Electric Motors and Drives - Third Edition

Solutions to Review Questions - Chapter 3

The equivalent circuit shown here should be in our minds when we tackle any d.c. machine
questions:-
Fig 3A here
In the majority of cases we will be considering steady-state operation, so the current will be
constant and therefore we can ignore the armature inductance in our calculations.
nless told to the contrary, we will assume that the volt-drop across the brushes can be
ignored.
1) As we are not told otherwise, we are expected to assume that the question refers to the steady-
state running speed, in which case the answer is that the speed is determined by the armature
voltage !ustification, if required, would be along the lines below
"henever the speed is steady, the motor torque must be equal and opposite to the load torque
#xcept for very tiny dc motors it is safe to assume that when the motor is unloaded, the
friction torque is very small, so the motor torque would also be very small $otor torque is
proportional to armature current, so we can expect the armature current of an unloaded motor to
be very small, hence the term I! in the armature voltage equation
" # I! = +
is negligible and
we can say that at no-load
" #
# is the motional emf induced in the armature, and is
directly proportional to the angular velocity %speed), ie
, # k =
hence the speed is given by
,
"
k
= ie the speed is determined by the applied voltage
&ote that in the ma'ority of dc motors the term I! will be small compared with the armature
voltage " even when the motor is on load and the current I is not small, so to a first
approximation we can say that the on-load speed will also be determined by the applied voltage,
the speed when loaded only being slightly less that that of the unloaded motor
() As discussed in the answer to question 1, the steady running current must be such as to produce
a torque equal and opposite to the load torque, so in the steady state it is the load torque that
determines the armature current
3) )he answer to question ( indicates that the steady running current is always determined by the
load torque "hen no *real+ load torque is applied, we are left with friction, due to bearings,
fan, and %especially in a dc machine) brush friction )he friction torque is therefore reflected
in the no-load current
1
,) )he answers are that the drop in speed from no-load depends directly on the load torque and
the armature resistance
First, let us consider the effect of load torque For any given load, the speed will settle when the
motor torque
m
T
equals the load torque
$
T
$otor torque is proportional to armature current,
ie
m
T k I =
, hence the steady current is given by
$
T
I
k
= , ie the steady armature current is
proportional to the load torque -ombining the armature voltage equation
" # I! = +
and the
emf equation
, # k =
and substituting for I from above gives the speed as
(

$
" !
T
k k

=


)his equation shows that the no-load speed %ie when
.
$
T =
) is given by
.
"
k
= , and the
drop in speed that is attributable to load is given by
(

$
!
T
k



)he drop in speed is therefore
directly proportional to the load torque and to the armature resistance

"e note also that the drop in speed for a given load is inversely proportional to the square of
the motor constant /o if we were to reduce the field current so that, say, the flux was halved to
double the no-load speed, we would find that because k had been halved, the drop in speed for a
given load torque would be four times as great as with full flux )his matter was discussed in
chapter 3 and illustrated in Figure 31(
"hat the question means when it refers to *little ones slow down more than large ones+ really
means that the percentage drop in speed between no-load and full-load is usually higher in
small motors than in large ones )he reason is simply that in small machines the term I!
represents a higher fraction of the applied voltage than it does in large machines
Alternatively we could say that the reason is that *the per-unit resistance is higher in small
machines+, meaning that the ratio %
rated
rated
0
Armature resistance
1

) is larger in small machines

than in large ones
2) )o reverse the direction of rotation we must reverse the direction of current in the armature or
the direction of current in the field 1n a separately-excited motor it is usually easiest to reverse
the connections to the field, because the field current is less and the wires are thinner 1n a
series motor, the field and armature carry the same current, so either can be reversed
3) 1f the motor is producing more than its continuously-rated torque its armature current will be
above the continuously-rated value and therefore it will overheat 1f the cooling of an existing
motor is improved it should be possible to increase the continuous rating without overheating,
but other problems due to commutation and brush wear must be anticipated
(
4) )here is no basic difference, the same machine is capable of both motoring and generating

5) An observer watching the ammeter might conclude that the reason for the increase in current
when load was applied was that the resistance of the motor armature circuit had reduced
1n fact we 6now that the current is given by ,
" # " k
I
! !

