... :
Figure 1.10: Block diagram of the real time production monitoring system
Data is collected from process line machineries via a control unit normally made
up of PLC and are displayed on this display panel. The displayed data can also be sent
via computers to the industry administration.
A systematic and accurate online data collecting system for production lines is
necessary. The data gathered should be accurate in order to identify the various faults
at production level. Accurate monitoring of production lines enables better utilization of
the available resources and hence efficiency. Data Collected may not be true due to the
improper monitoring, inaccuracy of the monitoring device and human intervention.
Human intervention on the production data normally occurs when data is maneuvered
to comply with the targets set by the management. Capturing and interpreting of this
production data without human intervention is a major challenge for the management.
Hence an automatic data collecting system via PLC is necessary.
The data collected will be instantaneously displayed, using state-of- the -art
electronics, so that attempts can be made immediately to rectify production line
problems. The display can also be used to prompt workers to meet set targets. Contents
of display are as suggested by Overall Equipment Effectiveness (OEE) requirements to
be discussed in chapter 2.
1.5 Objective of study
The aim of this study is to design a real time system for monitoring production
lines. The system consists of a display unit capable of providing real time information
of production lines. The display unit also displays targets to be met by operators on the
production lines and acts as a calling device i.e. this will address the production line
problems to their respective departments. Coupled to a systematic data collection
system for production lines, the production monitoring system will inform the
management and the production teams on the faults as events happen.
A real time production monitoring system can save manufacturers thousands of
Ringgit (RM) by increasing their production yield and optimizing the available
resources. The ability to monitor dozens of process line parameters, such as set goals,
actual production output, cycle time, planned stop, rejection rate, non production time
etc can alert plant staff to changing conditions and can significantly decrease downtime.
Continuous monitoring gives the workers and the supervisors a direct line of sight into
process line activity and enables them to keep up to the set goals. A good production
monitoring system enables the respective personnel to solve production problems
quickly as event happens.
1.6 Scope of research
The research was concentrated on the following areas.
1. Design and development of electronic circuitries to display production line
information as required by the industries based on OEE requirements.
2. Design circuits that are compatible with the control system of the production
line.
3. Develop a real time production monitoring system that is capable of capturing,
displaying production line information and alert workers on production line
faults at all times.
This study is conducted to further enhance the existing production monitoring
system of production lines in a manufacturing company especially when there are
human interventions on the production process. This study highlights the interruption of
production due to the departments involved in the production process. Example of
these interruptions are machine break downs, problems due to quality, materials not in
stock and other major down turns due to poor manpower management and machinery
investments (Werner, 2004). Machinery investment is a vital consideration especially
on the percentage of the returns compared to the invested value.
The primary literature in this study is the OEE. This study results in developing a
production monitoring system that meets the requirements of OEE and comply with
OEE calculations. Whatever data recorded from the production monitoring system is
directly linked to OEE and the outputs are categorized into required measures and
standardize data for the management
CHAPTER 2
JIDOKA AND OVERALL EQUIPMENT EFFECTIVENESS
Numerous technologies are exploited in developing a reliable and eflicient real time
production monitoring system. The Andon systems in industries are far more advanced
by integrating electronic devices with audio and color coded visual display. The
"Andon" system is one of the elements that make up the principle of Jidoka. Along with
that is OEE as a production tool that helps the industries in visualizing unforeseen
losses.
2.1 The concept of Jidoka
Jidoka is an ancient japanese term for autonomation which is automation with a
human element. Jidoka refers to the principle of stopping work immediately when a
problem occurs. Jidoka involves the automatic detection of errors or defects during
production. When a defect is detected the halting of the production forces immediate
attention to the problem. The halting causes losing production but it is believed that this
helps to detect a problem earlier and avoids the spread of bad practices. Figure 2.1
describes the concept of Jidoka implemented on a production process (Werner, 2004).
A machine detects
The line is stopped
a problem and
Daily improvements
Managerlsupervisor Improvements
removes cause of the
incorporated into the
standard workflow
Figure 2.1: Production life cycle on the concept of Jidoka
2.2 The concept of Andon
The Andon system is one of the elements that make up the principle of Jidoka.
In the olden days Andon is a paper lantern which is a handy vertical collapsible paper
larnpshade with an open top and a candle placed at the central section of the closed
bottom. To the ancient Japanese, Andon functions as a flashlight signaling device
from a distance or as a commercial sign (Werner, 2004).
Andon is a technical installation that supports the execution of a four step
process of abnormality handling as follows:
1. Detect the abnormality.
2. Stop the process.
3. Fix or correct the immediate condition.
4. Investigate the root cause and install a counter measure.
Andon allows timely corrective actions by alerting personnel when abnormal
conditions occur. Apart from that, the Andon system also allows shop floor team
leaders to spend less time and effort monitoring the situation and more time solving
abnormalities. Andon system does not only limit to that but also allows Operation teams
to monitor equipment and personnel more effectively. When Andon system is
implemented in the shop floor then this system can act as a two way communication
device for example when indicator returns to green this tells everybody that the
machine or equipment is back to normal operation (Pherson, 2006). Figure 2.2
describes the Andon system (Werner, 2004).