= = where the motional emf
# is proportional to the speed, At no-load the motional emf is almost equal to the applied
voltage so very little current flows into the motor "hen load is applied the speed reduces,
thereby reducing # and thus allowing more current to flow into the motor to produce the extra
torque required to balance the load /o it is the change in motional emf that alters the current7
the actual armature resistance does not change

8) "e can consider the no-load condition, when the motional emf # is very nearly equal to the
applied voltage ". 1f we reduce the flux that is cut by the armature conductors, they will have
to cut through the wea6ened flux faster to achieve the same emf, so the wea6er the field, the
higher the no-load speed
Alternatively we can use the result from the solution to question ,, ie that the no-load speed is
given by
.
"
k
= , where k is the emf constant, which is proportional to the field flux 1f the
flux is reduced, so is k, leading to a higher no-load speed
1.)
((. 12%.5) (.50olts # " I! = = =
"e are told that the field current is *suddenly+ reduced by 1.9, and that the flux is proportional
to the field current %"e 6now that the current in an inductance %the field circuit) cannot
change instantaneously, so we suppose that what the question means is *very quic6ly, compared
with any subsequent changes that may be initiated by the reduction in flux+)
A reduction of flux by 1.9 will cause the motional emf to reduce by 1.9, so the new emf
is .8 (.5 : 154( 0 /o the new current will be given by
A ,1
5 .
( 154 ((.
=

= I

&ote that a modest reduction of only 1.9 in the flux causes a dramatic increase in the armature
current, which 'umps from 12 A to ,1 A
)he increased current will lead to more torque, but not quite in proportion to the increase in
current because there has been a reduction in the flux 1n most of the calculations in the boo6
the flux has remained constant, in which case the torque is proportional to the current ;ut the
torque depends on the product of the flux and the current, so if we denote the original flux by
, the *new+ and *original+ torques are in the ratio
,3 (
12
,1 8 .
=


)he surge of torque
will lead to a rapid acceleration to the new %higher) steady speed
11) )he equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 3;
Fig 3; here
3
)he steady field current is given by 1
f
: 11.0<11. : 1 A, so the armature current 1
a
: (2 = 1
: (3 A
)he generated emf is given by # > 1
a
?
a
: 0, ie # : 11. = (3%.2) : 1(3 0olts
For a generator, efficiency

is defined by

power input $echanical

power output #lectrical
=

)he useful power %supplied to the battery) is 11. 0 (2 A : (42. "
)he power converted from mechanical to electrical is #1
a
: 1(3 (3 : 3185 " )o this must
be added the ((. " of friction and other losses to yield a total input power from the diesel
engine of 3185 = ((. : 3,15 " @ence the efficiency is
9 2 5. 9 1..
3,15
(42.
=
1t ought to be pointed out that in this example the terminal voltage is fixed by virtue of the
connection to a battery, which we treat as an ideal voltage source )he machine generates 1(3
0olts and (3 A, 1 A of which is required to provide the excitation flux without which the emf
of 1(3 0 would not exist )he machine is therefore self-excited, so it doesn+t need to be
connected to a battery to act as a generator
;ut what if we simply drove the machine from the diesel engine, without first connecting it to a
dc sourceA "hen it is stationary, there is no motional emf, so there is nothing to produce a
current in the field winding and no flux /o no matter how fast the rotor turns there will be no
generated voltage )here appears to be a paradox here7 we can see from the discussion above
that it can self-excite once it is going, but it appears that it will not get going on its own
1n reality, shunt connected generators can self-excite, provided that there is sufficient residual
magnetic flux %ie remaining from the last time the machine was operating) to provide the
initial *6ic6-start+ to begin the process of self-excitation Assuming that he process begins by
residual action, it is easy to see that because the field current and flux increase as the emf
builds up, and the emf is proportional to the speed, there is a strong positive-feedbac6 effect
ta6ing place /o then we might as6 what limits the build-up of voltage, which on the face of it
might be expected to go on increasing indefinitely7 will there be a stable %ie settled) value, and
if so what will determine itA
)he answer is that a stable operating position is reached because of the non-linear relationship
between flux and field current caused by progressive saturation of the iron in the magnetic
circuit A typical relationship between field current and generated emf %at constant speed) is
shown in Figure 3-, where the initial emf due to residual magnetism has been exaggerated for
clarity ;ecause emf is directly proportional to speed, this graph also represents the field
current vs flux relationship, and it clearly shows the onset of saturation at high levels of field
current
Fig 3- here
,
)he straight-line graph relating field current and emf %ie f
f a
#
I
! !
=
+
) is also shown )he
stable value of # is at the point where the two graphs intersect, and is shown by the dot
1() "hen speed is steady, the motor torque must be equal and opposite to the load %friction) torque
1n this case the friction torque is equal to *(A worth+ of motor torque > so to quantify the torque
we need the motor constant, k
"e recall that the motor constant not only lin6s torque and current via
, I k T
m
=
but also
motional emf and speed via
k # =
"e can use the second expression to find k, after
first finding the emf at 15.. rev<min
)he armature voltage equation yields # : (2. > (%1) : (,5 0olts, and the corresponding
angular speed is given by
rad<sec 2 155
3.
(
15.. =

@ence

A
&m
313 1
rad<sec
0olts
313 1
2 155
(,5
= = = k
@ence the torque is ( A 1313 &m<A : (33
&m
13) )he answer to this question depends on what happens to the excitation %flux) after the motor is
disconnected -learly there can be no immediate change in the speed so, if it was a permanent-
magnet motor or a separately-excited one in which the flux was fully maintained after the
armature was disconnected, the motional emf would be unchanged, ie (,5 0olts )he
armature current is Bero, so there is no volt-drop across the armature resistance and the terminal
voltage will be (,5 0 immediately after the disconnection )here is no armature current, and
therefore no torque apart from friction, so the speed will reduce gradually and the terminal
voltage will decline at the same rate
1f the motor was series-connected the flux would be Bero after disconnection so there would be
no emf and therefore no voltage at the terminals
)hings are more complicated for a shunt motor, and not recommended for the faint-hearted
)he discussion at the end of question 11 is relevant to the rest of this one
"ith a shunt-connected motor, the field flux will be sustained because the motional emf
%which was previously opposing the applied voltage) will now act across the series combination
of the armature resistance ?
a
and the field resistance ?
f
)he armature current will now equal
the field current, and it will flow in the opposite direction through the armature )he voltage at
the terminals will therefore be the voltage across the field winding, which, ignoring the field
inductance, will be given by potential divider action as

f
f a
!
#
! !

+
)he negative armature
current %generator action) represents *dynamic bra6ing+, so the speed %and emf<terminal
voltage) will therefore reduce more rapidly than if friction was the only source of torque
1,) "hen 1 is 3( A, the emf is given by
(2. 3(%1) (150olts # = =
From the answer to
question 1( we 6now that the motor constant is 1313 0olts<rad<sec, so the speed at full load is
2
(15<1313 : 13232 rad<sec or 125( rev<min
"e are not told the rated power, but because the rated current is 3( A, the torque produced by
the motor at full-load is 3( 1313 : ,(1 &m "e 6now from the answer to question 1( that
the no-load friction torque is (3 &m, so if we assume that this also applies when loaded, and
ignore any extra load losses, the rated torque is given by ,(1 - (3 : 382 &m
12) a)
emf 11.
.4. 0olts<rad<sec : .4. &m<A
(
speed
12..
3.
k

= = =

when 1 : 1. A, )orque : 4 &m
b) )he gravitational force on the mass is given by
2 851 ,8.2& % mg = = =
@ence the
torque exerted at the motor shaft is ,8.2 .5 : 38(, &m
)he motor must exert an equal and opposite torque to achieve equilibrium, so the motor
current is given by 38(,<.4. : 23.3 A
)he stability question can be addressed by considering that, with the arm horiBontal and Bero
nett torque, we ma6e a small change to one of the parameters and see if the system ta6es up a
new equilibrium 1f we slightly reduced the current in the motor, the load torque would then
exceed the motor torque and the weight would move downwards ;ut as it did so the torque it
exerts reduces because the line of action of the force moves closer to the axis of the motor /o
when it has moved down to the point where the load torque again equals the motor torque, it
will find a stable equilibrium
@owever, if we slightly increase the current, the motor torque will be greater than the load
torque and the weight will begin to move upwards 1n so doing its line of force moves closer to
the axis and the torque it exerts gets less )he amount by which the motor torque exceeds the
load torque therefore increases with movement, and we have an unstable equilibrium
/o there isn+t a simple answer to the question *is it stable+, because the stability depends on how
the equilibrium is disturbed

c) )his is another straightforward exercise using the armature voltage equation First we need
to find the bc6 emf which is given by
(
.4. 1,3. 1.,50olts
3.
# k

= = =


)hen
apply the armature voltage equation
" # I! = +
to obtain
11. 1.,5 2(0olts I! = =

@ence since I : (2 A, ! : .(
)o drive a current of 23 A through .( when the motor is at rest %ie # : .) requires a voltage
of 23 .( : 112 0olts
d) )he machine is now acting as a generator, supplying power to a system at 11. 0 )he
generated emf # is greater than the system voltage by I!
3
1f the power supplied to the system is 3,2.. " at 11. 0, the current is 32..<11. : 315( A
@ence the generated emf is given by
11. 315(%.() 113, 0olts # = + =
)he speed is given
by
113,
133(5 < sec 1255rev<min
.4.
#
rad
k
= = = =
)he corresponding torque is given by 315( .4. : (((4 &m
)he electromechanical power is #I : 113, 315( : 34., ", to which we must add (.. " to
find the mechanical input power, and 1.. " for the input power to the field, ma6ing a total of
,.., " )he useful output power, supplied to the system, is 32..", so the efficiency is
%32..<,..,) 1..9, ie 54,9
13) )he issue of maximum possible output power from a dcmotor is discussed in section 3,3
where it is explained that the maximum mechanical output power is obtained when the bac6
emf is half of the applied voltage, ie # & "'(. )he armature current is given by
!
# "
I