*
Andon board
Switch (operator)
Figure 2.2: The interaction of Andon system
Understanding the working principals of Andon system is simple and very
straight forward. If this system is implemented in the shop floor of the industries then
the outcome is such:
1. Control the production.
2. Operators have the ability to stop call wait (calling device).
3. Defect with report ability and correction where by the operators can report faults
immediately and countermeasures can be implemented at source.
4. Workable design highlights problems with work density.
The development of science and technology has seen many new technologies
being implemented. These results in the evolution of the production monitoring system
Nowadays, the systems of Andon in many industries are advanced into electronic
devices with signboard incorporating signal lights, audio alarms, and text or other
displays installed at a workstation to notify management and other workers on faults
(Liker & Jeffrey, 2004).
2.3 Overall Equipment Effectiveness
OEE has been considered the ultimate efficiency tool for equipments and
machineries used in industries. In 1971 the Japan Institute of Plant Maintenance
introduced the Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) which includes the concept of
OEE as one of the important elements (Giegling et. al., 1997). Nakajima then
introduced the TPM to the United State of America in 1988 (Sheu, 2006). OEE has
since gained a lot of attention as the ultimate performance measure of a piece of
equipment (Gaboury et. al., 2001). Today OEE is one of the most important calculation
tools for the management in determining machine efficiency (Pherson, 2006).
Efficiency and effectiveness has different meanings. Because the originator of the OEE
named it as overall equipment effectiveness, the industry keeps the same wording
although using it to refer to efficiency instead of effectiveness (Sheu, 2006).
OEE can be used to save industries from making inappropriate machine
purchases, and help the management focus on improving the performance of the
existing machinery they already own. OEE is used to find the greatest areas of
improvement which guide where to start with and shows the area that will provide the
greatest return on asset. The OEE formula will show how improvements in
changeovers, quality of products being produced, machine reliability improvements,
working through breaks and more, will affect your bottom line (Giese, 2007).
Understanding the concept and also elements which contributes towards OEE
and how these elements will work together with the real time production monitoring
system to improve the production yield is the core of study. A production monitoring
system should meet the requirements of OEE and should comply with the OEE
calculation. Whatever data recorded from the real time production monitoring system is
directly linked to OEE and the outputs are categorized into required measures and
standardize data for the management.
OEE is a best practice metric for monitoring and improving the efficiency of the
manufacturing processes such as machines, cells, assembly lines etc (Drickharner,
2001). OEE is simple, practical yet powerful. It takes the most common sources of
manufacturing productivity losses and places them into three understandable categories
which are Availability, Performance and Quality (Ziemerink & Bodenstein, 1998). By
doing so, it distills complex production data into simple understandable metrics that
provide a gauge for measuring true manufacturing efficiency. It also forms the
foundation for tools that help to improve productivity. Figure 2.3 describes the basic
math's of OEE (Godfrey, 2002).
I Availability rate X Performance rate X Quality rate
. .
. .
. .
i Total hours planned - Lost time I i Actual machine speed i Number good products i
. . . .
Total hours planned i i Design machine speed i i Total products made i
. .
Figure 2.3: The basic math's of OEE
As the management strive towards the world class productivity in their facility,
the simple OEE formula will make an excellent benchmarking tool. The derived OEE
percentage is easy to understand and displaying this single number where all facility
and responsible personnel can view it, makes for a great motivational technique to all
levels. By giving the employees an easy way to see how they are doing in overall
equipment utilization, production speed, and quality, they will strive for a higher
production rate with the available resources (Koch, 1999).
Generally accepted world class goals or standards for each factor are different
for each machine on industry. These individual factors will also vary every shift base on
the machines current overall performance. Studies have indicated that the average OEE
rate in industries is 60%. As shown in Table 2.1, a world class OEE is considered to be
85% or better. This is a bench mark set by the Japan Institute of Plant Maintenance and
widely being practiced worldwide (Sheu, 2006). Clearly, there is room for
improvement in most manufacturing plants (Ramon, 2007).
Table 2.1: World class standards for each OEE factor (Ramon, 2007)
This research highly recommends using an automated production monitoring
system with display for all the production related information. To the employee in each
area, the PMS will become a common to glance at to visualize the actual production
performance at all time.
OEE Factor
Availability rate
Performance rate
Quality rate
OEE rate
2.4 Calculation of Overall Equipment Effectiveness
World Class
90.0%
95.0%
99.9%
85.0%
The basic parameters gathered from the manufacturing process which consists
of Availability, Performance, Quality and OEE are calculated for detail analysis (Bragg,
2003). Most industries practice manually data collection and the hazel in this method
are in organizing this data into the required form. With the real time production
monitoring system all the data required for OEE will be captured along the production
process and at the shift end, the responsible personnel need to key in the data into a
standard formula used to obtain the outcome of OEE (Kumar et. al., 2007). The basic
breakdown structure of production duration in industries is shown in Figure 2.4
(Ramon, 2007).