=
, so when # & "'(, the current is "'(!, and the mechanical power %#I) is given by
!
"
)
,
(
max
=
%)he same result can be obtained by applying the maximum power transfer theorem of circuit
theory)
For the toy motor the maximum possible power output is therefore 1(
(
<3( : ,2 " 1f this
power were to be developed at the speed of 2... rev<min, the torque would be given by
m&m 3 5
3.
(
2...
2 ,
/peed
Cower
=

= =

As this is less than half of the torque claimed by the manufacturer, the claim is clearly not
'ustified
14) Another straightforward exercise in the basic equations, but with parameters of a much smaller
motor than hitherto
)he emf at no load is given by
0olts, 5 2 ) 8 ( % .4. . 3 = = = I! " #
and this emf
is developed at 5... rev<min or 53443 rad<sec )he motor constant is therefore given by
&m<A 1. 8( 3 sec 0olts<rad< 1. 8( 3
43 534
5 2
3 3
= = = =

#
k
At no-load, the motor torque is equal to the friction torque, so the friction torque is
m&m ,5, . .4. . 1. 8( 3
3
=

"hen the stationary motor is switched directly onto a 3 0 supply, the current will > assuming
that we can ignore the armature inductance - be given by I : 3<(8 : (.4 A @ence the starting
torque is given by &m .1,3 . .4 ( 1. 8( 3
3
= = =

I k T
4
Acceleration is given by
rad<sec 1. ., 1
1. 135 .
.1,3 .
( 2
3
=

= =

Inertia
Torque
n *ccelertio
15) 1n a linear system wor6 is force times distance7 in a rotary system force is replaced by torque
and linear distance becomes rotary distance, ie angle /o in a rotary system, wor6 is torque
times angle
$echanical power is the rate of doing wor6, ie wor6<time /o in a rotary system mechanical
power is torque times angle over time ;ut, assuming that speed is constant, angle over time is
angular velocity, and power is thus given by
ie velocity, Angular )orque Cower T ) = =
"e have the equations
I k T =
and
k # =
@ence
#I
k
#
I k T ) = = =
18) )he (, 0 version clearly has to produce an output power of 3. " at 2... rev<min, and if it is to
be *equivalent+ it must have the same input power 1t would have the same dimensions and
magnetic circuit, but clearly the stator would have to be rewound
)he current in the (, 0 motor will be half of that in the 1(0 version, for the same power /o if
the (, 0 version has twice as many turns in each coil on the rotor, it will produce the same
torque @owever the cross-sectional area of the new conductor can be half that of the 1( 0
motor because it only has to carry half the current /o new coils with twice as many turns but
half the cross-section will fit in the original slots )he motional emf will be doubled, but the
current is halved so the mechanical power is the same, as required
)he new armature has twice as many turns of half the cross-sectional area, so the resistance of
the new armature is , times that of the original, ie , .5 : 3(
As a chec6, we can calculate the armature copper loss for both machines to ensure that they are
the same 1f the rated current of the 1( 0 motor is I, the copper loss is 5 . 5 .
( (
I I =
)he copper loss in the (, 0 motor is 5 . ( 3
(
(
(
I
I
=

/o the parameters of the new motor are (, 0, 3. ", 2... rev<min, and armature resistance of
3(
(.) a) "hen the motor is at rest the bac6 emf is Bero so if rated voltage %") is applied the current
will be "'!
a
, where !
a
is the armature resistance 1n large dc motors the current "'!
a
is very
much greater than the rated current )he motor will almost certainly be supplied from a
thyristor converter, in which the thyristors would not be able to withstand such a large current
/o the control scheme would automatically limit the voltage applied to the motor in order to
restrict the current to an acceptable level
5
b) )he torque required to maintain a steady speed when a motor is unloaded is very small )he
torque produced by the motor is proportional to the current, so the no-load current is very small
)he current is given by
!
# "
I

=
, where " is the applied voltage, ! is the armature
resistance and # is the motional or bac6 emf induced in the motor As explained above, the
no-load current is very small, which indicates that the bac6 emf # is almost equal to the
applied voltage )he motional emf is proportional to the speed, so the no-load speed is almost
proportional to the applied voltage
c) "hen the motor is running at a steady speed, the torque it produces is equal to the load
torque "hen the load torque increases the previous state of equilibrium is disturbed because
the load torque now exceeds the motor torque, so the nett torque is negative and the sytem
decelerates )he motional emf %#) is proportional to speed, so # reduces
)he armature current is given by
!
# "
I