Figure 2.4: Breakdown structure of production duration
Plant Operating Time
OEE analysis starts with plant operating time which is the amount of time the
facility is open and available for equipment to operate (Godfrey, 2002). The plant
operating time can be split into two categories which is planned operating time and
planned shut down as shown in Figure 2.5 (Kumar et. al., 2007d). This includes all
events that should be excluded from efficiency analysis because there is no intention of
running production such as meal breaks, warm up time, scheduled maintenance or
periods where there is nothing to produce (Costa et. al., 1997). The remaining available
time is the planned operating time. Planned operating time is the proposed production
time by the management (Ramon, 2007).
Plant Operating Time
Planned Shut" down Planned Operating Time
Operating Time
Figure 2.5: Breakdown structure of production duration
' Down Time
Loss
Planned Operating Time
Speed
Loss
Net Operating Time
Planned Shut down
Fully Productive
Time
Quality
Loss
OEE begins with planned operating time and scrutinizes efficiency and
productivity losses that occur, with the goal of reducing or eliminating these losses
(Hansen, 2001). There are three general categories of loss to consider which is down
time loss, speed loss and quality loss (Koch, 1999).
2.4.1 Availability
Availability takes into account down time loss which includes any events that
stop production process for an appreciable length of time, usually several minutes long
enough to log as a traceable event (Godfiey, 2002). This includes equipment failures,
material shortages and changeover time. Change over time is included in OEE analysis,
since it is a form of down time (Pherson, 2006). While it may not be possible to
eliminate changeover time, in most cases it can be reduced. The remaining available
time is called operating time. So availability is the ratio of operating time which is
simply planned operating time less down time to planned operating time and accounts
for down time loss as shown in Figure 2.6 (Kumar et. al., 2007d). Availability is
calculated as (Costa et. al., 2002):
Figure 2.6: Breakdown structure of availability
Operating Time
Operating Time
Availability =
Planned Production Time
Down Time
Loss
2.4.2 Performance
Performance takes into account speed loss which includes any factors that cause
the process to operate at less then the maximum possible speed or rated speed when
running (Ramon, 2007). This includes machine wear, substandard materials, misfeeds
and operator inefficiency (Pherson, 2006). The remaining available time is called net
operating time. So performance is the ratio of net operating time to operating time, and
accounts for speed loss as shown in Figure 2.7 (Kumar et. al., 2007d). Ideal cycle time
is the minimum cycle time that the process can be expected to achieve under optimal
conditions for a given part (Godfrey, 2002). Therefore when it is multiplied by total
pieces the result is net operating time. Ideal cycle time is sometimes called design cycle
time or nameplate capacity. Since rate is the reciprocal of cycle time, Performance is
calculated as (Costa et. al., 2002):
Net Operating Time
Speed
I Loss I
Figure 2.7: Breakdown structure of performance
(Ideal Cycle Time x Total Pieces)
Performance =
Operating Time
(Total Pieces / Operating Time)
Performance =
Ideal Cycle Time
2.4.3 Quality
Quality takes into account quality loss which accounts for produced pieces that
do not meet quality standards including pieces that require rework (Kumar et. al.,
2007~). The remaining time is called fully productive time (Godfrey, 2002). The
ultimate goal is to maximize fullyproductive time (Pherson, 2006). Quality is the ratio
of fully productive time which is the time for good pieces produced to net operating
time (time for total pieces) as shown in Figure 2.8 (Kumar et. al., 2007d). Quality is
calculated as (Costa et. al., 2002):
Figure 2.8: Breakdown structure of quality
Fully Productive
Time
Good Pieces
Quality =
Total Pieces
Quality
Loss
2.4.4 Overall Equipment Effectiveness
Availability, performance and quality combine into one OEE score and this
single number provides a complete measure of machine efficiency (Gaboury et. al.,
2001). OEE is the ratio of fully productive time to planned production time (Pherson,
2006). OEE is calculated as (Sheu, 2006):
OEE = Availability x Performance x Quality (2.5)
OEE can also be calculated by reducing the earlier formula to the simplest terms
(Pherson, 2006):
(Good Pieces x Ideal Cycle Time)
OEE =
Planned Production Time
This is an alternative way of calculating OEE and with a bit of reflection and by
multiplying goodpieces by ideal cycle time will results in a nett productive time that is
required to produce only good pieces without down time (Pherson, 2006). Both
equations (2.5) and (2.6) will give the same figure of OEE as the end result (Pherson,
2006). When it comes to detailed analysis, the best equation to use is equation (2.5)
which will be used to analyze the details of OEE as in equation (2.1) - (2.4). Equation
(2.6) is an indicator of the OEE value of a certain machine.
AVAILABILITY
OVERALL
EQUIPMENT
EFFECTIVENESS
QUALITY
PERFORMANCE
Figure 2.9: The elements of OEE
2.5 Losses due to ignorance of Overall Equipment Effectiveness
The major goals of OEE are to reduce and/or eliminate the six big losses, the
most common causes of efficiency loss in production (Gaboury et. al, 2001). Table 2.2
lists the six big losses and show how they relate to OEE loss categories. Addressing the
six big losses and some of the events that contribute towards these losses is an essential
task for the management, whereby the responsible personnel can focus on ways to
monitor and correct them (Konopka & Trybula, 1996). Categorizing data makes loss