=
, where " is the applied voltage, ! is the
armature resistance and # is the bac6 emf As # reduces, the current increase, and so does the
motor torque )he nett decelerating torque then reduces, so the deceleration is reduced but will
continue until the speed has fallen to the point where the motor torque equals the load torque, at
which point equilibrium will be restored, but at a new %lower) speed )he smaller the armature
resistance, the less the speed has to drop in order for the current to reach the new load level
d) )he voltage equation for a field winding is
dt
di
$ ri v + =
, so the instantaneous power is
given by
dt
di
i $ ! i vi
f f
+ =
(
)he first term in the power equation represents the loss of heat
due to the field winding resistance, while the second term represents the rate of change of stored
energy in the magnetic field
Dnder dc conditions the second term is Bero because
dt
di
is Bero, indicating that once the
magnetic field has been established the energy stored remains constant )he first term %
f dc
! I
(
)
represents the heat loss per second due to resistance %*copper loss+) and this has to be supplied
continuously, even though none of it appears as mechanical output power 1f the resistance
could be made Bero %eg with a superconducting winding) the power input would be Bero once
the field current had been established
e) 1f the supply to the field is pure dc, then apart from the very short periods when the field
flux is changing, the flux in the magnetic circuit is constant, so there is no danger of induced
eddy currents in the body of the pole and therefore no need for it to be laminated
"hen the supply is form a thryristor converter, however, there will be an additional alternating
component of flux in the poles, which must therefore be laminated to minimise eddy-current
losses
(1) )he immediate effect of reducing the field current is that the flux reduces in more-or-less the
same ratio, thereby causing a fall in the motional emf, #, which is proportional to the air-gap
8
flux and the speed )he armature current is given by
!
# "
I

=
, where " is the applied
voltage and ! is the armature resistance ! is small, so a modest reduction in # causes a
disproportionately large increase in armature current
)he torque produced by the motor depends on the product of the armature current and the air-
gap flux )he former has increased a lot, while the latter has decreased a little, so there is a
large increase in motor torque, leading to acceleration As the speed rises, so does the bac6
emf )he current therefore decreases as the speed rises until the torque produced by the motor
is equal to the friction torque, at which point the speed becomes steady
/6etches showing the variation in current and speed are shown in Figure 3E
Fig 3E here
(() ;y ma6ing the field flux proportional to the armature current %at least up to rated current), the
separately-excited motor becomes li6e a series-connected motor )he torque-speed curves at
various values of armature voltage are therefore as shown in Figure 312b
)he fact that the separately-excited motor can be made to emulate either a shunt or a series
motor by appropriate independent control of the field current underlines the flexibility made
possible by the availability of power-electronic supplies
(3) )his is another example of the maximum power transfer theorem, and as explained in the
solution to question 13 the maximum possible mechanical power is given by
!
"
)
,
(
max
=
@ence the maximum power from a 1( 0 motor with an armature resistance of 1 is 1,,<,%1)
: 33 "
)he maximum power condition occurs when the motional or bac6 emf is equal to half of the
applied voltage, the corresponding current being given by
!
"
!
# "
(
=

)he armature
resistance of large motors is very small, so at rated voltage a current of
!
"
(
would be very
high, and well beyond the capability of the converter supplying the motor
(,) 1n a universal motor the field and armature are connected in series, so the torque is positive
regardless of the direction of current 1f the motor is supplied at, say, 2. @B, the current
reverses 2. times per second but is always in the same direction )he fact that the torque
pulsates 1.. times per second is not usually a problem because the rotor inertia acts as a filter
and the resulting speed pulsations are very small
(2) At the fundamental level it is true that in principle any electrical machine with rated voltage "
and rated current I could be rewound to operate at voltage k" and rated current I'k , and that the
rewound motor would contain the same amounts of active materials %copper and iron) and have
the same performance %in particular the same power %01) as the original
1.
@owever, in the case of the low-voltage dc motor, there are several additional factors which
complicate matters
)he first relates to the siBe of the commutator For a given power, the current is inversely
proportional to the voltage, so a low voltage motor obviously has a higher current than a high-
voltage one )he area of brush in contact with the commutator is determined by the current it
has to carry, so the lower the voltage, the bigger the brushgear< commutator 1n handtools space
and weight are at a premium so the high-voltage motor is at an advantage

)he second matter stems form the fact that the voltage<current characteristic of the carbon
brushes is non-linear, so that under normal operation the volt-drop across the brushes contains a
more-or-less fixed component that is of the order of 1 volt, regardless of current 1n a 11. 0
motor the loss of one volt is not serious7 but in battery-powered tools the supply voltage is only
a few volts, in which case the loss of one volt is serious, but becomes less so the higher the
supply voltage 1t is therefore desirable to avoid low voltages from the point of view of
efficient use of energy
)he third factor relates to the properties of the semiconductor switches used in the chopper
drive that provides speed control )he on-state volt-drop in transistors and diodes is %rather li6e
the brush-drop referred to above) largely independent of the current, so that the on-state power
loss is more-or-less proportional to the current /o when efficiency is important it is preferable
to handle a given power at a high voltage and low current, rather than at a low voltage and high
current
)a6en together these factors indicate that for a given output power the designer should aim to
minimise the current, so that the higher the power, the higher the voltage
(3) A shunt motor will indeed run in the same direction regardless of the polarity of its dc supply
;ut applying ac at mains frequency %2. @B or 3. @B) would not be satisfactory, mainly
because of the high inductive reactance of the field winding )he impedance of the field
winding at frequency consists of its resistance % f
!
) and its inductive reactance % f
$
) )he
reactance will usually be much higher than the resistance, so for the same applied voltage, the
field current will be much less that under dc conditions, and it will be out of phase, lagging the
voltage by approximately 8.F )he flux will therefore be very small, and will be Bero at the
instant when the voltage is maximum
1n contrast the armature inductance is much smaller so the armature current will be more nearly
in phase with the applied voltage @owever this means that the pea6 armature current during
each cycle occurs when the flux is Bero, so the resultant torque is very small All in all, not a
good ideaG
(4) a) "e can find the machine constant from the data given in the first paragraph "hen the
machine is on open circuit there is no volt-drop across the armature resistances and the terminal
voltage is therefore the same as the induced emf @ence using the relationship
k # =
,
&m<A ,. 1 sec 0olts<rad< ,. 1
3.
(
12..
((.
= =

k
11
)he question is all about steady-state conditions, so we must expect to ma6e use of the fact that
if a linear %or rotary) system is not accelerating, the resultant force %or torque) must be Bero "e
can ma6e us e of this 6nowledge to find the tension in the rope %Fig 3H(4a), which we need to
6now in order to wor6 out the torque exerted by the load
)he two forces acting on the mass m are the gravitational force %downwards), equal to mg, and
the tension in the rope %%) upwards /ince the descent velocity is to be constant, the nett force
must be Bero, ie % & mg : 1,(4 851 : 1,. &
At the drum, this %downwards) tension acts at a radius of 1. cm, so the torque exerted by the
load is 1,. .1 : 1, &m "e are not told anything about friction torque so all we can do is to
assume it is negligible, so the total load torque is 1, &m
)he linear speed of the rope at the drum is given as 12 m<sec, the circumference of the drum is
.(I, and the speed of rotation of the drum and machine is therefore 12<.(I rev<sec or 12.
rad<sec
;ecause the speed is steady there is no acceleration, and the machine torque must be equal and
opposite to the load torque, ie the machine torque must be 1, &m at a speed of 12. rad<sec
"e 6eep referring to the *machine+ rather than the *motor+ because in this application we are
using the machine to restrain the descending load, not to drive it down "e need the machine
torque to act in the opposite direction to the load torque, which it will do automatically if we
complete the armature circuit with a resistance %as in Fig 3H(4b), thereby allowing the
generated emf to drive a current in the same direction as the emf %1n contrast, if for some
reason we wanted to operate as a motor rotating in the same direction, ie to drive down the
load, we would apply a voltage greater than the emf and force the current to flow in the
opposite direction to the emf, yielding a driving torque rather than a bra6ing torque)
&ow that we 6now the speed is 12. rad<sec we can calculate the generated emf as
0olts (1. 12. , 1 = = = k #
)he machine torque has to be 1, &m, so, using
I k T
m
=
, the armature current must be 1. A
)he total resistance in the armature circuit is therefore given by (1.<1. : (1 )he armature
resistance itself is .2 , so the external resistance required is (.2
b) )he power dissipated in the external resistor is given by " (.2. 2 (. 1..
(
= = ! I ,
while the power dissipated in the machine armature is 1.. .2 : 2. "
)he electrical generated power is provided from its mechanical input power, which is derived
from the steady reduction in potential energy of the lowering mass "e can chec6 the power by
considering the power %force times speed) of the falling mass, ie
" (1.. 12 1,. speed Force = = =
mech
)
1n this question we have ignored all but the armature copper loss in order to simplify the
calculations, but nevertheless the situation is representative of many real-life applications, such
as dynamic bra6ing of railway vehicles where 6inetic energy is dumped in large resitors, often
mounted on the roof to assist cooling
1(
(5) )he running data gives us enough to wor6 out the machine constant, as follows
rev<min 3... at 0olts, 18. ) 1 % 1. (.. = = = I! " #
@ence using
&m<A .3.2 ec 0olt<rad<s .3.2
3.
(
3...
18.
, = =

= =

k
#
k
"hen the motor is running unloaded the current is negligible and the bac6 emf is %almost)
equal to the applied voltage /o at 1.. 0, the speed of the unloaded motor is 1..<.3.2 : 1323
rad<sec or 1245 rev<min
After disconnection, the armature of the spinning machine is simply shorted through a resistor
%as in Fig 3H(4b), the total circuit resistance being 2 1n the armature voltage equation
I! # " + =
this condition corresponds to " : ., so the current is given by
T
!
#
I =
,
where
T
! is the total resistance %2 ) )he negative sign indicates that the current is in the
opposite direction to the normal motoring current, so the torque will be negative and will result
in deceleration As the speed falls the stored rotary 6inetic energy is converted to electrical
form and then dissipated as heat in the 2 resistance
)o find out how the speed varies, we need to ma6e use of &ewton+s law for a rotary system %ie
the relationship between the torque%s), the inertia and the angular acceleration), which is7-
dt
d
+ T T T
load m nett

= =
,
where + is the inertia and
dt
d
is the rate of change of angular velocity, ie the angular
acceleration 1n this exercise we are told to ignore friction so the load torque is Bero, and the
only torque is that produced by the machine, ie T
m

)he machine torque is given by

T T T
m
!
k
!
k
k
!
#
k I k T = =

= =

)he equation of motion thus becomes
. or ,
( (
=

+ =

T T
+!
k
dt
d,
dt
d
+
!
k
)his is the first order differential equation governing the angular speed, #quations of this
sort are very common in science and engineering "e can 'udge broadly how the speed varies
with time by first noting that the steady-state value of %ie when
. =
dt
d
) is given by : .,
ie the obvious result that the machine finally comes to rest /econdly, we note that since the
two terms in the equation must always add to Bero, and the second term is positive, we can
deduce that the deceleration or rate of change of speed %
dt
d
) is always negative %hardly
surprisingG)J but more importantly, the deceleration reduces in proportion to the speed /o
immediately after the disconnection, when the speed is high, the machine will decelerate
rapidly, but the slower it runs the more gradually it slows down %/ee Figure 3#)

13
)he general solution of the governing differential equation is the form
where ,
(
k
+!
- e
T
t
o
= =

"e 6now that at t & ., the angular speed is 1323 rad<sec, so
3 132 =
o

/ubstituting for +,
!, and k we find that the time-constant : (43 seconds %)he significance of the time-
constant is shown in Figure 3#J if the initial gradient were to be continued, the final state would
be reached
in one time-constant)
)he speed-time plot is s6etched in Figure 3#, with the speed in rev<min rather than rad<sec )o
find the time ta6en to reach 1.. rev<min we solve the equation 43 (
1245 1..
t
e

=
, which
yields
seconds 23 4 = t

Fig 3# here
(8) )his is probably the most challenging question, although there is nothing really new in it
)he initial set-up has both motors running light at their rated voltage, the modest power being
supplied by the 2(. 0 dc source
#ach motor draws 152 A, so we can calculate the bac6 emf as
0olts .42 218 ) .2 . % 2 15 2(. = = = I! " #
"e will find that because of the
delicate balance between " and #, it is important to retain several places of decimals in some of
the subsequent calculations
)he armature copper loss is given by " 14 .2 . 2 15
( (
= = ! I
o
)he electromechanically-converted power is used to overcome windage and friction, and is
given by
6" 3.3 8 2 15 1 218 = = =
o mech
#I )
)he no-load speed is given as 1.,.( rev<min, and we 6now that the mechanical power is 83.3
6" @ence the no-load torque is given by
machine each for &m, ( 55
3.
(
( 1.,.
83.3
=

o
T

"e can also use the no-load data to calculate the motor constant from
&m<A ,432( 0<rad<sec ,432(
3.
(
( 1.,.
.42 218
= =

= =

#
k
For the sa6e of future reference we will now loo6 at the figures under full-load conditions, even
though the question does not as6 specifically for this
At full-load, the speed is given as 1... rev<min )he full-load emf is therefore given by
1,
0olts . ,88
3.
(
1... 432( , = =

#
)he armature current is then given by
A ,(.
.2 .
,88 2(.
=

=
l f
I
)his confirms the full-
load current given in the data )he power converted into mechanical form is given by
" 25. , (.8 ,(. ,88 = =
l f l f
I #
1f we assume that the windage and friction are the
same as at no-load %83 6") we see that the useful output power is (.. 6", as per the original
data
&ow we move to the real test set-up, where the flux in machine number 1 is reduced, thereby
reducing its emf, until its armature current is at its full-load value, ie ,(. A "e are told to
assume that the voltage source is ideal, so regardless of what happens inside the two machines,
their terminal voltage will be held at rated value, ie 2(. 0 )he aim is that the motor torque
provided by machine 1 will supply mechanical power to machine (, which will generate and
supply most of the power needed by machine 1
1f motor 1 was not mechanically coupled, we would expect the speed to rise when we reduced
the field flux ;ut when machine ( is generating it applies a negative %load) torque to machine
1, and therefore tends to prevent the speed rising /o it is not at all obvious at what speed things
will settle, and we will have to set up and solve the system equations in order to find out
Kne thing we do 6now is that machine 1 has its rated armature voltage %2(. 0) and its rated
armature current %,(. A), and therefore it must have its normal full-load emf of ,88. 0olts
"e 6now that motional emf is proportional to flux and speed of rotation, so if we denote the
normal %rated) flux as , we 6now that at 1... rev<min and with flux , the emf is ,88
0olts 1f we denote the reduced flux in machine 1 as
L

, we 6now that at the steady speed of

the machines under test %say .) the emf is also ,88 0olts @ence the speed . is given by
, 1...
L
= . or where ,
1...
1...
L
L

= =

.
An equivalent circuit s6etch %Figure 3F) will help us to set up the remainder of the equations
Fig 3F here
)he things we do not 6now are7- the emf #
(
, and the armature current I
(
, of the second
machineJ the current from the supply %I
s
)J the speed, .J the fluxes of both machines %but we do
have a relationship between them, equation 1)

Met+s loo6 at the easy equations first, beginning with Nirchoff+s current law applied to motor 17-

,(.
(
= + I I
s
)he armature voltage equation for machine ( yields
2(. .2 .
( (
= I #
)he induced emf in machine ( is ,88 0 at 1... rev<min, hence at speed ., #
(
is given by


1...
,88
(
.
# =
12
&ow we have to consider the mechanical set-up, and in particular consider the torque balance
"e will have to ma6e the assumption that the windage and friction losses are the same during
this load test as they were when the machines ran at no-load ie we will assume that a torque of
55( &m per machine will be required to 6eep the two machines running )here is no other
mechanical load, so the nett torque of the two machines together must be ( 55( : 143, &m
1f the flux in machine 1 was at its full value, its torque would be given by kIJ but the flux has
been reduced from to +,so the torque per ampere is reduced in this ratio and the motoring
torque of machine 1 is thus given by 35 (..1 ,(. 432( ,
L
1
= =

= I k T
$achine ( has full flux and its %-ve) generating torque is thus given by 432( ,
( (
I I k T = =
)he torque balance equation is thus
, 143 432( , 35 (..1 ie , , 143
( ( 1
= = I T T
At this stage we should draw together the five system equations7-
) 2 % , 143 432( , 35 (..1
) , %
1...
,88
) 3 % 2(. .2 .
) ( % ,(.
) 1 %
1...
(
(
( (
(
=
=
=
= +
=
I
.
#
I #
I I
.
/

?eassuringly, there are five equations and five un6nowns, which we can therefore solve to yield
the following values7 . : 1.44,33 rev<minJ #
(
: 2343, 0oltsJ I
(
: 32(51 AJ : .8(51J I
/

: 3418 A
&ow let us loo6 at the outcome of all these calculations to see if it all ma6es sense
Firstly, we recall that the aim of the exercise was to test machine 1 at as near as possible to full
load conditions without needing a mechanical load that could absorb (.. 6", and to minimise
the power drawn from the supply
"e have seen that the armature of machine 1 is wor6ing at full power %2(. 0, ,(. A) and that
its mechanical power output is (.. 6", so the armature is certainly fully stretched @owever
we have had to reduce the field flux by 49 from its rated value, and the speed is 49 above base
speed, so we are running at full power but with 839 torque and 1.49 speed, so conditions are
not precisely the same as at full load, base speed
)o achieve exactly rated conditions in machine 1 we would have had to increase the flux in
machine ( instead of reducing the flux in machine 1, but that would have meant that the field
winding and the magnetic circuit of machine ( were overloaded and therefore we could only do
13
this for a short period Alternatively, we could ma6e use of a differential gearbox to impose a
small speed difference between the machines, but this clearly pushes up the cost of the test
As far as minimising the power drawn from the supply is concerned the arrangement is very
effective Kf the total input power of (15, 6" to machine 1, 5,9 is supplied by machine (
and only 32 6" is drawn from the supply
- End of Solutions for Chapter 3 -
14